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1

Oliver, Caldecott Julian, and World Conservation Monitoring Centre, eds. Priorities for conserving global species richness and endemism. World Conservation Press, 1994.

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2

Libon, David J., Melissa Lamar, Rodney A. Swenson, and Kenneth M. Heilman, eds. Vascular Disease, Alzheimer's Disease, and Mild Cognitive Impairment. Oxford University Press, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190634230.001.0001.

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Alzheimer’s disease and vascular dementia are acknowledged as the two most common types of dementia. Each of these dementia syndromes are associated with prodromal clinical syndromes, often referred to as mild cognitive impairment. Recent research has demonstrated considerable heterogeneity regarding the underlying neuropathology associated with these dementia syndromes and their prodromal disorders. Thus, it is often difficult to understand how or what underlying biological substrate is actually responsible for the alterations in neurocognition and behaviour as seen in clinical evaluations. T
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3

Jinnah, H. A., Cecilia N. Prudente, Samuel J. Rose, and Ellen J. Hess. The Neurobiology of Dystonia. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199937837.003.0010.

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The dystonias are a large group of disorders characterized by excessive muscle activity leading to abnormal movements. They are clinically diverse, affecting different parts of the body at all ages in both humans and other animals. They also are etiologically diverse, with causes that are either inherited due to specific dystonia-causing genes, or acquired because of nervous system injury or exposure to certain drugs or chemicals. Despite the clinical and etiological heterogeneity, there is an increasing appreciation that certain subgroups of dystonias share some biological abnormalities at th
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4

Ferraro, Kenneth F. Ageism. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190665340.003.0007.

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Negative views of aging are pervasive and pernicious, and arise, in part, from a failure to recognize the heterogeneity of the older adult population. Many people, at various ages, view the aging process pejoratively, thereby exaggerating the declines associated with growing older, Ageism also may entail unfair treatment toward older people, often manifest as neglect and exclusion. The consequences of ageism are notable, including accelerated declines in biological, psychological, and social functioning as well as ignoring or minimizing the intellectual and creative potential of older adults.
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5

Mann, Heřman, and Jiří Vencovský. Treatment of the idiopathic inflammatory myopathies. Edited by Hector Chinoy and Robert Cooper. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198754121.003.0017.

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The management of idiopathic inflammatory myopathies (IIM) poses a challenge due to disease heterogeneity, variable responses to treatment and limited data from controlled studies. High dose glucocorticoids, often combined with other immunosuppressive drugs, represent the most common pharmacotherapeutic approach. The importance of early commencement of supervised exercise is also stressed. In treatment resistant cases, the introduction of drug combinations is recommended, and intravenous immunoglobulins may also be effective. Currently available data do not support use of most biological agent
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6

Bargiotas, Theodoros. The Aetiology of Depression. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198801900.003.0005.

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This chapter discusses the aetiology of depression. It begins with an overview of reasons why the aetiology of depression has been and still is difficult to define, including its heterogeneity and the wider philosophical and methodological challenges involved. It then considers life events and social determinants of depression as well as psychological factors relevant to depression, including childhood development and early experiences, parenting style, and personality and personality disorders. It also examines cognitive behavioural theories of depression, neuropsychology, and psychodynamic t
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7

Bohon, Cara. Research Domain Criteria. Edited by W. Stewart Agras and Athena Robinson. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190620998.013.2.

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A primary goal of the research domain criteria (RDoC) project from the National Institute of Mental Health in the United States is to better characterize and understand the pathology and etiology of mental illness by examining constructs with biological underpinnings and their effects on psychiatric symptoms. This endeavor shows promise in helping to better conceptualize dysfunction in the field of eating disorders, where there appears to be great heterogeneity within diagnostic groups. Treatments designed for a particular diagnosis may result in improved remission rates if they instead target
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8

Baune, Bernhard T., and Catherine Harmer, eds. Cognitive Dimensions of Major Depressive Disorder. Oxford University Press, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198810940.001.0001.

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The lifetime prevalence of 15% for major depressive disorder (MDD) within the general population is among the highest among all mental disorders. MDD is also one of the leading causes of disability and has been estimated to affect 300 million people worldwide. Clinical, functional, and biological correlates of MDD are frequently investigated almost exclusively based on research that defines depression as a categorical disorder assessed by established diagnostic instruments. Given the phenotypic and biological heterogeneity of depression, a refocus of the clinical phenotype of depression is req
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9

With, Kimberly A. Essentials of Landscape Ecology. Oxford University Press, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198838388.001.0001.

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Essentials of Landscape Ecology is a new, comprehensive text that presents the principles, theory, methods, and applications of landscape ecology in an engaging and accessible format, supplemented by numerous examples and case studies from a variety of systems, including freshwater and marine “scapes.” Human activity has transformed landscapes worldwide on a scale that rivals or exceeds even the largest of natural forces, giving rise to a new geological age, the Anthropocene. As humans alter the structure and function of landscapes, the biological diversity and ecological relationships within
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10

Hüttemann, Andreas, and Alan Love. Reduction. Edited by Paul Humphreys. Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199368815.013.26.

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Reduction and reductionism have been central philosophical topics in analytic philosophy of science for more than six decades. Together they encompass a diversity of issues from metaphysics and epistemology. This article provides an introduction to the topic that illuminates how contemporary epistemological discussions took their shape historically and limns the contours of concrete cases of reduction in specific natural sciences. The unity of science and the impulse to accomplish compositional reduction in accord with a layer-cake vision of the sciences, the seminal contributions of Ernest Na
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11

Holliday, Kate L., Wendy Thomson, and John McBeth. Genetics of chronic musculoskeletal pain. Oxford University Press, 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199642489.003.0045.

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Chronic pain disorders are prevalent and a large burden on health care resources. Around 10% of the general population report chronic widespread pain, which is the defining feature of fibromyalgia. Fibromyalgia is a poorly understood idiopathic disorder which is also characterized by widespread tenderness and commonly occurs with comorbid mood disorders, fatigue, sleep disturbance, and cognitive dysfunction. A role for genetics in chronic pain disorders has been identified by twin studies, with heritability estimates of around 50%. Susceptibility genes for chronic pain are likely to be involve
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12

Holliday, Kate L., Wendy Thomson, John McBeth, and Nisha Nair. Genetics of chronic musculoskeletal pain. Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199642489.003.0045_update_001.

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Chronic pain disorders are prevalent and a large burden on health care resources. Around 10% of the general population report chronic widespread pain, which is the defining feature of fibromyalgia. Fibromyalgia is a poorly understood idiopathic disorder which is also characterized by widespread tenderness and commonly occurs with comorbid mood disorders, fatigue, sleep disturbance, