Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Bio fuel'

The aviation industry is growing rapidly and the carbon dioxide emissions from the industry are following in the same manner. Biofuels made from edible feedstock have had an impact on lowering the emissions but at the same time an impact on increasing food prices. There are a few alternative fuels on the market today (TF-SPK, HEFA-SPK) which work in a blend with the petroleum based fuels, reducing the emissions from the aircrafts. Biofuels from next generation biomass, also called advanced biomass, such as algae and lignin, seem likely to be a good substitute for the first generation biofuels. The advanced biofuels are relatively costly to produce. This is due to the many steps in the production process, which restricts the usage of these sorts of fuels in the aviation industry. There are some problems associated with a jet fuel produced from 100% biomass. This is because the jet fuel produced from biomass differs from the jet fuels used today, making it unsafe to use in modern day airplane engines. That is why it is important to find an alternative jet fuel based on biomass that has the same characteristics as the conventional jet fuel, to be able to use the same transportation and engines that are in use today. Otherwise the high cost of advanced bio-jet fuels will make them unusable.

Detta examensprojekt är utfört på Ageratec AB som ligger strax utanför Norrköping. Syftet med hela examensprojektet är att göra layoutritningar som används vid ATEX-klassning för byggnationer av biobränslefabriker, som sedan skall ut till beställaren/kunden. Min huvuduppgift var att rita en layoutritning för en speciell modell av biobränslefabrik - processor P1000. Detta från uppmätning av processor P1000 till färdig layoutritning i 3D uppritad i AutoCAD, med klassningsplan över farliga ställen och zoner i fabriken. Tanken var att om tiden medgav skulle även ritningar tas fram för de resterande modeller av biobränslefabriker, vilket inte blev fallet. Ageratecs kunder måste nämligen ta hänsyn och följa ATEX-direktiv för arbete i explosionsfarlig miljö som gäller för att driva en biobränslefabrik. Vad ATEX-klassning innebär, hur en biobränslefabrik byggs upp och fungerar från början till färdig framställning av biobränsle samt en översikt över de olika typer av biobränslen som finns, tas upp i denna rapport. Ageratec startade år 2004 av Gert och David Frykerås. Det är ett familjeföretag med en omsättning på 30 miljoner per år och 32 anställda år 2007. Ageratec tillverkar och säljer helautomatiska processorer över hela världen i olika storlekar som hanterar en volym mellan 1000-288 000 liter biodiesel per dygn. Biobränslefabrikerna är helautomatiskt styrda med hjälp av ett PLC-system från Mitsubishi Electric. Processorerna är framtagna för framställning av biobränsle av vegetabiliska oljor, där anläggningen renar oljan och tillsätter metanol eller etanol. Produkten som kommer ut ur anläggningen är så rent och lättflytande att det kan användas som bränsle till dieselmotorer som det är eller blandas med vanlig diesel. Med hjälp av utrustning från Ageratec så är det nu möjligt för rapsodlare att även bli lokala drivmedelsproducenter och förvandla den odlade rapsen till biodiesel. Det enda som krävs är en processor från Ageratec samt tillgång till någon typ av fettsyra. Tider och sekvenser sköts automatiskt av PLC-systemet vilket gör att kunden inte behöver tänka på sådant. Biodiesel/RME (RapsMetylEster) är ett miljöbränsle som bildar koldioxid men skillnaden är att den mängd koldioxid som bildas av biobränslet är samma mängd som växterna behöver för sin tillväxt. Biodiesel släpper ut 60-80 procent mindre utsläpp av växthusgasen koldioxid jämfört med vanlig dieselolja. Koldioxidhalten ökar alltså inte vid förbränning av biobränsle. Det enda som bidrar till växthuseffekten är koldioxid, därför måste vi vara noga med att inte odla mer än vad vi behöver. Den svenska regeringens mål är att 5,75 procent av transportbränslet år 2010 ska utgöras av förnyelsebara drivmedel. Den svenska rapsarealen har ökat med över 70 procent, till 95 000 hektar under de senaste åren. De flesta dieselmotorer behöver inte anpassas på något sätt för att köra på biodiesel.

Photosynthetic Microbial Fuel Cell (p-MFC) research aims to develop devices containing photosynthetic micro-organisms to produce electricity. Micro-organisms within the device photosynthesise carbohydrates under illumination, and produce reductive equivalents (excess electrons) from both carbohydrate production and the subsequent carbohydrate break down. Redox mediators are utilised to shuttle electrons between the organism and the electrode. The mediator is reduced by the micro-organism and subsequently re-oxidised at the electrode. However this technology is in its early stages and extensive research is required for p-MFC devices to become economically viable. A basic p-MFC device containing a potassium ferricyanide mediator and the algae Chlorella vulgaris was assembled and tested. From these initial experiments it was realised that much more work was required to characterise cell and redox mediator activities occurring within the device. There is very little p-MFC literature dealing with cellular interaction with redox mediators, but without this knowledge the output of complete p-MFC devices can not be fully understood. This thesis presents research into the reduction of redox mediators by the micro-organisms, including rates of mediator reduction and factors affecting the rate. Both electrochemical and non-electrochemical techniques are used and results compared. Additionally, cellular effects relating to the presence of the mediator are studied; crucial to provide limits within which p-MFCs must be used. After basic characterisation, this thesis presents work into the optimisation of the basic p-MFC. Different redox mediators, photosynthetic species and anodic materials are investigated. Importantly, it is only through fundamental characterization to improve understanding that p-MFCs can be optimised.

The use of combustion parameters to predict what happens to fuel during burning and its effect on living systems is important. This work is directed towards understanding the fundamental chemistry of soot generated from burning biomass-pyrolysis liquid fuels and its mechanism of formation. In this study, fuels such as eugenol, anisole, furfural and some hydrocarbon fuels are subjected to combustion using a wick burner which allowed the burning rate, smoke point and emission factor to be investigated. Reaction zone analysis of flames by direct photography and by using optical filters for further investigation of C2* and CH* species, was conducted. Additionally, detailed characterization of the soot generated was performed, and comparisons were made with soot from petroleum products and from biomass combustion system. The key aim was to generate experimental data and to capture detailed information regarding sooting tendencies with a view to utilize the information which would eventually allow the formation of a comprehensive bio-oil combustion model. This could provide accurate predictions of the combustion characteristics and pollutant formation. Studies are reported on the significant role of high temperature pyrolysis products in soot formation and acquiring further mechanistic insight. This work has been extended to consider heavy petroleum fuel oils (residual oil) during combustion and the effect of composition on combustion products and on the effect on health and the global environment. Heavy fuel oil, such as Bunker C and vacuum residue, are commonly used as fuel for industrial boilers, power generation, and as transport fuels in, for example, in large marine engines. The combustion of these fuels gives rise to carbonaceous particulate emissions including fine soot (Black Carbon or BC) which, along with associated polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH): The structure and thermal reactions of petroleum asphaltene have been studied by analytical pyrolysis. Additionally, related combustion characteristics of the asphaltene extracted from bio-oil have been investigated by pyrolysis gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. The results showed the difference between bio-asphaltene and the petroleum asphaltene and the different tendency to form smoke. They also showed the presence of markers for the bio-asphaltene structure.

Biomass is one of the renewable energy resources that has carbon in its building blocks that can be processed into liquid fuel. Napier grass biomass is a herbaceous lignocellulosic material with potentials of high biomass yield. Utilization of Napier grass for bio-oil production via pyrolysis is very limited. Bio-oil generally has poor physicochemical properties such as low pH value, high water content, poor chemical and thermal stabilities which makes it unsuitable for direct use as fuel and therefore requires further processing. Upgrading of bio-oil to liquid fuel is still at early stage of research. Several studies are being carried out to upgrade bio-oil to transportation fuel. However, issues regarding reaction mechanisms and catalyst deactivation amongst others remain a challenge. This thesis gives insights and understanding of conversion of Napier grass biomass to liquid biofuel. The material was assessed as received and characterized using standard techniques. Pyrolysis was conducted in a fixed bed reactor and effect of pyrolysis temperature, nitrogen flow rate and heating rate on product distribution and characteristics were investigated collectively and pyrolysis products characterized. Effects of different aqueous pre-treatments on the pyrolysis product distribution and characteristics was evaluated. Subsequently, in-situ catalytic and non-catalytic, and ex-situ catalytic upgrading of bio-oil derived from Napier grass using Zeolite based catalysts (microporous and mesoporous) were investigated. Upgraded bio-oil was further fractionated in a micro-laboratory distillation apparatus. The experimental results showed that high bio-oil yield up to 51 wt% can be obtained from intermediate pyrolysis of Napier grass at 600 oC, 50 oC/min and 5 L/min nitrogen flow in a fixed bed reactor. The bio-oil collected was a two-phase liquid, organic (16 wt%) and aqueous (35 wt%) phase. The organic phase consists mainly of various benzene derivatives and hydrocarbons while the aqueous phase was predominantly water, acids, ketones, aldehydes and some phenolics and other water-soluble organics. Non-condensable gas (29 wt%) was made-up of methane, hydrogen, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide with high hydrogen/carbon monoxide ratio. Bio-char (20 wt%) was a porous carbonaceous material, rich in mineral elements. Aqueous pre-treatment of Napier grass with deionized water at severity factor of 0.9 reduced ash content by 64 wt% and produced bio-oil with 71 % reduction in acid and ketones. Performance of mesoporous zeolites during both in-situ and ex-situ upgrading outweighed that of microporous zeolite, producing less solid and highly deoxygenated organic bio-oil rich in alkanes and monoaromatic hydrocarbons. The Upgraded bio-oil produced 38 wt% light fraction, 48 wt% middle distillate and 7.0wt% bottom product. This study demonstrated that bio-oil derived from Napier grass can be transformed to that high-grade bio-oil via catalytic upgrading over hierarchical mesoporous zeolite.

The currently reported work involved fundamental study of auto-ignition under unusually high knock intensities in an optical spark ignition engine. The single cylinder research engine adopted included full bore overhead optical access capable of withstanding continuous peak in-cylinder pressure and knock intensity of up to 150 bar and 60 bar respectively. Heavy knock was deliberately induced under relatively low loads (5 bar IMEP) using inlet air heating up to 66 °C and a primary reference fuel blend of reduced octane rating (75 RON). High speed chemiluminescence natural light imaging was used together with simultaneous heat release analysis to evaluate the combustion events. The key out comes of this study could be listed as follow: • Proof and improved understanding of multi centred auto-ignition events under high KIs • Improved understanding of the potential pitfalls of over-fuelling for heavy knock suppression • Optical validation of 'natural' oil droplet release and on-off behaviour of knocking cycles Multiple centred auto-ignition events were regularly observed to lead in to violent knocking events, with knock intensities above 140 bar observed. The ability to directly image the events associated with such high magnitude of knock is believed to be a world first in a full bore optical engine. The multiple centred events were in good agreement with the developing detonation theory to be the key mechanism leading to heavy knock in modern downsized SI engines. The accompanying thermodynamic analysis indicated lack of relation between knock intensity and the remaining unburned mass fraction burned at the onset of the auto-ignition. Spatial analysis of the full series of images captured demonstrated random location of the first captured auto-ignition sites during developing auto-ignition events. Under such circumstances new flame kernels formed at these sites, with initial steady growth sometimes observed to suppress the growth of the earlier spark initiated main flame front prior to violent end gas auto-ignition. It was found that pre-ignition most commonly initiated in the area surrounding the exhaust valve head and resulted in a deflagration that caused the overall combustion phasing to be over advanced. In the cycles after heavy knock, droplets of what appeared to be lubricant were sometimes observed moving within the main charge and causing pre-ignition. These released lubricant droplets were found to survive within the combustion chamber for multiple cycles and were associated with a corresponding "on-off" knocking combustion pattern that has been so widely associated with super-knock in real downsized spark ignition engines. This research also concerned with improving understanding of the competing effects of latent heat of vaporization and auto-ignition delay times of different ethanol blended fuels during heaving knocking combustion. Under normal operation the engine was operated under port fuel injection with a stoichiometric air-fuel mixture. Additional excess fuel of varied blend was then introduced directly into the end-gas in short transient bursts. As the mass of excess fuel was progressively increased a trade-off was apparent, with knock intensity first increasing by up to 60% before lower unburned gas temperatures suppressed knock under extremely rich conditions (γ=0.66). This trade-off is not usually observed during conventional low intensity knock suppression via over-fuelling and has been associated with the reducing auto-ignition delay times outweighing the influence of charge cooling and ratio of specific heats. Ethanol had the highest latent heat of vaporization amongst the other fuels directly injected and was more effective to reduce knock intensity albeit still aggravating knock under slightly rich conditions. Overall, the results demonstrate the risks in employing excess fuel to suppress knock deep within a heavy knocking combustion regime (potentially including a Super-Knock regime).

Alternative fuels are becoming more important as fossil fuels become more expensive. This thesis describes the production and properties of a bio-oil produced from waste biomass, in this case chicken litter. A higher quality fuel was produced through thermal and chemical upgrading of the raw bio-oil; this fuel is similar in some respects to fossil fuels, as it has a high hydrocarbon content and energy density comparable to gasoline. Combustion of liquid fuels commonly occurs in clouds of droplets, and studying the evaporation of single liquid drops provides information on the evaporation characteristics of the fuel as a whole. Droplet evaporation tests on the chicken litter fuel were carried out using the suspended droplet/moving furnace technique. For some tests, a fine wire thermocouple was used as the droplet suspension in order to measure the distillation characteristics of the fuel. An existing computational model based on continuous ther- modynamics was used to model the evaporation of the fuel. The modelled composition of the fuel was based on an existing pyrolysis field ionization mass spectrometry (Py-FIMS) analysis and used five major groups of compounds. The properties for these groups re- quired for the model were determined using several prediction methods and the values then used in a numerical model. Model predictions of droplet temperatures calculated for the fuel showed good agree- ment with the measured temperatures, indicating that the modelled composition gave an accurate picture of the fuel. Droplet evaporation histories also agreed well with mea- surements, but were not capable of reproducing the observed disruption of the droplet produced by internal boiling at higher temperatures, nor the formation of a solid residue at the end of evaporation. Further enhancements to the model should allow the prediction of residue formation.Model predictions of droplet temperatures calculated for the fuel showed good agree- ment with the measured temperatures, indicating that the modelled composition gave an accurate picture of the fuel. Droplet evaporation histories also agreed well with mea- surements, but were not capable of reproducing the observed disruption of the droplet produced by internal boiling at higher temperatures, nor the formation of a solid residue at the end of evaporation. Further enhancements to the model should allow the prediction of residue formation.

Thesis (M.S. in Mechanical Engineering)--Naval Postgraduate School, December 2009.
Thesis Advisor(s): Sinibaldi, Jose O. ; Milsaps, Knox T. "December 2009." Description based on title screen as viewed on January 26, 2010. Author(s) subject terms: Laminar flame speed test, Test faculty characterization for bio-diesel characterization, Combustion Chamber, Ignition, Fuelling. Includes bibliographical references (p. 69-70). Also available in print.

Thesis (MBA)--Stellenbosch University, 2006.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The adoption of the White Paper on the promotion of Renewable Energy and clean fuels in 2003, opened the playing field for participants from other industries than the conventional petroleum, to participate in the fuel industry in South Africa. South Africa is a net importer of crude oil, which accounts for 92% of liquid fuels supply in South Africa. Although the country has significant coal reserves which can supply the country's demand for approximately 200 years, this energy source contributes significantly to CO, emissions. South Africa's participation in the Kyoto Protocol compels it to abide by its commitments to reduce these emissions between 2008 and 2012. The country's dependence on energy to fuel its growing economy, and the infiationary impact that oil imports has had on the country's economy, has prompted government to explore alternative sources of energy to reduce its dependence on fossil fuels and especially importing crude oil. As a result of this, and in an attempt to increase the potential for the successful implementation of ASGISA, government is exploring the feasibility of introducing an E10 fuel blend to the South African petrol blend. In view of th is, government has in it Accelerated and Sustainable Growth Initiative (ASGISA) targeted the development of the bio-fuels industry as an industrial sector that presents opportunities to create opportunities for sustainable growth and development. In view of this, the fiedgling fuel-ethanol industry (which is in its construction phase at the t ime of writing this report), faces lucrative prospects for the agricultural industry, especially maize- and ethanol producers. It is anticipated that the fuel-ethanol industry will create between 8000 and 10000 direct and indirect employment opportunities per plant. This will result in significant investment in rural areas as well. The creation of employment in the rural areas will prevent the large-scale urbanisation that has become a phenomenon in the past decade, as a result of dwindling agricultural industries. The production of ethanol presents the opportunity to earn foreign exchange, especially if the industry embarks on large scale export strategies. In addition to the export market, the local market for ethanol consist of the possible E10 petrol-blend and to supply Eskom with ethanol to fuel its gas turbine electricity generators at Acacia, Port Rex, as well as the anticipated generators at Atlantis and Mossel Bay. This document is a report on the investigation of the economic evaluation of a bio-fuel industry in South Africa. It will explore the current outlook for fossil fuel reserves, supplies and demand, both internationally and locally. It will report on the phenomenon of peak oil production and some opinions thereon . An investigation into the most probable biomass that can be used as feedstock for bio-fuel production will conducted. In this regard, specific investigation into maize, sugar cane (for fuelethanol) and Jatropha eureas (for bio-diesel) will be conducted. The report will explore the most efficient ethanol production processes, for both maize- and sugar-to-ethanol production, with the weight of the document to be attributed to the economic impact that the adoption of the fuel-ethanol programme
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die publisering van die Witskrif oor die promosie van hernieubare energiebronne en skoon brandstowwe in 2003, het die speelveld vir deelname aan die brandstof industrie oopgemaak vir rolspelers buiten die konvensionele petroleum maatskappye. Suid-Afrika is 'n netto invoerder van ru-olie en het in 2004 ongeveer 92% van die totale vloeibare brandstowwe ingevoer. Alhoewel die land aansienlike steenkool reserwes het om te voorsien in die aanvraag vir die volgende ongeveer 200 jaar, dra hierdie energiebron aansienlik by tot die koolstofdioksied vrystellings. Suid-Afrika se deelname aan die Kyoto Protokol van 1998, dwing die land om te voldoen aan die ondernemings wat gemaak is om hierdie koolstofdioksied vrystellings te verminder tussen 2008 en 2012. Die land se afhanklikheid van energiebronne om groei te stimuleer, asook die inflasionistiese effek van olie invoere op die ekonomie, het die regering genoop om alternatiewe bronne van energie te ondersoek sodat die afhanklikheid van olie verminder kan word. Uiteenlopend hiervan en om die implementering van ASGISA te stimuleer, ondersoek die regering tans die moontlikheid om 'n E10 petrol vermenging in die petrol formule te spesifiseer. Uit die oogpunt van ASGISA (Accelerated and Sustainable Growth Initiative) van Suid-Afrika, het die regering die ontwikkeling van die bio-brandstowwe industrie geoormerk om geleenthede te skep vir volhoubare ontwikkeling en groei. Met die oog hierop, voorspel die etanol bedryf, wat ten tyde van die skryf van hierdie verslag nog in kontruksie was, winsgewende potensiaal vir die landboubedryf, veral mielie produsente. Dit word verwag dat die etanol bedryf tussen ongeveer 8000 en 10000 direkte en indirekte werksgeleenthede sal skep, veral in die landelike gebiede. Dit sal grotendeels bydra tot die voorkoming van die voortslepende ontvolking van die platteland wat oor die afgelope jare 'n verlammende effek op plattelandse gebiede gehad het. Dit word ook voorsien dat daar aansienlike belegging in die platteland sal plaasvind en al hierdie faktore sal bydra tot die voorkoming van verstedeliking . Die etanol bedryf skep die geleentheid om buitelandse valuta te genereer, veral as die industrie op uitvoere gaan konsentreer. Indien 'n plaaslike mark beoog word , sal die implementering van die E10 vermenging 'n besliste mark skep. 'n Alternatiewe mark wat ondersoek kan word, en wat groot geleentheid skep, is Eskom, wat tans ingevoerde diesel verbruik om hul gas turbine krag opwekkers by Acacia en Port Rex van brandstof te voorsien . Indien die beoogde turbines by Atlantis en Mosselbaai gebou word, sal die mark vir plaaslike etanol verdubbel. Hierdie dokument is 'n verslag oor die ondersoek wat gedoen is na die lewensvatbaarheid van 'n brandstof etanol bedryf in Suid-Afrika. Dit berig oor die huidige uitkyk oor die fossiel brandstof reserwes in die wereld en plaaslik. Dit opper die vraagstuk oor piek olie produksie fenomeen wat uiteenlopende debate ontketen het. Die verslag dek die waarskynlike bronne van biomassa wat aangewend kan word in die produksie van etanol, met spesifieke verwysing na mielies, suikerriet en Jatropha curcas. Die mees effektiewe produksie metodes word verder ondersoek wat van toepassing is op beide mielies en suikerriet. Die mees relevante deeI van die verslag is die ondersoek na die ekonomiese impak wat die industrie op die Suid-Afrikaanse ekonomie mag hê, waarna die nodige gevolgtrekkings en aanbevelings gemaak sal word.

Alcohol electrooxidation reactions in alkaline media are of great significance in fuel cell development. In this thesis, catalysts with high activity and stability performance are designed and relevant mechanisms are preliminarily proposed for alcohol electrooxidation reactions. Relevant characterisations of Pd-based electrocatalysts were achieved to study the morphology and composition such as SEM, TEM, EDS and XRD. Tetrahexahedral (THH) Pd nanocrystals (NCs) were directly electrodeposited on the glassy carbon (GC) electrode via a square-wave programme. The synthesized THH Pd NCs exhibit higher activity than bulk Pd for alcohol (ethanol, methanol and ethylene glycol) electrooxidation reaction. The kinetics data were obtained by Arrhenius plots and compared between bulk Pd and THH Pd NCs. Bi adatoms were modified on THH Pd NCs for ethanol electrooxidation reaction (EOR) in alkaline medium at various temperatures and under other conditions that practical fuel cells operate. The general kinetics data of EOR on Bi-decorated and bare THH Pd NCs have also I been obtained, from the activation energy calculated based on Arrhenius plots, and compared. Pd-ATO Ti mesh with high activity and cyclic stability was tested for EOR in alkaline media. The morphology and crystalline structure of Pd-ATO Ti mesh were investigated by SEM and XRD. PdMn02- C with high activity performance was explored for methanol electrooxiation (MOR) in alkaline media. Pd-Mn02-C was obtained by hydrothermal method and its morphology was investigated by TEM. Our work has explored novel catalysts for alcohol electrooxidation in alkaline media and investigated kinetics data in order to infer reaction mechanism. It is hoped that all these work could have a little help for fuel cell development.

The design and implementation of self-powered, low power implant microcontroller, with wireless data transmitter system that captures data as subcutaneous bio-sensing platform has been achieved with glucose fuel cell (GFC) energy harvesting power solution. Data transfer is unidirectional, implant to reader and is initiated by a single transmission from the external reader. The implant's memory contents are transmitted as a stream of wireless pulses to the reader. This work explored two different approaches on current technologies used for designing self-powered bio medical devices (BMDs) and active implantable medical devices (IMDs), their processing, sampling data, transmission of data and energy hasting powering techniques with a view to identifying state-of-the art technologies and methods to improve the long-term powering and recharging of IMDs via a highly safe, efficient and convenient way. The designed low power implant microcontroller, with wireless data transmitter system combines glucose energy harvesting technique by using materials with efficient catalyst capabilities based on platinum nanoparticles supported on Vulcan carbon cloth (PtVCC) as a cathode electrode for GFC configuration, while plain Platinum (Pt) mesh/sheet acted as anode. The PtVCC and Pt electro-reaction, catalytic activities and stability resulted in a design of a direct GFC with high output voltage and current, >0.4V and >300μA respectively per cell, and increased this voltage to value >4V, to power the implant system, by using a voltage booster; direct current to direct current (DC-DC) converter circuit, and a rechargeable battery. The innovative self-powered bio-sensing platform integrating GFC design, meets the self-powered IMDs expectations in terms of simplified fabrication and materials that allows one-compartment design that can directly be placed on the surface of medical implant to provide sufficient output power boosted by DC-DC converter to produced higher output voltage ten times greater than the input value, enough to power most efficient electronic devices. This research therefore proposes the practicability and potential of designing and implementing a wireless bio sensor system powered by an energy harvesting solution, based on GFC to produce a proof-of-concept design system and integration, including power management and data communication (sampling and transmission) platform suitable for self-low-powered periodically-activated IMD.

Gas turbines are extensively used in aviation because of their advantageous volume as weight characteristics. The objective of this project proposed was to look at advanced propulsion systems and the close coupling of the airframe with advanced prime mover cycles. The investigation encompassed a comparative assessment of traditional and novel prime mover options including the design, off-design, degraded performance of the engine and the environmental and economic analysis of the system. The originality of the work lies in the technical and economic optimisation of gas turbine based on current and novel cycles for a novel airframes application in a wide range of climatic conditions. The study has been designed mainly to develop a methodology for evaluating and optimising biofuel combustion technology in addressing the concerns related to over-dependence on crude oil (Jet-A) and the increase in pollution emissions. The main contributions of this work to existing knowledge are as follows: (i) development of a so-called greener-based methodology for assessing the potential of biofuels in reducing the dependency on conventional fuel and the amount of pollution emission generated, (ii) prediction of fuel spray characteristics as one of the major controlling factors regarding emissions, (iii) evaluation of engine performance and emission through the adaptation of a fuel’s properties into the in-house computer tools, (iv) development of optimisation work to obtain a trade-off between engine performance and emissions, and (v) development of CFD work to explore the practical issues related to the engine emission combustion modelling. Several tasks have been proposed. The first task concerns the comparative study of droplet lifetime and spray penetration of biofuels with Jet-A. In this task, the properties of the selected biofuels are implemented into the equations related to the evaporation process. Jatropha Bio-synthetic Paraffinic Kerosine (JSPK), Camelina Bio-synthetic Paraffinic Kerosine (CSPK), Rapeseed Methyl Ester (RME) and Ethanol are used and are evaluated as pure fuel. Additionally, the mixture of 50% JSPK with 50% Jet-A are used to examine the effects ofblend fuel. Results revealed the effects of fuel volatility, density and viscosity on droplet lifetime and spray penetration. It is concluded that low volatile fuel has longer droplet lifetime while highly dense and viscous fuel penetrates longer. Regarding to the blending fuel, an increase in the percentage of JSPK in the blend reduces the droplet lifetime and length of the spray penetration. An assessment of the effect of JSPK and CSPK on engine performance and emissions also has been proposed. The evaluation is conducted for the civil aircraft engine flying at cruise and at constant mass flow condition. At both conditions results revealed relative increases in thrust as the percentage of biofuel in the mixture was increased, whilst a reduction in fuel flow during cruise was noted. The increase in engine thrust at both conditions was observed due to high LHV and heat capacity, while the reduction in fuel flow was found to correspond to the low density of the fuel. Regarding the engine emissions, reduction in NOx and CO was noted as the composition of biofuels in the mixture increased. This reduction is due to factors such as flame temperature, boiling temperature, density and volatility of the fuel. While at constant mass flow condition, increases in CO were noted due to the influence of low flame temperature which leads to the incompletion of oxidation of carbon atoms. Additionally, trade-off between engine thrust, NOx, and CO through the application of multi-objective genetic algorithm for the test case related to the fuel design has been proposed. The aim involves designing an optimal percentage of the biofuel/Jet-A mixture for maximum engine thrust and minimum engine emissions. The Pareto front obtained and the characteristics of the optimal fuel designs are examined. Definitive trades between the thrust and CO emissions and between thrust and NOx emissions are shown while little trade-off between NOx and CO emissions is noted. Furthermore, the practical issues related to the engine emissions combustion modelling have been evaluated. The effect of assumptions considered in HEPHAESTUS on the predicted temperature profile and NOx generation were explored. Finally, the future works regarding this research field are identified and discussed.

The research presented in this thesis evaluated a range of UK native seaweeds as potential feedstocks for both bioethanol and speciality chemical production, with the objective of developing a putative bio-refining process. The gross chemical compositions of nine different UK species of seaweed were determined (Chapter 3) to evaluate their potential for bioethanol production. The carbohydrate contents were within the range 16.8 – 41.8 % (d/w). Three species were selected for further work targeted at bioethanol production. Methodologies involved using thermo-chemical pre-treatments followed by enzymatic hydrolysis. Optimisation experiments concluded that water based (hydrothermal) pre-treatments were most suitable for both D. carnosa and U. lactuca spp (121°C, 24 – 30 min, 15% and 10% (w/v) solids, respectively) to maximise glucose liberation. In contrast dilute acid hydrothermal pre-treatment (1.5 N H2SO4, 121°C, 24 min, 25% (w/v) solids) was most suitable for L. digitata. Feedstocks were produced using optimised conditions for trial fermentations (using S. cerevisiae NCYC2592). These produced yields of 78.4 - 94.5% theoretical ethanol, which equated to 15.4-20.4 kg of pure ethanol per metric tonne of native seaweed. The thermo-chemical pre-treatment of seaweed generated a liquid fraction rich in an array of different monosaccharides inherent to seaweed which was used to identify microorganisms capable of fermenting seaweed monosaccharides into ethanol using a novel phenotypic microarray approach (Chapter 5). Whilst S. cerevisiae spp were suggested to be the most suitable (and efficient) for fermentation of C6 sugars, the yeast stain P. anomala TP12 was able to utilize a mixture of sugars inherent to seaweed. Attempts were made to link both bioethanol production and fucoidan extraction as part of a novel bio-process using L. digitata (Chapter 6). At pilot plant scale, fucoidan was extracted with a purity of 65% and an overall extraction efficiency of 17% was attained. Pre-treatment and enzymatic hydrolysis of the remaining waste residue generated a feedstock that achieved 93.8% theoretical glucose, which when fermented yielded 94.4% of theoretical ethanol. Furthermore, extracts from waste streams of the putative process exhibited both antioxidant and antimicrobial activities.

Biological wastewater treatment is typically aerobic and an energy intensive process, mainly due to the required aeration. Alternative sustainable processes are sought, such as Microbial fuel cells (MFC) where electrogenic bacteria can degrade organic matter present in the waste stream while simultaneously generating electricity. MFCs represent an emerging technology which may deliver the capability to reduce the pollution potential of low strength wastewaters (< 1500 mg COD l-1) while generating electricity which could be used to self-power the process. Waste streams high in volatile fatty acids (VFAs) with high conductivity are particularly preferred substrate streams. These may include the effluent from two stage bio-hydrogen and bio-methane systems, which in this study were treated in a four-module tubular MFC (V=1 l) to reduce the chemical oxygen demand (COD) and recover further energy from the substrate. It was shown that the power increased with increasing organic loading rate (0.036-0.572 g sCOD l-1 d-1), but COD removal efficiency decreased. The Coulombic Efficiency (CE) was found to decrease significantly at OLR ˃ 0.6 g sCOD l-1 d-1 and the energy recovery was 92.95 J l-1 (OLR=0.572 g sCOD l-1 d-1). Also, wash-down waters from a chilled food producing company were treated in the same tubular MFC, reducing the soluble COD content by 84.8%. The low power (≈ 30 W m-3) and cell potential (≈ 0.5 V) makes it necessary to investigate methods such as external capacitors, DC/DC converters or serial and parallel connection to improve the power quality. In this thesis, the use of the intrinsic capacitance was tested by switched mode, open and closed circuit (OC/CC) operation of a 2-module tubular MFC with high surface area carbon veil anode. The charge accumulated during OC and released when switched to CC was dependent on the external resistor (R = 100-3 kΩ) and duty cycle. Short period OC/CC switching further increased potential due to the pseudo-capacitance of the reactor, but only at the expense of energy efficiency, compared to continuous operation (CC) under constant load. Another approach to enhance the practical implementation of MFCs is integration with other processes such as reverse electrodialysis to increase MFC’s cell potential or e.g. desalination. In this study a MFC was integrated with supported liquid membrane technology (SLM) for the first time, for the removal of metal ions of wastewater. A three chamber reactor, with a common cathode/feed phase containing 400 mg Zn2+ l-1, enabled V the simultaneous treatment of organic- and heavy metal containing wastewaters. The MFC/SLM combination produces a synergistic effect which enhances the power performance of the MFC significantly; 0.233 mW compared to 0.094 mW in the control. It is shown that the 165±7 mV difference between the MFC/SLM system and the MFC control is partially attributable to the lower cathode pH in the integrated system experiment, the consequent lower activation overpotential and higher oxygen reduction potential. The system demonstrates that within 72 h, 93±4% of the zinc ions are removed from the feed phase. A further study, with continuously operated cathode/feed chamber (100 mg Zn2+ l-1), showed that an enhanced effect on increasing cell potential was possible and could also be maintained in continuous operation.

Denna avhandling behandlar rökgasutsläpp av persistenta organiska föroreningar, framförallt dioxiner, vid förbränning av fasta biobränslen och torrt hushållsavfall i relativt små anläggningar (5-600 kW) utan avancerad rökgasreningsteknik.

Samförbränning av avfall och biobränsle i effektiva mindre biobränslepannor testades som en alternativ strategi till den vanligen förekommande storskaliga hanteringen och förbränningen fast hushållsavfall. Medan storskalig förbränning av avfall ger investeringsmässiga fördelar med rökgasreningsteknik etc. kan små lokala anläggningar ha transportmässiga fördelar och möjligheter till utnyttjande av lokala biobränsletillgångar. Källsorterat, torrt, brännbart hushållsavfall insamlades från hushåll i glesbygd och samförbrändes i brikettform med energigräset rörflen i 150-600 kW biobränslepannor. Endast undantagsvis understeg dioxinemissionerna gällande gränsvärden för avfallsförbränning och nivåerna av väteklorid i rökgas översteg gränsvärdena flerfaldigt. Det bedömdes att någon form av extra rökgasrening är nödvändig för att säkerställa nivågränserna. Dioxiner hittades också i det eldade avfallet, framförallt i textilfraktionen. Dioxinmängderna i rökgaserna var oftast lägre än i det ingående bränslet.

Intermittent pelletseldning gav oväntat höga utsläpp av dioxiner med en emissionsfaktor på 28 ng(WHO-TEQ)/kg. Vedeldning i en modern miljömärkt villapanna gav betydligt lägre utsläpp av dioxiner än eldning i en gammal kombipanna och eldning med full lufttillförsel, som kan jämföras med användning av ackumulatortank, resulterade i upp till 90% minskning av utsläpp av dioxiner jämfört med eldning med reducerat lufttillskott (’pyreldning’). Eldning av plastavfall i en vedpanna gav höga utsläpp av dioxiner.

Okontrollerad förbränning av trädgårdsavfall och hushålls avfall i tunna eller som öppen eld ’bakgårdsbränning’, gav stora variationer i utsläppsnivåer som bara delvis kunde kopplas till avfallsinnehåll. Resultaten visar att denna typ av förbränning kan vara en betydande källa till dioxiner i miljön, och ett emissionsfaktorintervall på 4-72 ng (WHO-TEQ)/kg föreslås för bedömningar av utsläpp från backgårdsbränning av avfall med låga eller måttliga klorhalter.

En sammanfattande slutsats av alla försök är att dioxin utsläpp beror på komplicerade samband mellan bränsleinnehåll och förbränningsbetingelser. Bränslen med mycket höga klorhalter av ger oftast högre utsläpp av dioxiner än bränslen med låga klorhalter medan små skillnader döljs av variationer i förbränningsbetingelser.

This thesis deals with emissions of persistent organic pollutants, primarily dioxins, from the combustion of solid biofuels and dry combustible household waste in relatively small facilities, 5-600 kW, without advanced air pollution controls.

Co-combustion of waste and biofuel in effective small boilers was tested as an alternative to prevailing large-scale management and combustion strategies for handling municipal solid waste. This approach includes no advanced air pollution control systems, but offers two advantages: limiting transport and providing scope to use local biofuel resources. Source-sorted, dry, combustible household waste was collected from households in a sparsely populated area and co-combusted as briquettes together with reed canary-grass in 150-600 kW biofuel boilers. Most trials showed difficulties to meet regulative limits for the emissions of dioxins valid for incineration of MSW and the regulated limits for emissions of hydrochloric acid were exceeded manifold. It was concluded that additional flue-gas cleaning will be needed to ensure that emissions are sufficiently low. Dioxins were also found in the waste, especially in the textile fraction. The mass of dioxins in the flue-gas emissions was generally lower than the mass in the fuel input.

Intermittent combustion of wood pellets in a residential boiler resulted in an unexpectedly high dioxin emissions factor of 28 ng (WHO-TEQ)/kg fuel. Combustion of wood in a modern environmentally certified boiler yielded considerably lower dioxin emissions than combustion in an old boiler, and combustion with a full air supply, i.e. with use of heat storage tank, resulted in up to 90% reductions in dioxin emission factors compared to combustion with reduced air supply. Combustion of plastic waste in a residential wood boiler resulted in high emissions of dioxins.

Tests of uncontrolled combustion of garden and household waste in barrels or open fires, ‘backyard burnings’, resulted in emissions with large variations that could only be partly correlated to the waste constituents. The results imply that this may be an important source of dioxins in the environment and an emission factor range of 4-72 ng (WHO-TEQ)/kg is suggested for estimating emissions from backyard burnings of lightly and moderately chlorine-contaminated waste.

A summarized conclusion from all of the experiments is that predicting emission levels from waste contents is not straightforward (except that fuels with very high chlorine levels will usually result in high levels of dioxins in flue-gas emissions). Moderate differences in chlorine levels will usually be masked by the effect of variations in combustion conditions.

This study addresses the global technical challenges of resource depletion and climate change by developing the first demonstration of incorporating smart energy storage (super-capacitors and batteries) with bio-fuel micro-tri-generation (BMT-HEES) for domestic applications. The developed system is capable of producing required heat, electricity and refrigeration from renewable bio-fuels for an average British household usage, and dynamically regulating the energy distribution within the system by using a novel energy storage system and a following electric load (FEL) energy management method. In this study, an extensive literature review has been carried out to investigate previous trigeneration and hybrid energy storage systems with a particular focus on their features, advantages and challenges which provide a basis for further improvements. The research work started with a preliminary investigation to fully understand the dynamic characteristics of lead acid batteries and super-capacitors used in combination to provide the desirable electrical output. The test results suggested that the super capacitors performed better than batteries in meeting transient electrical demands. In order to develop a complete BMT-HEES system, computational modeling and simulation was then conducted in the Dymola simulation environment, where the complete BMT-HEES system with advanced operational strategies has been implemented followed by case studies. System performance was assessed by evaluating key performance indicators including fuel consumption, dynamic response of each power sources, operational durations and energy efficiencies. A full experimental setup of the proposed system was also developed. Experimental tests on individual components and the BMT-HEES system as a whole have validated the effectiveness of the developed methodologies and techniques. Specific case studies have proved that the system can improve over the existing ones in terms of energy efficiency (with 47.86% improvement compared to one tri-generation system without HEES) and dynamic response for selected days as reported in the case studies. Test results from both simulation and physical experiments show that BMT-HEES can satisfy the fluctuating energy demands faithfully and instantly with high system efficiency for domestic applications. In addition, the predicted performance based on the developed methodologies has a good agreement with actual measurements. The low error of each assessment indicator provides iii the confidence that the system models can predict the system performance with good accuracy (all of the errors were within 3%). The developed technologies in this study can help cut down the carbon footprint in domestic environments, facilitate a shift towards an environment-friendly lifestyle, and in the long run, improve the quality of human life. Moreover, the established system is flexible, scalable and inter-connectable. That is, the system can incorporate other types of bio-fuels or other sources of new and renewable energy (wind, solar, geothermal, biomass etc.), depending on the availability of the energy and location of the system used. In addition to the small-scale domestic environment, the physical system can be scaled up to be used in larger commercial and industrial environments. It may be used as a stand-alone energy system or it can be interconnected with neighboring energy systems or connected with the power grid as a distributed generation set if there is a need (or a surplus) of generated electricity. Without doubt, this will require further work on this inter-disciplinary topic as well as new innovations in the fields of energy networks and smart grids.

Dagens transportsektor är beroende utav fossila drivmedel. Detta är problematiskt eftersom fossila bränslen är en ändlig resurs samtidigt som användningen utav dessa bidrar till den förstärkta växthuseffekten. Enligt EU:s klimatmål ska utsläppen av växthusgaser reduceras med 20 procent till år 2020. Handeln med utsläppsrätter, som flygsektorn inkluderas i från och med år 2012, har införts som ett styrmedel som skall verka för att företag ska minska sina utsläpp. Flygföretag kommer härigenom att ha ökade incitament att blanda in en viss procenthalt biojetbränsle i det fossila jetbränslet. Mycket forskning och utveckling pågår kring framtagandet av andra generationens biodrivmedel, till vilka algbaserat biodrivmedel räknas. Algbaserat biodrivmedel tros ha god framtidspotential då alger kan odlas på mark som ej är lämplig för matodling, har en hög tillväxttakt, högt oljeinnehåll samt förmågan att ta upp koldioxid från sin omgivning. Syftet med denna rapport var därmed att skapa en bred bild kring möjligheterna att med ekonomisk vinning producera algbaserat biodrivmedel för flyg i Sverige, vilken kan ligga till grund för vidare forskning på området. Målet var att utföra en lönsamhetsanalys för en produktionsprocess med lämpligt vald odlingsanläggning, algart, skördeteknik, vattenavskiljningsteknik samt teknik för vidare förädlingsprocesser. Detta efter att marknaden först, med hjälp av Porters femkraftsmodell, hade bedömts som lämplig att gå in på. Valen fattades med utgångspunkt i en litteraturstudie baserad på intervjuer, faktasökning i rapportdatabaser och i sökmotorer på Internet samt ett studiebesök på Käppala reningsverk. Valen kring produktionsanläggningen samt projektets uppskattade kostnader och intäkter motiverades i en fallstudie som sedan låg till grund för modellen.   I modellen beräknades ett konkurrenskraftigt pris på biojetbränsle utifrån kostnaden för fossilt jetbränsle plus detta fossilbränsles relaterade utsläppsrättskostnad vid år 2020. Utifrån modellens huvudscenario uppskattades på så vis det konkurrenskraftiga priset år 2020 till 7,2 kronor per liter. För odling valdes öppna raceway-dammar i anslutning till ett reningsverk där det finns fri tillgång på näringsämnen och koldioxid. Algarten Chlorella Vulgaris valdes då den lämpar sig väl för denna odlingsanläggning. Produktionen beräknades uppnå en volym av 60 400 liter färdigt biojetbränsle per odlingssäsong (juni till september). Den årliga intäkten för huvudscenariot blev 455 100 kronor per år, medräknat det reningsverket antas betala för den koldioxidminskning algodlingen medför. Genom att alternera råoljepriset och utsläppsrättspriset togs fyra grundscenarion fram. Det utgicks ifrån att anläggningen tas i bruk år 2017 och en resultaträkning för en sjuårsperiod utfördes utifrån den årliga intäkten, framräknad grundinvestering och framräknade driftskostnader.  Det årliga resultatet visade sig vara negativt eller strax över noll för samtliga fyra scenarion samt för huvudscenariot. Först vid ett försäljningspris på 10,8 kronor per liter blev projektet lönsamt med ett positivt nuvärde beräknat på sju år och en internränta på 15 procent. Återbetalningstiden beräknades till max fyra år.     Huruvida ett premiumpris på 10,8 kronor per liter, flera kronor högre än det som ansågs vara konkurrenskraftigt, är möjligt att ta betalt för det algbaserade biojetbränslet är osäkert. Utifrån uppskattad kostnads- och intäktsbild är dock detta ett måste för att produktionen skall vara lönsam. I annat fall krävs externa förändringar såsom exempelvis kraftigt höjda råoljepriser, forskningsframsteg och effektiviseringar för framställningen av algbiodrivmedel eller att ytterligare politiska styrmedel gynnar biodrivmedel. Miljökostnader och miljövinster med en algbaserad biodrivmedelsproduktion samt förslag på ytterligare effektivisering av produktionen är vidare forskningsområden som denna rapport ämnar ligga till grund för.
Today’s transportation sector is in a path dependency of the using of fossil fuel. This is problematic since there are limited oil sources in the world and since the use of fossil fuels increases the green house effects. According to EU’s climate goals the emissions of green house gases should be reduced by 20 percent by year 2020. The European emission trading system, which the airline industry will be a part of from 2012, raises the incentives for companies to lower their emissions. Airline companies will therefore be more likely to add a certain percentage of biofuels into their aircraft engines. A lot of research and development is currently being made about the second generation of biofuel. One raw material for a second generation biofuel is algae, which is believed to have great potential due to the fact that it can be cultured on marginal land, fast growth rate, high oil content and consumes carbon dioxide while growing.  The aim with this report was to create a picture of the opportunities in Sweden to economically feasible produce algae biofuel for aircraft, from which continuous research can be made. The goal was to create an evaluation of whether it is profitable or not to have a production with carefully chosen growth facility, algae specie, harvest method, drying method and other refining steps. The market was first evaluated and found to be attractive, using the model of Porter’s five forces. Different decisions regarding the production was made based on interviews, information found in report databases and search engines online and based on the study visit at Käppala wastewater treatment plant. These decisions and the costs they are associated with were later used in the model.   A competitive bio jet fuel price year 2020 is regarded to be the price on fossil jet fuel plus the cost for the related certificate of emission cost. In the model’s main scenario the competitive liter price year 2020 was calculated to be 7.2 Swedish kronor. The growth facility was designed as an open raceway pond integrated in a wastewater treatment plant, since the wastewater contains nutrition and carbon dioxide used in the algae photosynthesis. The algae specie chosen was Chlorella Vulgaris. The production will run every year from June to September and the produced volume is estimated 60 400 liters of bio jet fuel each production season. The yearly sales in the main scenario, including the money the wastewater treatment is paying for lowered carbon dioxide emissions, are estimated at 455 100 Swedish kronor. By altering the price of fossil fuel and of emission trading certificates four different scenarios were created. The production will begin in 2017 and the result was calculated for the first seven years based on the yearly income and the estimated start-up costs and running costs. The result turned out to be negative or just above zero for all four scenarios. The project was profitable at the price 10.8 Swedish kronor per liter with a positive net current value over seven years and internal rate of return at 15 percent. The payback time was calculated to be four years at the most.   Whether or not it is possible to charge 10.8 Swedish kronor per liter is not certain. However, this is the price needed in order for the project to be profitable. Otherwise external changes are needed such as increased raw oil prices, successful research and development in the field of algae bio fuel production or increased political incentives in favor of bio fuels. Environmental costs and environmental gains with an algae fuel production as well as proposals for further efficiency are suggestions on further work that need to be done on this field.

 

The Swedwood Company is a supplier to IKEA of wood furniture. They have grown larger concurrently with IKEA and at present they have 47 production units spread over twelve countries of which most are located in Eastern Europe.

One of the factories is Zbaszynek which is located in Poland. They manufacture so called board-on-frame furniture. A board-on-frame is basically made out of particle board frames which are filled with special design paper that enfolds air. The frames are then covered with their skin; thinner particle boards, so called High Density Fibre (HDF) boards, and then edge banded with plastic stripes and painted and lacquered into desired design.

This production generates not only furniture, last financial year Zbaszynek generated about 61 000 tons wood waste too. It can be compared to their total production of furniture which reached 439 000 tons during the same period of time. This generation of wood waste has caused a problem for Swedwood in general. A project called IKEA Goes Renewable (IGR) has started within IKEA with the aim to reduce the electric- and heat energy consumption and increase the use of renewable energy sources. But to be able to reduce the heat energy at a board-on-frame factory, such as Zbaszynek, there has to be an economic incentive to do so. But the wood waste is contaminated in comparison with waste from pure wood (free from adhesives, plastics etc.) so purchasers have been hard to find. And since the wood waste is used to generate the heat at the factories, the economic value has become relative low. Zbaszynek earn 1.4 €/MWh for their wood waste at present (energy value of 5.1 MWh/ton), while for example recycled contaminated wood chippings (RT-chippings) are worth about 7.3 €/MWh in Sweden (energy value of 4.4-5.1 MWh/ton). RT-chippings in Sweden are even allowed to contain more contaminations to receive that price, as long as it is not pressure creosoted. 1.4 €/MWh can also be compared to the economic value of coal which is about 13.7 €/MWh, and for district heating to households in Sweden was the average price about 68 €/MWh during 2007 (Energimarknadsinspektionen, 2007).Therefore, the main task of this thesis has been to investigate if there are any possible solutions to increase the economic value of the wood waste in Zbaszynek. There are more board-on-frame factories within Swedwood with the same problem, but Zbaszynek has been the pilot factory during this research.

The first thing which should be considered in Zbaszynek is to keep the amount of waste as low as possible. The main task should be to reduce the amounts of wood waste; in the end it is a furniture factory and not a waste producer, which should be concerned before taking any further action. It is assumed though that this has already been thought through in Zbaszynek and further investigation of the waste has taken place.The wood waste has been sent to the Eurofins laboratory in Sweden for an analysis and the test results were then compared to wood waste of pure wood. The comparison indicates the nitrogen content being the main difference between Zbaszynek's wood waste and pure wood. Nitrogen compounds, often referred to as NO_x can cause severe damage to the environment and foremost lead to increased eutrophication (= Eutrofizacja (Polish) / Övergödning (Swedish)) when it is emitted to the air. Apart from the nitrogen contamination, other significant differences have not been found. The energy content of the wood waste has even revealed it would suit well as bio-fuel, on the condition that proper equipment to reduce the NO_x emissions is present. It has been calculated that the energy content, of the generated wood waste in Zbaszynek during Financial Year 2008, reached 310 GWh. Which can be compared to the electricity consumption of 78 GWh as was bought during the same time of period.

Four main possibilities have been investigated in this report and they are:

• - Selling the waste to cement producers as alternative fuel

• - Make new products and use for furniture production again

• - Make briquettes or pellets and sell as fuel

• - Start up a Combined Heat and Power plant and produce electricity

All these alternatives have their advantages and disadvantages but they all seem to be realistic solutions, on a few conditions.

Removal of nitrogen elements in culture water is one of the major concerns in recirculating aquaculture system (RAS). Maintaining a low concentration of nitrogen compounds is essential for a good quality of aquaculture production. Due to fish is very sensitive to the toxic ammonium/ammonia, nitrification biofiltration tank is often an integrate part of filtration in RAS to remove ammonium via nitrification. However, nitrate accumulation via nitrification in RAS is often observed during the operation, which is usually solved by replacing with the fresh water into the system. With the concern of water consumption, bio-electrochemical system (BES) is introduced in this study to realize simultaneous nitrate removal for the system while generating the electricity through electron transferring. A microbial fuel cell (MFC) with an anion exchange membrane (AEM) was constructed. The removal of nitrate from aquaculture water generated from RAS was achieved by nitrate migration across the AEM and heterotrophic denitrification in the anode chamber. To further investigate the potential application of BES in RAS, the cathode chamber was incubated with biofilm to do the nitrification while the denitrification processing in the anode chamber. The study gave a total inorganic nitrogen removal efficiency of 38.72% ± 4.99, and a COD removal of 86.09% ± 9.83. The average daily electricity generation was 67.98 A m-3 ± 13.91, and nitrate-nitrogen concentration remained at 21.02 ± 2.62 mg L-1 throughout the experiment. These results of treating aquaculture water indicate that BES has a potential to install within RAS for enhanced nitrogen removal.
MS

The main objective of this thesis was to design an incinerator which was fuelled by cow dung. The purpose of this study was to investigate if the designed incinerator can provide the heat needs of a medium size farm in the north of Iran. This project was conducted to study local energy sources accessible in a farm to cut the costs of fossil fuels in one hand and reduction of environmental impacts caused by use of those fuels in the other hand. The whole system was composed of heating elements inside the farm building and an incineration system to heat generation by combusting dry cow dung outside the farm building. The wet manure contained 40% moisture that should be dried by passing through two dryers in series before entering the incinerator. An appropriate water-tube boiler has been designed to boil water which condensed in a condenser so that the latent heat of steam has used for heating the building. A shell and tube heat exchanger has been designed for condensing the steam in the shell side and warming up water flow circulated through heating elements in the tube side. Therefore there are two water cycles one within the heat generation system and the other cycle through heating elements which are designed to exchange heat inside a condenser. About the dryers it is attempted to use recoverable heat of flue gas so that the heat required for the drying section is supplied by the stack of incinerator. As the result of the project, proposed system is evaluated in terms of heat balance and thermal efficiency. Calculation shows that the system is quite sufficient to supply heat needs of the farm and the theoretical thermal efficiency of the system is about 78%.

Thesis (MBA (Business Management))--University of Stellenbosch, 2009.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Through the continual pursuit to reduce wastage through converting unmarketable by-products into a form that can be sold or used, it was established that an opportunity was available to refine poor-quality fish oil into a fuel source for internal use by a company. By commissioning a biodiesel refinery at the pelagic fish-processing facility of Pioneer Fishing (Pty) Ltd, it will be possible to refine the fish oil into biodiesel and easily distribute the fuel to the fishing vessels or the trucks used for the catching and transportation of pelagic fish. South African legislation is promoting small-scale biodiesel plants by reducing the taxes and levies payable on biodiesel sold by those refineries. The aim of this research report is to provide Pioneer Fishing (Pty) Ltd with a business plan to motivate the commissioning of a small-scale biodiesel plant to process the waste fish oil into a useable energy source to fuel the fishing vessels and trucks.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die voortdurende strewe na minder vermorsing deur onbemarkbare neweprodukte in ʼn verhandelbare of bruikbare vorm om te sit, het die geleentheid uitgewys om visolie van ʼn swak gehalte tot ʼn brandstof vir interne gebruik deur ‟n maatskappy te raffineer. Deur ʼn biodieselraffinadery by die diepseevisverwerkingsfasiliteit van Pioneer Fishing (Edms) Bpk in gebruik te neem, sal die afvalvisolie van dié aanleg tot biodiesel geraffineer kan word. Die biodiesel sal betreklik maklik beskikbaar gestel kan word aan die vaartuie en die vragmotors wat vir die vangs en vervoer van die diepseevis gebruik word. Heersende Suid-Afrikaanse wetgewing moedig juis kleinskaalse biodieselaanlegte aan deur ʼn korting toe te staan op die belasting en heffings op die biodiesel van sodanige raffinaderye. Hierdie navorsingsverslag het ten doel om Pioneer Fishing (Edms) Bpk van ʼn sakeplan te voorsien ter motivering van die ingebruikneming van ʼn kleinskaalse biodieselaanleg om die afvalvisolie tot ʼn bruikbare energiebron te verwerk waarmee die visvaartuie en -vragmotors aangedryf kan word.

Poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA)-based membranes have gathered significant interest because of their film forming ability and low cost. These films are usually crosslinked to provide a macromolecular network with high dimensional stability. PVA can be modified by introduction of sulfonic acid groups (sPVA) contributing to increase its proton conductivity. In addition, the preparation of hybrid organic-inorganic composite membranes by the addition of graphene oxide (GO) as nano-filler not only reinforces the matrix but also decreases the permeability of solvents. All this has motivated the use of these materials for the preparation of proton exchange membranes (PEMs) for direct methanol fuel cell (DMFC) applications. Contribution I presents the chemical schemes followed for the bi-sulfonation of the PVA, the synthesis of GO and the preparation of PVA/GO and sPVA/GO composite membranes. In addition, a structural, morphological, thermal, and mechanical characterization of the starting materials and the composite membranes were performed. Finally, in order to evaluate the suitability of the prepared PEMs in fuel cells, the prot cond. was evaluated at room temperature. The results showed that the addition of GO (1 wt.%) into the sPVA matrix, 30sPVA/GO membrane, enhance by 89% the prot cond. compared to its homologue membrane, 30sPVA, free-standing of GO. In Contribution II, the proton conductive properties of the previously prepared membranes were investigated as a function of the structural (bi-sulfonation) and morphological (crosslinking and addition of GO) modifications. The bi-sulfonated membrane reinforced with GO, 30sPVA/GO, stands out over the rest. The addition of GO improves considerably its prot cond. (20.96 mS/cm at 90 °C) and its maximum power density (Pmax) in the H2-O2 fuel cell test (13.9 mW/cm2 at 25 ºC). In Contribution III was studied the effect of a new variable, the sufonation of the GO (sGO), on the functional properties of the composites PVA/sGO and sPVA/sGO for DMFC applications. In addition, the results were compared to that obtained for the previously described PVA/GO and sPVA/GO composites. The results conclude that, contrary to expectations, the multiple sulfonation of the 30sPVA/sGO composite strongly reduces the prot cond. (5.22 mS/cm at 50 °C) compared to its homologue 30sPVA/GO (8.42 mS/cm at 50 °C), despite its higher values of ion exchange capacity (IEC). Finally, the 30PVA/sGO composite (1.85 mW/cm2) shows a significant improvement of the DMFC performance (50 °C, 4M methanol solution) compared to the 30sPVA/GO composite (1.00 mW/cm2). The Layer-by-Layer (LbL) assembly method was used in Contribution IV for the preparation of composite membranes assembled via hydrogen bonding interactions. To do this, GO/PVA and GO/sPVA bilayers were deposited on the surface of 15PVA and 15sPVA substrate membranes, respectively. The composites were denoted as 15PVA(GO/PVA)n and 15sPVA(GO/sPVA)n where n is the number of deposited bilayers, in our case n ranges between 1 and 3. Finally, the potential of the composite membranes for DMFC applications were evaluated, showing the best performance the 15sPVA(GO/sPVA)1 composite. Finally, the Contribution V was focused on the preparation of composite membranes by LbL Assembly method, but in this case the assembly forces were electrostatic interactions. The GO was dispersed in a poly(allyl amine hydrochloride) solution (GO-PAH) in order to obtain a positively charged solution. The composites were assembled by alternate deposition of GO-PAH and sPVA layers on the surface of 15PVA and 15sPVA substrates, obtaining as a result the composites 15PVA(GO-PAH/sPVA)n and 15sPVA(GO-PAH/sPVA)n. The best value of prot cond. (8.26 mS/cm at 90 °C) was obtained for the 15PVA(GO-PAH/sPVA)1 composite, almost twice that the value obtained for its homologue sulfonated composite 15sPVA(GO-PAH/sPVA)1 (4.96 mS/cm a 90 °C).
Membranas constituidas básicamente por alcohol polivinílico (PVA) han despertado un gran interés debido a su bajo coste y su fácil procesado para conformarlas en forma de films. Estos films frecuentemente son sometidos a entrecruzamiento para disponer de una red macromolecular con una elevada estabilidad dimensional. La modificación del PVA por introducción de grupos sulfónicos (sPVA) cambia la estructura del polímero contribuyendo a aumentar su conductividad protónica. Además, la preparación de membranas híbridas orgánico-inorgánicas (composites) mediante la adición de óxido de grafeno (GO) refuerza la matriz, a la vez que disminuye su permeabilidad frente a disolventes. Todo ello ha motivado el uso de estos materiales para la preparación de membranas de intercambio protónico (PEMs) empleadas en pilas de combustible de metanol (DMFCs). En la Contribución I se presentan los esquemas químicos conducentes a la bi-sulfonación del PVA, la síntesis del GO y la preparación de las membranas composite PVA/GO y sPVA/GO. Además, se realizó la caracterización estructural, morfológica, térmica y mecánica de cada uno de los materiales de partida y de los composite. Finalmente, con el fin de evaluar su idoneidad como PEMs en pilas de combustible, se evaluó su cond. prot a temperatura ambiente. Los resultados obtenidos mostraron que la adición de GO (1 wt.%) como nano-carga a la matriz de sPVA genera un composite, 30sPVA/GO, cuya cond. prot supera en un 89 % a la de su membrana homóloga sin carga, 30sPVA. La Contribución II trata de explorar las propiedades conductoras de las membranas preparadas previamente en función de la modificación estructural (bi-sulfonación) y la morfológica (reticulación y adición de GO). La membrana bi-sulfonada y reforzada con GO, 30sPVA/GO, destaca sobre el resto. La adición de GO mejora considerablemente tanto la cond. prot (20.96 mS/cm a 90 ºC) como la densidad de potencia máxima (Pmax) en pila de combustible de hidrógeno (13.9 mW/cm2 a temperatura ambiente). En la Contribución III se estudió el efecto de una nueva variable, la sulfonación del GO (sGO), sobre las propiedades funcionales de los composites PVA/sGO y sPVA/sGO en aplicaciones de DMFC. Además, se llevó a cabo un estudio comparativo con los composite PVA/GO y sPVA/GO previamente descritos. Los resultados concluyeron que, en contra a lo esperado, la múltiple sulfonación de la membrana 30sPVA/sGO reduce fuertemente su cond. prot (5.22 mS/cm a 50 ºC) en comparación con su homóloga 30sPVA/GO (8.42 mS/cm a 50 ºC), aun mostrando valores superiores de IEC. Finalmente, el rendimiento de la composite 30PVA/sGO (1.85 mW/cm2) en una DMFC (50 ºC, disolución de metanol 4M) mostró una mejora significativa en comparación con la composite 30sPVA/GO (1.00 mW/cm2). El método de LbL assembly se empleó en la Contribución IV para la preparación de composites ensamblados mediante enlaces por puente de hidrógeno. Para ello, se llevó a cabo la deposición de bicapas de GO/PVA y GO/sPVA sobre los substratos 15PVA y 15sPVA, respectivamente. Los composites se codificaron como 15PVA(GO/PVA)n y 15sPVA(GO/sPVA)n siendo n el número de bicapas depositadas, en nuestro caso n varía entre 1 y 3. Por último, se evaluó su potencial para aplicaciones en DMFC, presentando el mejor comportamiento el composite 15sPVA(GO/sPVA)1. Finalmente, la Contribución V va dedicada a la fabricación de composites mediante el método de LbL Assembly, pero en este caso a través de interacciones electrostáticas. El GO se dispersó en una disolución de hidrocloruro de polialilamina (GO-PAH), con el fin de dotarlo de carga positiva. El ensamblaje se realizó por deposición alterna de capas de GO-PAH y sPVA, obteniéndose los composites 15PVA(GO-PAH/sPVA)n y 15sPVA(GO-PAH/sPVA)n. El mejor valor de cond. prot (8.26 mS/cm a 90 ºC) se obtuvo para el composite 15PVA(GO-PAH/sPVA)1, siendo casi el doble que el obtenido para su homólogo s
Membranes constituïdes a base PVA han despertat un gran interès a causa del seu baix cost i el seu fàcil processament per conformar-les en forma de films. Aquests films freqüentment són sotmesos a entrecreuament per disposar d'una xarxa macromolecular amb una elevada estabilitat dimensional. La modificació del PVA per introducció de grups sulfònics (sPVA) canvia l'estructura del polímer contribuint a augmentar la seua conductivitat protònica. A més, la preparació de membranes híbrides orgànic-inorgànics (composites) mitjançant addició d'òxid de grafè (GO) reforça la matriu, alhora que disminueix la seua permeabilitat enfront de dissolvents. Tot això ha motivat l'ús d'aquestos materials per a la preparació de membranes d'intercanvi protònic (PEMs) emprades en piles de combustible de metanol (DMFCs). En la Contribució I es presenten els esquemes químics conduents a la bi-sulfonació del PVA, la síntesi del GO i la preparació de les membranes composite PVA/GO i sPVA/GO. A més, es va realitzar la caracterització estructural, morfològica, tèrmica i mecànica de cada un dels materials de partida i de les membranes composite. Finalment, per tal d'avaluar la seua idoneïtat com a PEMs en piles de combustible, es va mesurar la seua cond. prot a temperatura ambient. Els resultats obtinguts van mostrar que l¿addició de GO (1 wt.%) com a nano-càrrega en la matriu de sPVA genera un composite, 30sPVA/GO, amb una cond. prot que supera en un 89% a la de la seua membrana homòloga sense càrrega, 30sPVA. La Contribució II tracta d'explorar les propietats conductores de les membranes composite preparades prèviament en funció de la modificació estructural (bi-sulfonació) i morfològica (reticulació i addició de GO). La membrana bi-sulfonada i reforçada amb GO, 30sPVA/GO, destaca sobre la resta. L'addició de GO millora considerablement tant la cond. prot (20.96 mS/cm a 90 ºC) com la densitat de potència màxima (Pmax) a la pila de combustible d'hidrogen (13.9 mW/cm2 a temperatura ambient). En la Contribució III es va estudiar l'efecte d'una nova variable, la sulfonació del GO (sGO), sobre les propietats funcionals dels composites PVA/sGO i sPVA/sGO per aplicacions en DMFC. A més, es va dur a terme un estudi comparatiu amb els composites PVA/GO i sPVA/GO prèviament descrits. Els resultats van concloure que en contra del que s'esperava, la múltiple sulfonació de la membrana 30sPVA/sGO redueix fortament la seua cond. prot (5.22 mS/cm a 50 ºC) en comparació amb la seua homòloga 30sPVA/GO (8.42 mS/cm a 50 ºC), tot i que mostra valors superiors de IEC. Finalment, el rendiment de la membrana 30PVA/sGO (1.85 mW/cm2) en una DMFC (50 ºC, dissolució de metanol 4M) va mostrar una millora significativa en comparació amb la membrana 30sPVA/GO (1.00 mW/cm2). El mètode de LBL assembly es va emprar en la Contribució IV per a la preparació de composites acoblats mitjançant enllaços per pont d'hidrogen. Amb aquest fi, es va dur a terme la deposició de bicapes de GO/PVA i GO/sPVA sobre els substrats 15PVA i 15sPVA, respectivament. Els composites es van codificar com a 15PVA(GO/PVA)n i 15sPVA(GO/sPVA)n on n és el nombre de bicapes dipositades, en el nostre cas n varia entre 1 i 3. Finalment, es va avaluar el seu potencial per a aplicacions en DMFC, presentant el millor comportament el composite 15sPVA(GO/sPVA)1. Finalment, la Contribució V va dedicada a la fabricació de composites mitjançant el mètode de LBL Assembly, però en aquest cas acoblats a través d'interaccions electrostàtiques. El GO es va dispersar en una dissolució de hidroclorur de polialilamina (GO-PAH), per tal de dotar-lo de càrrega positiva. L'acoblament es va realitzar per deposició alterna de capes de GO-PAH i sPVA, obtenint-se els composites 15PVA(GO-PAH/sPVA)n i 15sPVA(GO-PAH/sPVA)n. El millor valor de cond. prot (8.26 mS/cm a 90 ºC) es va obtenir per al composite 15PVA(GO-PAH/sPVA)1, sent gairebé el doble que l'obtingut
Sánchez Ballester, SC. (2017). Synthesis and characterization of new polymer electrolytes to use in fuel cells fed with bio-alcohols [Tesis doctoral no publicada]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/86198
TESIS

One of the great challenges facing society is to convert theglobal energy system to a sustainable process. Currently, 80%of the world´s energy is supplied through the combustionof fossil fuels. Not only are the fossil resources limited, theutilisation also increases the level of greenhouse gases in theatmosphere. The convertion to a sustainable energy system isproblematic since the technology needed to exploit mostnon-fossil energy sources is not yet fully developed, e.g.solar energy. Biofuel is an available renewable energy sourcewhich is already widely used in many countries. If an effectiveswitch-over from fossil fuels to biofuels is to be realised,biofuels must be viewed as a limited resource. Consequently, itis important that the handling, upgrading and utilisationprocesses involving biofuels are efficient so that itspotential can be fully exploited.

This thesis considers efficient biofuel utilisation andupgrading within the sawmill industry. The goal has been toanalyse not only the technical opportunities for energy savingsin the sawmill industry, but also to analyse the costeffectiveness and environmental impact of studied measures. Theheat demand of the sawmill industry is almost completelycovered by its own by-products; primarily bark, sawdust andwood chips. The increased demand and improved economic value ofwoody biofuels on the market is thus an incentive for thesawmill industry to place more focus on energy issues. Thesawmill industry also has a more or less constant heat loadover the year, which is a beneficial factor for integrationwith district heating networks, biofuel upgrading plants andcombined heat and power plants.

The conclusion of the study is that a variety of energyproducts such as heat, unrefined biofuel, pellets andelectricity can be efficiently produced in the sawmill industryand sold for profit to external customers. The payback periodsfor the proposed investments are moderate and both theemissions of volatile organic compounds and global CO2 aredecreased. Should the proposed measures be fully implemented atSwedish sawmills, about 2.8 TWh of biofuel could be savedannually, 0.5 TWh of waste heat could be sold as districtheating and 0.8 TWh of green electricity could be produced.Language: English

Keywords:Sawmill industry, energy efficiency, heatrecovery, integration, biofuel, upgrading, district heating,fuel pellets, CHP, VOC, CO2

Dans un monde où la fin du pétrole est prévisible, l’utilisation de ressources renouvelables, issues de la biomasse, pour la production de bio-carburants et de matières premières pour l’industrie chimique est un domaine de recherche intense. La transformation de dérivés d’acides gras a pu être réalisée par des réactions de métathèse croisée, catalysées au ruthénium. La synthèse de nitriles dits «courts» comme additifs pour le kérosène ainsi que de monomères pour l’industrie des polymères a été développée. La purification des ressources renouvelables a été étudiée. Un traitement thermique, simple à mettre en œuvre, a montré son efficacité pour la réalisation de réactions de métathèse toujours plus efficientes. Enfin, pour des réactions de catalyse toujours plus efficaces, la synthèse de nouveaux complexes de ruthénium à ligand indénylidène chélatant de seconde génération a été entreprise
In the context of depletion of crude oil, the production of bio-fuels and raw materials from renewable resources for the chemical industry is a topic of tremendous research. The transformation of fatty acid derivatives was developed by using olefin metathesis, using ruthenium catalysts. Short nitriles as kerosene additives and monomers for the polymer industry were synthesized. Purification of the renewable feedstock was studied. A simple thermal treatment was found to promote an increased efficiency for cross-metathesis reactions with fatty acid derivatives. Finally, the synthesis of new second generation ruthenium complexes with a chelating indenylidene ligand was investigated for the development of active and robust catalysts for olefin metathesis reactions

The marketing research was made because firm Leitiger wanted to entry to the czech market. They need a complete research of wood pellets. There is made a political situation, analysis of the houses, analysis of the gas, analysis of the coal. Then there is a comperation of the fuels. The main part of this research is analysis of the competitors.

Une Pile à Combustible Microbienne (PCM) convertit l’énergie chimique issue de l’oxydation de la matière organique directement en énergie électrique. L’oxydation du combustible est assurée par un biofilm dit « électroactif » se développant à la surface de l’anode et jouant le rôle de catalyseur microbien. L’anode microbienne formée à partir d’un consortium bactérien, issu dans cette étude de terreau de jardin, est associée à une cathode à air abiotique à la surface de laquelle se produit la réduction de l’oxygène. L’assemblage d’une anode microbienne et d’une cathode à air abiotique pour construire une PCM est un réel challenge tant les conditions optimales de chacune sont différentes. Ces travaux de thèse ont donc pour objectif d'anticiper le fonctionnement global de la PCM pour concevoir une anode microbienne et une cathode abiotique capables de fonctionner ensemble de façon optimale. Une partie expérimentale conséquente vise à concevoir une PCM optimale en menant des essais sur différents designs de réacteur. Un modèle numérique, basé sur l’expérimentation et calculant les distributions secondaires de courant et de potentiel au sein de la PCM, vient compléter l’étude expérimentale afin d’optimiser l’architecture de la PCM et maximiser les performances délivrées. La configuration « Assemblage Séparateur-Electrodes » consiste à intercaler le séparateur entre la bioanode et la cathode à air dans le but de diminuer la résistance interne du système. Ce design a permis de concevoir des PCMs délivrant d’excellentes performances jusqu’à 6.42 W.m-2. In fine, le prototype « Bioelec », utilisé comme modèle de démonstration, est réalisé à l’échelle du laboratoire avec un assemblage en série et en parallèle de plusieurs PCMs élaborées avec cette configuration « ASE ».

This thesis examined the conversions of biomass and biomass components to petrochemicals and total aliphatic gasoline like products. There are three major projects of the thesis. Since biomass is very complicated, to understand the thermal decomposition pathways of biomass, the pyrolytic behaviors of various biomass components including lignin and cellulose under different reaction were investigated in the first phase. Due to complexity and limited volatility, the thermal decomposition products from biomass bring insurmountable obstacles to the traditional analysis methods such as GC-MS, UV and FT-IR. Therefore, precise characterization of the whole portion of thermal decomposition products has significant impacts on providing insight into the pyrolysis pathways and evaluating the upgrading processes. Various NMR methods to characterize different functional groups presented in liquid and solid pyrolysis products by 1H, 13C, 31P, 2D-HSQC and solid state 13C-NMR were introduced in the second phase. Nevertheless, the major drawback towards commercialization of pyrolysis oils are their challenging properties including poor volatility, high oxygen content, molecular weight, acidity and viscosity, corrosiveness and cold flow problems. In situ upgrading the properties of pyrolysis oils during thermal conversion process by employing zeolites has been discussed in the third phase. The further hydrogenation of pyrolysis oils to total aliphatic gasoline like products by heterogeneous catalysis in “green medium” – water has also been examined in the third project.

Idag pågår en omfattande omställning till förnyelsebara energikällor för att minska negativa effekter orsakade av växthusgaser. Sverige har som mål att vara fossilfritt 2045. Biojetbränsle, jetbränsle framställt från biomassa, är det enda rimliga förnyelsebara alternativet för flyget meddagens teknik. Sverige har goda tillgångar till potentiellt råmaterial för framställning av biojetbränsle från skogsbruket. Fem certifierade framställningsmetoder kartlades och analyserades genom litteraturstudier och intervjuer med experter inom såväl flyg som bränsle för att fastställa deras lämplighet för svensk biojetbränsleproduktion. Förutsättningar, möjligheter, utmaningar och drivkrafter kopplade till framställning av biojetbränsle identifierades. Framställningsmetoderna analyserades med hjälp aven Pugh-matris där framställningsmetoderna jämfördes mot varandra utifrån faktorer som bedömdes relevanta. Analysen indikerade att framställningsmetoderna Alcohol to Jet och Fischer-Tropsch var bäst lämpade för svenska förhållanden, mycket tack vare möjligheten att användaskogsråvara som råmaterial. Certifieringsprocesser och certifierade bränslen identifierades. Nya biojetbränslen måste genomgå en rigorös certifieringsprocess och uppfylla hårda krav för att kunna certifieras enligt standarden ASTM D7566. Certifieringsprocessen för biojetbränslen visade sig vara en internationellt gemensam process, som en koalition av motortillverkare, flygbolag, myndigheter med flera, beslutat skall vara standard för framtagandet av framtida biojetbränslen. Återstående arbete för att kvalificera försvarsmaktens flygplattformar för drift med biojetbränsle därav utreddes. Det konstaterades att tillverkarna av flygfarkoster och motorer avgör huruvida de är godkända för drift med biojetbränsle. Till följd av högre kostnader för framställning av jetbränsle från biomassa än från råolja är tydliga policys och långsiktiga styrmedel en grundläggande förutsättning för att framställning av biojetbränsle ska lyckas. Tillgång till tillräckliga mängder hållbart råmaterial samt effektiva försörjningskedjor är exempel på utmaningar. Möjligheterna för biojetbränsle visade sig exempelvis vara tillvaratagandet av skadad skog.
There is an ongoing, extensive move towards renewable energy sources in order to reduce negative effects caused by greenhouse gases. Sweden aims to be completely fossil free by 2045. Bio jet fuel, jet fuel produced from biomass, is the only plausible renewable alternative for aviation with today's technology. Sweden has a good supply of potential feedstock for production of bio jet fuel from its forest industry. Five certified production routes were charted and analysed through literature studies and interviews with experts from the aviation and fuel field. Prerequisites, opportunities, challenges and drivers associated with bio jet fuel production were identified. The production routes were analysed with the help of a Pugh-matrix, they were compared to each other by factors that were deemed relevant. The analysis indicated that the routes Alcohol to Jet and Fischer Tropsch were most suitable for Swedish conditions, in large part due to the possibility of using forest products as feedstock. Certification processes and certified bio jet fuel were identified. New bio jet fuels have go through arigouros certification process and meet high set standards in order to be certified by the standard ASTM D7566. The certification process for bio jet fuels turned out to be an internationally agreed upon process that a coalition of OEM (Original Equipment Manufactures), airlines, authorities etc. agreed upon to be the standard for certification of future bio jet fuel. Which steps are required to approve aircraft in Sweden's armed forces for use with bio jet fuel were investigated. It was found that it is up to the OEM to decide if an aircraft is approved to run on bio jet fuel. Due to higher costs associated with production of jet fuel from biomass than from crude oil, clear policies and long term legislation are fundamental for success. Access too sufficient sustainable feedstock and effective supply chains are example of challenges that need to be addressed. The possibility of using damaged forest that would otherwise go to waste is one opportunity with bio jet fuel production.

Mitigation of climate change and energy security are major driving forces for increased biomass utilization. The pulp and paper industry consumes a large proportion of the biomass worldwide including bark, wood residues, and black liquor. Due to the fact that modern mills have established infrastructure for handling and processing biomass, it is possible to lay foundation for future gasification based bio-refineries to poly-produce electricity, chemicals or bio-fuels together with pulp and paper products. There is a potential to export electricity or bio-fuels by improving energy systems of existing chemical pulp mills by integrating gasification technology. The present study investigates bio-fuel alternatives from the dry black liquor gasification (BLG) system with direct causticization and direct methane production from the catalytic hydrothermal gasification (CHG) system. The studied systems are compared with bio-fuel alternatives from the Chemrec BLG system and the improvements in the energy systems of the pulp mill are analyzed. The results are used to identify the efficient route based on system performance indicators e.g. material and energy balances to compare BLG systems and the conventional recovery boiler system, potential biofuel production together with biomass to biofuel conversion efficiency, energy ratios, potential CO2 mitigation combining on-site CO2 reduction using CO2 capture and potential CO2 offsets from biofuel use, and potential motor fuel replacement. The results showed that the dry BLG system for synthetic natural gas (SNG) production offers better integration opportunities with the chemical pulp mill in terms of overall material and energy balances. The biofuel production and conversion efficiency are higher in the CHG system than other studied configurations but at a cost of larger biomass import. The dry BLG system for SNG production achieved high biomass to biofuel efficiency and considerable biofuel production. The energy ratio is significant in the dry BLG (SNG) system with less biomass demand and considerable net steam production in the BLG island. The elimination of the lime kiln in the dry BLG systems resulted in reduced consequences of incremental biomass import and associated CO2 emissions. Hydrogen production in the dry BLG system showed the highest combined CO2 mitigation potential i.e. on-site CO2 capture potential and CO2 offset from biofuel replacing fossil fuel. The results also showed that the motor fuel replacement potential with SNG as compressed natural gas (CNG) replacing gasoline in the transport sector is significantly high in countries with large pulp industry.
QC 20120528

The nutritional value of novel yeast products were evaluated for warmwater fish species. A yeast co-product (yeast protein concentrate unrefined (YPCU)) obtained from a bio-ethanol process using wheat was tested using iso-nitrogenous (38% crude protein) and iso-lipidic (8%) diets for juvenile mirror carp (Cyprinus carpio). The fishmeal (FM) protein component of a basal diet was replaced by (YPCU) at 7.5, 15, 20, and 50% of total dietary protein. After an 8 week feeding trial, all fish fed YPCU yielded better growth performance than the control fed fish, with diets containing 15% and 20% YPCU being optimal. Whole body composition was unaffected by dietary treatment, however, ash levels were elevated in fish fed >15% YPCU. Hepatic alanine amino transferase (ALAT) and aspartate amino transferase (ASAT) were measured as bio-indicators of liver function in carp. Only ASAT activity was significantly lower for carp fed 20% and 50% YPCU. Additionally, histological assessment of liver and intestinal tissues gave no indication of impairment, but high YPCU inclusion (>15%) elevated the number of goblet cells present in the posterior intestine. Molecular microbiological analysis using DGGE revealed no definitive changes in intestinal microbial communities. In a second study, bio-ethanol yeast (refined YPCR and unrefined YPCU) and dried distillers grain with solubles (DDGS) a co-product of the bio-fuel process and distillery yeast from potable alcohol (whisky) production (YPCPA) were evaluated as before for carp. FM was replaced with 30% of YPCU, YPCR and YPCPA and 15, or 30 % DDGS with a combination of 10% YPCR. Weight gain, and Apparent Net Protein Utilization (ANPU%) were higher in fish fed YPCU 30%, equivalent for fish fed FM, YPCR 30%,DDGS 15% and DDGS 30%, and lower in fish fed YPCPA 30% diets. Feed conversion ratio was significantly increased in carp fed YPCU 30% and decreased for carp fed DDGS 30% and YPC PA 30% compared with the control group. A significant improvement of net mineral retention was seen for carp feed the yeast supplementation diets compared to the fishmeal control group. The YPCU 30% diet produced the highest mineral retention in fish fed yeasts and the YPCPA 30% gave lowest retention. The microvilli density of the intestinal tract decreased for carp fed YPCR 30%, but microvilli length significantly increased in fish fed YPCU 30% compared with other groups, thus indicating changes in gut integrity. In the third study, four diets were formulated to replace 0, 10, 20 and 30% of the fishmeal with refined yeast protein concentrate (YPCR) for Nile tilapia (O. niloticus) of mean weight 12.39g. Growth performance and feed efficiency were not affected with up to 20% replacement with YPCR. There were no obvious changes in the liver structure, but high yeast inclusion showed higher numbers of intestinal goblet cells with increasing YPCR dietary inclusion suggesting enhanced intestinal integrity. Microvilli density and length was significantly (P = 0.025) improved with up to 10% and 30% YPCR inclusion in comparison to other dietary treatments. It was generally concluded that YPC co-products were effectively viable for both juvenile carp and tilapia offering an option for partial fish meal replacement.

Biomass is the world’s largest renewable energy source, accounting for approximately 10% of global primary energy supply, and 5% of energy consumed in the United States. Prominent national programs like the U.S. Renewable Fuel Standard incentivize increased use of biomass, primarily as a transportation fuel. There has been comparatively little government support for using biomass as a renewable feedstock for the chemical sector. Such asymmetry in incentives can lead to sub-optimal outcomes in the allocation of biomass toward different uses. Greenhouse gas reduction is among the most cited benefits of bioenergy and bio-based products, however, there is increasing controversy about whether increased use of biomass can actually contribute to greenhouse gas emission targets. If biomass is to play a role in current and future greenhouse gas mitigation efforts its use should be guided by efficient use of natural and economic resources. This thesis addresses these questions through a series of case studies, designed to highlight important tradeoffs in the use of biomass for greenhouse gas mitigation. Should biomass be used as a fuel, a chemical feedstock, or neither? The first case study in this thesis focuses on the ‘fuel vs feedstock’ question, examining the greenhouse gas implications of expanding the scope of the U.S. Renewable Fuel Standard to include credits for bioethylene, an important organic chemical readily produced from bioethanol. Results suggest that an expanded policy that includes bioethylene as an approved use for ethanol would provide added flexibility without compromising greenhouse gas targets – a clear win scenario. Having established that bioethylene based plastics can achieve similar greenhouse gas reductions to bioethanol used as fuel, this thesis expands the analysis by considering how the greenhouse gas emissions from a wider range of bio-based plastics compare to each of the main commodity thermoplastics produced in the U.S. The analysis demonstrates that there are large uncertainties involved in the life cycle greenhouse gas emissions from bio-based plastics, and that only a subset of pathways are likely to be preferable to conventional plastics. The following chapter then builds on the existing model to compare the greenhouse gas mitigation potential of bio-based plastics to the potential for reducing emissions by adopting low carbon energy for plastics production. That chapter concludes that switching to renewable energy across the supply chain for conventional plastics energy cuts greenhouse gas emissions by 50-75%, achieving a greater reduction, with less uncertainty and lower cost, than switching to corn-based biopolymers – the most likely near-term biopolymer option. In the long run, producing bio-based plastics from advanced feedstocks (e.g. switchgrass) and/or with renewable energy likely offers greater emission reductions. Finally, this thesis returns to the dominant form of policy surrounding biomass use: biofuel mandates. That study takes a consequential approach to the ‘fuel or neither’ question. Specifically, this work examines how petroleum refineries are likely to adjust their production in response to biofuel policies, and what this implies for the success of these policies. The research demonstrates that biofuel policies induce a shift toward greater diesel production at the expense of both gasoline and non-combustion petroleum products. This has the potential to result in an increase in greenhouse gas emissions, even before accounting for the emissions from producing the biofuels themselves.

Solving climate change needs new renewable technologies that can be deployed at scale economically and sustainably. These technologies must also help stabilise the grid and follow demand rather than simply generate when nature provides. Anaerobic digestion could be part of the solution. It produces gas that can be stored and fed to engines as needed to generate electricity. However currently it is too expensive, the feedstock resource is limited, and much of the feedstock comes from energy crops that displace food. This is clearly not sustainable long term. To fulfil its potential, anaerobic digestion needs a new resource base to add to the present ones, and it needs to be much lower cost. Part 1 of this thesis examines the costs and resource base. It concludes that the resource base could be very substantially increased by growing hyper-water-efficient plants that use the crassulacean acid metabolism on degraded and semi-arid land globally. Between 5% and 15% of this land could provide as much electrical power as natural gas. The resource could be further increased by hybridisation with solar PV. Food production need not reduce, and may even increase. To become economic, however, needs a major reduction in capital costs. This can be achieved by increasing fourfold the volumetric power density of an anaerobic digester, principally by speeding up the rate of reaction. Part 2 of the thesis compares and contrasts digestion in ruminants with conventional anaerobic digestion technology. It concludes that ruminants perform the rate limiting step 20-30 times faster than a commercial anaerobic digester, partly as a result of adopting different mechanical and chemical strategies. The thesis identifies and explores these differences, and proposes future work to understand and quantify them, to facilitate development of a new generation of low cost Advanced Anaerobic Digestion that meets the challenging cost reduction targets set in Part 1.

Lignin is an important component of biomass accounting for up to 30% by weight but up to 40% of the total energy content of the plant. As the push towards alternative fuels develops, more and more amounts of lignin will be gathered and used predominately as low grade boiler fuel to run primary processes. We argue there is usefulness in the conversion of lignin into value added specialty chemicals and fuels. In this work, a new approach for hydrodeoxygenation of lignin model compounds using platinum as the catalyst and organic solvent as the reaction medium was conducted, and the results were compared with those obtained using water as the reaction medium. It is shown that the organic solvent, with its increased hydrogen solubility, is able to hydrogenate the model compound with the same effect at lower temperature, hydrogen pressure, and time.

The theme of the Kornelijus Cebyla Master degree final project is „Research of the diesel engine performance parameters when operating on rape oil and petrol blends“. The research work consists of 71 pages, 6 tables, 46 pictures and 14 appendixes. There were used 24 references. The research was started in year 2003 and finisched in 2005 at Lithuanian University of Agriculture. The purpose of this project – to quality a develop of usage rape oil and petrol blends as a fuel in diesel engines, and the a connected with the problem is direct – injection diesel engine D – 243, to make conclusions and suggestions. Analysis of the to reduce viscosity rape oil and petrol blends shows that negligible quantity of petrol is use ful researchimprone atomisation of rape oil. 36 0C temperature B2,5 blends on the decrease viscosity 5,76 %, B10 blends the viscosity is 26,84 %, ≈ 36,10 % to reduction than rape oil. When engine is operating on B2,5 blends its power increases on 1,31 – 10,41 %. Mass metric fuel consumption, is functioning B2,5 blends, reduces 1,5 – 3,8 %, and on other the blendss its increases on 1 – 17 %. When engine operates on rape oil and petrol blendss CH emission increases on 10 – 25 ppm depending on to load. Load the increscent CO emission increases. The addition of petrol in to rape oil nitirc oxides NO and nitric dioxides NO2 concentration increases. When engine is operating B2,5 blends increases of smoke 5,97 – 27,31 %, and on other the blends reduction of smoke 3,9... [to full text]

The theme of the Mr. Paulius Garliauskas’s Master degree final project is “The Analysis of Engine Performance Parameters when Operating on Pure Rapeseed Oil and its Blends with Diesel”. The research work consists of 50 pages, 6 tables, 16 pictures and 3 appendixes. There were used 25 references. The research was started in 2003 and finished in 2005 year at Lithuanian University of Agriculture. The purpose of this project – to evaluate the influence of rapeseed oil and diesel fuel blends in comparison with diesel fuel on direct-injection diesel engine D-243, parameters like max power, fuel consumption and ecological parameters in order, to make conclusions and suggestions. Analysis of the research results show that using rapeseed oil and diesel blends max power reduce 1,9 -12,2 %, effective fuel consumption increase 3,3 – 12,1 % because of less calorific capacity of bio-fuels The hydrocarbon emission increase 200 ppm, when engine working at 25 % rapeseed oil and diesel blend, but it increase 100 – 150 ppm (when n = 2200 min-1) and engine working at 50 % and 75 % rapeseed oil blend, carbon monoxide reduce 200 – 300 ppm, smoke emissions – 2 – 12 % and emissions of NOx increase 400 ppm when engine working at 75 % rapeseed oil blend and reduce 100 ppm when engine working at 25 % rapeseed oil blend and it running at the rated speed of 2200 min-1. For more explicit and plausible conclusions long term running tests should be needed.

IPCC reported in its climate change report 2013 that the atmospheric concentrations of the greenhouse gases (GHG) carbon dioxide (CO2), methane, and nitrous oxide now have reached the highest levels in the past 800,000 years. CO2 concentration has increased by 40% since pre-industrial times and the primary source is fossil fuel combustion. It is vital to reduce anthropogenic emissions of GHGs in order to combat climate change. Industry accounts for 20% of global anthropogenic CO2 emissions and the iron and steel industry accounts for 30% of industrial emissions. The iron and steel industry is at date highly dependent on fossil fuels and electricity. Energy efficiency measures and substitution of fossil fuels with renewable energy would make an important contribution to the efforts to reduce emissions of GHGs. This thesis studies energy efficiency measures and fuel substitution in the iron and steel industry and focuses on recovery and utilisation of excess energy and substitution of fossil fuels with biomass. Energy systems analysis has been used to investigate how changes in the iron and steel industry’s energy system would affect the steel plant’s economy and global CO2 emissions. The thesis also studies energy management practices in the Swedish iron and steel industry with the focus on how energy managers think about why energy efficiency measures are implemented or why they are not implemented. In-depth interviews with energy managers at eleven Swedish steel plants were conducted to analyse energy management practices. In order to show some of the large untapped heat flows in industry, excess heat recovery potential in the industrial sector in Gävleborg County in Sweden was analysed. Under the assumptions made in this thesis, the recovery output would be more than three times higher if the excess heat is used in a district heating system than if electricity is generated. An economic evaluation was performed for three electricity generation technologies for the conversion of low-temperature industrial excess heat. The results show that electricity generation with organic Rankine cycles and phase change material engines could be profitable, but that thermoelectric generation of electricity from low-temperature industrial excess heat would not be profitable at the present stage of technology development. With regard to fossil fuels substituted with biomass, there are opportunities to substitute fossil coal with charcoal in the blast furnace and to substitute liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) with bio-syngas or bio synthetic natural gas (bio-SNG) as fuel in the steel industry’s reheating furnaces. However, in the energy market scenarios studied, substituting LPG with bio-SNG as fuel in reheating furnaces at the studied scrap-based steel plant would not be profitable without economic policy support. The development of the energy market is shown to play a vital role for the outcome of how different measures would affect global CO2 emissions. Results from the interviews show that Swedish steel companies regard improved energy efficiency as important. However, the majority of the interviewed energy managers only worked part-time with energy issues and they experienced that lack of time often was a barrier for successful energy management. More efforts could also be put into engaging and educating employees in order to introduce a common practice of improving energy efficiency at the company.
Halterna av växthusgaserna koldioxid (CO2), metan och kväveoxider har under de senaste 800 000 åren aldrig varit högre i atmosfären än vad de är idag. Detta resultat redovisades i IPCCs klimatrapport år 2013. CO2-koncentrationen har ökat med 40 % sedan förindustriell tid och denna ökning beror till största delen på förbränning av fossila bränslen. Ökade koncentrationer av växthusgaser leder till högre global medeltemperatur vilket i sin tur resulterar i klimatförändringar.  För att bromsa klimatförändringarna är det viktigt att vi arbetar för att minska utsläppen av växthusgaser. Industrin står för 20 % av de globala utsläppen av CO2 och järn- och stålindustrin står för 30 % av industrins utsläpp. Järn- och stålindustrin är i dag till stor del beroende av fossila bränslen och el för sin energiförsörjning. Energieffektiviseringsåtgärder och byte av fossila bränslen mot förnybar energi i järn- och stålindustrin skulle kunna bidra till minskade utsläpp av växthusgaser. Denna avhandling studerar åtgärder för effektivare energianvändning och möjligheter för bränslebyte i järn- och stålindustrin. Avhandlingen fokuserar på återvinning och utnyttjande av överskottsenergier och ersättning av fossila bränslen med biomassa. Energisystemanalys har använts för att undersöka hur förändringar i järn- och stålindustrins energisystem skulle påverka ekonomin och de globala utsläppen av CO2. Avhandlingen studerar också betydelsen av energiledning och nätverkande för att uppnå en effektivare energianvändning. Fokus har här varit på att studera hur energiansvariga resonerar kring varför energieffektiviseringsåtgärder genomförs eller varför de inte genomförs. Djupintervjuer med energiansvariga vid elva svenska stålverk genomfördes för att analysera denna fråga. För att ge ett exempel på den stora outnyttjade potentialen av överskottsvärme från industrin analyserades potentialen i Gävleborgs län. Möjligheterna att använda överskottsvärmen som fjärrvärme eller för att producera el analyserades. Här visar resultaten att fjärrvärmeproduktionen skulle bli mer än tre gånger så stor som elproduktionen. En ekonomisk utvärdering gjordes där tre tekniker för produktion av el från lågtempererad industriell överskottsvärme jämfördes. Resultaten visar att elproduktion med organisk Rankine-cykel eller en så kallad fasändringsmaterialmotor kan vara lönsam, men att termoelektrisk elproduktion inte är lönsam med dagens teknik och prisnivåer. Det är möjligt att ersätta en del av det fossila kolet i masugnen med träkol och på detta sätt introducera förnybar energi i stålindustrin. Man kan också ersätta gasol som används som bränsle i stålindustrins värmningsugnar med syntesgas eller syntetisk naturgas (SNG) som produceras genom förgasning av biomassa. Under de antaganden som gjorts i avhandlingen skulle det dock inte vara lönsamt för det skrotbaserade stålverk som studerats att ersätta gasolen med bio-SNG. För att uppnå lönsamhet behövs i detta fall ekonomiska styrmedel. Hur olika åtgärder påverkar de globala utsläppen av CO2 beror till stor del på hur framtidens energimarknad ser ut. Elproduktion från industriell överskottsvärme skulle minska de globala CO2-utsläppen i alla scenarier som studerats, men för de andra åtgärderna varierar resultaten beroende på vilka antaganden som gjorts. Resultaten från intervjustudien visar att svensk stålindustri anser att energifrågan är viktig, men det finns fortfarande mycket att göra för att effektivisera energianvändningen i denna sektor. Flera av de intervjuade arbetade bara deltid med energifrågor och de upplevde att tidsbrist hindrade dem från ett effektivt energiledningsarbete. En rekommendation till företagen är därför att anställa en energiansvarig på heltid och/eller fler personer som kan arbeta med energifrågor. Det bör också läggas mer resurser på att engagera och utbilda anställda för att på så sätt introducera en företagskultur som främjar effektiv energianvändning.

Over the last century, almost all of the carbon materials developed for the energy industry are derived from fossil fuels. The growing global concerns about energy needs, fossil fuels consumption, and the related environmental issues have motived scientists to find new, green and sustainable energy resources such as the wind, solar and biomass energy. Essentially, biomass-derived materials can be utilized in energy storage and conversion devices such as Li-ion batteries, fuel cells, and supercapacitors. Among the biomass resources, lignin is a high volume byproduct from the pulp and paper industry and is currently burned to generate electricity and steam. The pulp and paper industry has been searching for high value-added uses of lignin to improve its overall process economics. The importance of manufacturing valuable materials from lignin is, discussed in Chapter 2, demonstrating the need for a facile, green and scalable approach to synthesize bio-char and porous carbon for use in Li-ion batteries. From this context, lignin is first carbonized in water at 300 °C and 103 bar to produce bio-char, which is then graphitized using a metal nitrate catalyst at 900-1100 °C in an inert gas at 1 bar. Graphitization effectiveness of three different catalysts, iron, cobalt and manganese nitrates was examined. The obtained materials were analyzed for morphology, thermal stability, surface properties, and electrical conductivity. Both annealing temperature and the catalyst affects the degree of graphitization. High-quality graphitization is obtained by using Mn(NO3)2 at 900 °C or Co(NO3)2 catalysts at 1100 °C. Research on various energy storage materials for supercapacitors has grown rapidly in the recent years. Various advanced materials have been shown as a promising candidate for future’s high-energy supercapacitor electrodes. For a material in a supercapacitor electrode to be considered, it must show promising results for its specific power and energy density, electrical conductivity, surface properties, durability, surface area and pore-size distribution in order to design and develop high-performance supercapacitor devices. The industrial applications of supercapacitors have not been satisfied due to the low energy density (the commercially available supercapacitors have between 5 to 10 times less energy density than that of batteries) and moderate charge-discharge rate of supercapacitor electrode. Thus, chapter 3 was aimed to design and synthesize nitrogen-doped carbon materials that show the characteristic of high-energy and high-power density supercapacitor electrodes with a long cycle life. With this aim, organosol lignin was successfully converted into N-doped carbon materials using a two-step conversion process. The nitrogen content in the carbon was up to 5.6 wt.%. The synthesize materials exhibit high surface area up to 2957 m2/g with micro/meso porosity and a sheet-like structure. The N-doped carbon produced at 850 oC exhibited a high capacitance value of 440 F g-1 at a 1 mV s-1 scan rate and demonstrated excellent cyclic stability over 30,000 cycles in 1 M KOH. In addition, the NC-850 delivers a high energy density of 15.3 W h kg-1 and power density of 55.1 W kg−1 at 1 mV s-1. Therefore, this study suggests that N-doped carbon materials synthesized from a pulp and paper byproduct, lignin, are promising environmentally-sustainable candidates for supercapacitor applications. Challenges for commercialization of fuel cells include high operation cost, inadequate operational stability, and poisoning by H2O2. To address the challenge, costly Pt-based catalysts are needed in order to facilitate the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) at the cathode and the hydrogen oxidation reaction (HOR) at the anode. In chapter 4, alternative metal-free ORR catalyst materials derived from lignin are studied in order to simultaneously enhance the catalytic activity, lessen the Pt dependency and reduce the excessive costs associated. Calcium sulfonate lignin was successfully converted into sulfur self-doped carbons via in-situ hydrothermal carbonization and followed by post-annealing treatment. The sulfur content in the as-prepared porous carbons is up to 3.2 wt.%. The resulting materials displayed high surface areas (up to 660 m2 g-1) with micro/meso porosity and graphitic/amorphous carbon structure. The as-prepared sulfur self-doped electrode materials (SC-850) were tested as a potential cathodic material for ORR. The number of electrons transferred per molecule was measured to be ~ 3.4 at 0.8 V, which approaches the optimum 4 electron pathway. Additionally, S-doped materials were also applied as a supercapacitor electrode material. The SC-850 electrode exhibited a high specific and volumetric capacitance values of 225 F g-1 and 300 F cm-3 at a scan rate of 0.5 A g-1. The SC-850 electrode also exhibited consistent response over 10,000 cycles at harsh conditions. It was shown that the metal-free SC-850 is a promising electrode material for supercapacitors and ORR applications. All of the studies presented in this dissertation involve the development and application of carbon-based materials derived from lignin and its application towards the Li-ion batteries, supercapacitor, and fuel cell. Insight into the applicability of lignin-derived carbon materials towards electrochemical applications is made readily available, supplemented by detailed physical, chemical and electrochemical characterization, to examine the specific factors influencing the Li-ion batteries, supercapacitor, and electrocatalysis of fuel cell activity.

The thesis describes a completely new biofuel system to generate particle-free heat from combustion of ash-containing biofuel particles at high temperatures.

The suggested system gives opportunities to introduce biofuels in new areas.

Main components in the suggested system is a heat radiating combustion chamber intended for pulverized wood, combined with regenerators to extract heat from flue gases and simultaneously preheating the combustion air.

The thesis contains a description of the suggested system, theoretical considerations, calculations regarding the combustion, and includes results from tests performed.

The results from calculations and tests performed concludes that the system is workable and possible to apply.

Uppsatsen beskriver ett helt nytt system för att åstadkomma partikelfri värme och höga temperaturer från biobränslen.

Det föreslagna systemet ger goda möjligheter att använda biobränslen inom helt nya områden.

Systemet består huvudsakligen av en brännkammare för träpulver, utförd som en hålrumsstrålare, samt regenerativa värmeväxlare mellan avgående rökgas och inkommande förbränningsluft.

Uppsatsen innehåller en beskrivning av det föreslagna systemet, teoretiska överväganden, beräkningar rörande förbränningen, samt redovisar resultat från gjorda försök.

Resultat från beräkningar och genomförda försök visar att det föreslagna systemet fungerar och är praktiskt möjligt att tillämpa.

Production of high-quality syngas from biomass gasification in a dual fluidised bed gasifier (DFBG) has made a significant progress in R&D and Technology demonstration. An S&M scale bio-automotive fuel plant close to the feedstock resources is preferable as biomass feedstock is widely sparse and has relatively low density, low heating value and high moisture content. This requires simple, reliable and cost-effective production of clean and good syngas. Indirect DFBGs, with steam as the gasification agent, produce a syngas of high content H2 and CO with 12-20 MJ/mn3 heating value. The Mid Sweden University (MIUN) gasifier, built for research on synthetic fuel production, is a dual fluidised bed gasifier. Reforming of tars and CH4 (except for methanation application) in the syngas is a major challenge for commercialization of biomass fluidised-bed gasification technology towards automotive fuel production. A good syngas from DFBGs can be obtained by optimised design and operation of the gasifier, by the use of active catalytic bed material and internal reforming. This thesis presents a series of experimental tests with different operation parameters, reforming of tar and CH4 with catalytic bed material and reforming of tar and CH4 with catalytic internal reformer.   The first test was carried out to evaluate the optimal operation and performance of the MIUN gasifier. The test provides basic information for temperature control in the combustor and the gasifier by the bed material circulation rate.    After proven operation and performance of the MIUN gasifier, an experimental study on in-bed material catalytic reforming of tar/CH4 is performed to evaluate the catalytic effects of the olivine and Fe-impregnated olivine (10%wtFe/olivine Catalyst) bed materials, with reference to non-catalytic silica sand operated in the mode of dual fluidised beds (DFB). A comparative experimental test is then carried out with the same operation condition and bed-materials but when the gasifier was operated in the mode of single bubbling fluidised bed (BFB). The behaviour of catalytic and non-catalytic bed materials differs when they are used in the DFB and the BFB. Fe/olivine and olivine in the BFB mode give lower tar and CH4 content together with higher H2+CO concentration, and higher H2/CO ratio, compared to DFB mode. It is hard to show a clear advantage of Fe/olivine over olivine regarding tar/CH4 catalytic reforming.    In order to significantly reduce the tar/CH4 contents, an internal reformer, referred to as the FreeRef reformer, is developed for in-situ catalytic reforming of tar and CH4 using Ni-catalyst in an environment of good gas-solids contact at high temperature.  A study on the internal reformer filled with and without Ni-catalytic pellets was carried out by evaluation of the syngas composition and tar/CH4 content. It can be concluded that the reformer with Ni-catalytic pellets clearly gives a higher H2 content together with lower CH4 and tar contents in the syngas than the reformer without Ni-catalytic pellets. The gravimetric tar content decreases from 25 g/m3 down to 5 g/m3 and the CH4 content from 11% down below 6% in the syngas.   The MIUN gasifier has a unique design suitable for in-bed tar/CH4 catalytic reforming and continuously internal regeneration of the reactive bed material. The novel design in the MIUN gasifier increases the gasification efficiency, suppresses the tar generation and upgrades the syngas composition.
Gasification-based Biorefinery for Mechanical Pulp Mills

MScAgric
Thesis (MSc (Genetics))--University of Stellenbosch, 2009.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: In the Western Cape small grain cereals, triticale (×Triticosecale Wittmack ex A. Camus) in particular, appear to be among the most promising starch-carrying raw materials for the production of bio-ethanol. A core group of cultivars and lines from the Stellenbosch University Plant Breeding Laboratory spring triticale breeding programme were subjected to initial testing for the purpose of ethanol production. They underwent multi-location field-testing across six (season 2006–2007) and nine (season 2007–2008) locations representing the Western Cape cereal production area. Climatic conditions during the study were characterised as generally favourable, especially in the 2007 season. During the season, trials were visited in order to make in situ observations. Disease susceptibility was given specific attention. After harvesting, grain yield (kg.ha-1), test weight (kg.HL-1), total starch content in whole grain (%), amylose/amylopectin ratio, protein content (%), ethanol output (L.tonne-1) and ethanol yield (L.ha-1) were analysed. Near infra-red reflectance spectroscopy calibration models were developed for moisture and starch contents. The best calibration based on whole grain spectra for moisture content had RPD = 1.691, R2 = 0.657 and SEP = 0.271%, and for starch content RPD = 1.646, R2 = 0.634 and SEP = 1.356%. Calibrations developed from milled grain showed better results for moisture content RPD = 2.526, R2 = 0.843, SEP = 0.182%, and for starch content RPD = 1.741, R2 = 0.673, SEP = 1.277%. These calibrations are suitable for rough screening of samples. In the 2006 season, starch yield was highly positively correlated with grain yield (R2 = 0.988, P <0.001). Both starch yield and grain yield were positively correlated with days to heading (R2 = 0.533 and R2 = 0.556, respectively; P <0.001). The 2007 season was characterised by a generally higher starch yield (2952– 3142kg.ha-1, 95%CI) compared to the 2006 season (2077–2315kg.ha-1, 95%CI). Starch yield was strongly positively correlated with grain yield (R2 = 0.975, P <0.001). Test weight demonstrated weak positive correlation with ethanol yield (R2 = 0.238, P <0.01) and grain yield (R2 = 0.279, P <0.001). Mean ethanol output ranged between 466–477L.tonne-1 at the 95%CI. Ethanol output was demonstrated to be more dependent on starch and other polysaccharides accessibility to enzymatic digestion than on the total starch content as such. The best lines for ethanol output in the 2007 season were G2, D3 and H2 for the Swartland region, and D3, G2 and D1 for the Overberg region. The best triticale lines under investigation showed their potential from a biological point of view to be a suitable crop for ethanol production in the Western Cape, with the achieved ethanol yield ranging between 2446–2625L.ha-1 at the 95%CI. For the Swartland region the best genotypes for ethanol yield were D1, H1 and D2, and for the Overberg H1 and G2. The 23 best lines were selected from the elite and senior blocks, and then used for the establishment of a recurrent massselection pre-breeding block.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: In die Wes-Kaap is kleingrane, meer spesifiek korog (×Triticosecale Wittmack ex A. Camus), van die mees belowende styseldraende rou-materiale vir die produksie van bio-etanol. ‘n Kern versameling van kultivars en telerslyne van die Universiteit van Stellenbosch se Planteteeltlaboratorium se lente korogteeltprogram is blootgestel aan aanvanklike toetsing met die doel om etanol produksie te meet. Die materiaal het veldtoetsing ondergaan oor verskeie lokaliteite gedurende die 2006–2007 (ses lokaliteite) en 2007–2008 (nege lokaliteite) seisoene wat verteenwoordigend was van die Wes-Kaapse produksie gebied. Klimaatstoestande gedurende die studie kan beskryf word as gunstig, veral gedurende die 2007 seisoen. Gedurende die groeiseisoen is proeflokaliteite gereeld besoek ten einde in situ observasies te kon maak, siektevatbaarheid het veral aandag geniet. Na die oes van proewe was graanopbrengs (kg.ha-1), hektolitermassa (kg.HL-1), totale-styselinhoud in heelgraan (%), amilose/amilopektien-verhouding, proteïeninhoud (%), etanolopbrengs (L.ton-1) en etanolopbrengs per hektaar (L.ha-1) gemeet. Naby-infrarooispektroskopie kalibrasies was ontwikkel vir vog- en styselinhoud. Die beste kalibrasies vir heelgraan voginhoud het ‘n RDP = 1.691, R2 = 0.657 en SEP = 0.271% en vir styselinhoud RPD = 1.646, R2 = 0.634 en SEP = 1.356% opgelewer. Die kalibrasies gebaseer op meel was aansienlik beter vir voginhoud RPD = 2.526, R2 = 0.843 en SEP = 0.182%, sowel as vir styselinhoud RPD = 1.741, R2 = 0.673 en SEP = 1.277%. Die kalibrasies is bruikbaar vir aanvanklike sifting van monsters. 5 Gedurende die 2006 seisoen het styselinhoud en graanopbrangs ‘n baie hoë korrelasie (R2 = 0.988, P <0.001) getoon. Beide stysel- en graanopbrengs was positief gekorreleerd met dae tot aar (R2 = 0.533 en R2 = 0.556; P <0.001). Die 2007 seisoen is gekenmerk deur ‘n hoër styselopbrengs (2952– 3142kg.ha-1, 95%VI) teenoor die 2006 seisoen (2077–2315kg.ha-1, 95%VI). Styselopbrengs was positief gekorreleerd met graanopbrengs (R2 = 0.975, P <0.001). Hektolitermassa het swak korrelasie getoon met etanolopbrengs (R2 = 0.238, P <0.01) en graanopbrengs (R2 = 0.279, P <0.01). Gemiddelde etanolopbrengs het gewissel tussen 466–477L.ton-1 by 95%VI. Data het aangedui dat etanolopbrengs meer aangewese is op stysel en ander polisakkariedverbindings se ensiematiese toeganklikheid eerder as totale stysel aanwesig. Die beste lyne wat etanolopbrangs betref in 2007 was G2, D3 en H2 vir die Swartland en D3, G2 en D1 vir die Overberg. Van die koroglyne wat deel was van die ondersoek het goeie potensiaal getoon, uit ‘n suiwer biologiese oogpunt, as gewas vir die produksie van etanol in die Wes-Kaap met ‘n gerealiseerde etanolopbrengs in die omgewing van 2446-2625L.ha-1 by 95%VI. In die Swartland was die beste genotipes D1, H1 en D2 en in die Overberg H1 en G2. Die beste 23 lyne is geselekteer uit die elite en senior telingsblokke en aangewend in die vestiging van ‘n herhalende-seleksie voortelingsblok.

碩士
國防大學理工學院
車輛及運輸工程碩士班
99
The tribology behavior of bio-diesel and JP-8 aviation fuel was discussed in this study. The mix of bio-diesel with JP-8 aviation fuel and loading force are selected as the experiment factors. The high-frequency reciprocating rig was experimented by the ball on disk method. Meanwhile, the effect of the experimental factor was observed by the tribological behavior and wear loss. The tribology behavior which were immersed in different concentration of the mix of bio-diesel with JP-8 aviation fuel, was used to assess the wear resistance in the spraying pump cylinder. To investigation the friction mechanism which zirconia and steel balls load on the cast iron and aluminum, in different concentrations of fuels. As the result of this experiment, it is obvious that the friction coefficient and the wear loss of cast iron materials decreased by the bio-diesel fuel. The pure bio-diesel is beneficial to the wear resistance of cast iron. Furthermore, the opposing trend can be found that the aluminum bulk was immersed in the bio-diesel. The friction coefficient and the wear loss are increased by the additive of bio-diesel fuel. Compared with the two materials, the cast iron has the better wear resistance than the aluminum. It is clear from result that the wear loss of the cast iron is in the following order: ultra low sulfur diesel >JP-8 aviation fuel > bio-diesel. As the morphology, the cast iron was adhesively flaked and caved by the JP-8 aviation fuel. The friction loss of energy was calculated by the proportional area under the friction coefficient curve. The JP-8 aviation fuel possesses the highest friction loss of energy. The ultra low sulfur diesel is the second and the bio-diesel is the lowest. As the friction test of the aluminum, the bio-diesel possesses the highest friction loss of energy and the JP-8 aviation fuel is the lowest. The loss energy of the bio-diesel and JP-8 aviation fuel is approximate and lower than the ultra low sulfur diesel. Under the cast iron test, the Zirconium oxide ball possesses lower friction loss and friction coefficient than the chrome ball, these overall trends are analog. Under the aluminum test, these wear volume loss of bulks are in the same trend, even these materials of balls are different. As the friction coefficient, these overall trends are different. But, the change is not obvious. It is conceivable, the change of the ball material doesn’t lead to the apparent variation.

碩士
國立臺北科技大學
環境工程與管理研究所
99
The object of this study is biofuels blending with diesel at various volumetric percentages and further analyzed for fuel properties in comparison with diesel and biodiesel blending specifications including ASTM D975, ASTM D7467 in the United States, CNS 1471 in Taiwan, and EN 590 in Europe. The biofuels include esterified jatropha oil, jatropha oil biodiesel, refined palm oil, palm oil biodiesel, esterified soapnut oil, soapnut oil biodiesel, tung oil, and tung oil biodiesel. For biodiesel and diesel blends, it was obvious that the density, KV, and flash point of the biodiesel-diesel blends increased with higher blending ratio of the biodiesel. Calorific value decreased with higher blending ratio of the biodiesel. The CFPP of the biodiesel-diesel blends within a small blending ratio would slightly change and was about -6 ºC which can satisfy the requirement of CNS 1471 or Grade A to C in EN 590. Afterwards the CFPP would remarkably increase or decrease with higher blending ratio of the biodiesels. It was interesting that the biodiesel-diesel blends had a maximum IP value at the specific blending ratio for some biodiesels (palm oil biodiesel and soapnut oil biodiesel). The increasing IP may be caused from a synergistic effect of the natural antioxidants in the diesel and the biodiesel. On contrast, the IP of the jatropha and tung oil biodiesel-diesel blends would decrease with higher blending ratio of the biodiesels. In addition, the properties of the tung, jatropha, and soapnut oil biodiesel blends were successfully improved at an optimum ratio to satisfy all the biodiesel specifications (ASTM D6751, CNS 15072, and EN 14214). In addition, the optimum biodiesel blend was blended with diesel at various volumetric percentages and further evaluated for fuel properties. For vegetable oil and diesel blends, it was obvious that the density, KV, and flash point of the vegetable oil-diesel blended increased with higher blending ratio of the vegetable oil. Calorific value decreased with higher blending ratio of the vegetable oil. The CFPP of the vegetable oil-diesel blends within a small blending ratio changed slightly and was about -6 ºC. Afterwards the CFPP would remarkably increase with higher blending ratio of the vegetable oil. It was interesting that the vegetable oil-diesel blends had a maximum IP value at the specific blending ratio for some vegetable oils (esterified jatropha oil, refined palm oil, and esterified soapnut oil ). On the other hand, the IP of the tung oil-diesel blends decreased with higher blending ratio of the tung oil.

碩士
國立臺北大學
經濟學系
95
Facing double pressure from the soaring price of international crude oil and the execution of Kyoto Protocal, Taiwanese government is now seeking a new direction for energy policy in terms of raising energy efficiency and searching for alternative energy. There are major concerns about how to increase the utilization proportion of the biomass energy and to decrease the greenhouse gas emissions, simultaneously. In terms of technological feasibility, the bio-ethanol fuel, the bio-diesel fuel and RDF-5 are three kinds of biomass energies to be considered. Thus, this study evaluates the economic and environmental feasibilities for developing the bio-ethanol fuel, the bio-diesel fuel and RDF-5 industries in Taiwan. This study employs ORANIG CGE and IPCC models to evaluate the benefits of greenhouse reduction effect for these three alternative energies with hope to be able to play an important role from the global perspective. The database used for these analyses is input-output table representation of Directorate General of Budget Accounting and Statistics in 2001.The model employs forty-nine types of commodities and twenty-seven sections of industries in input-output table. The simulating results of the effects of substituting three alternative biomass energies for fossil fuel are beneficial to lower the total emissions of greenhouse gas. The cost-benefit effect is not appearing for developing three alternative biomass energies. They are surely deserved to encourage the further development of biomass energy industry in Taiwan. The report suggests that the government may re-consider the biomass energy policy at the level of technology, operation scale, and promotion strategies.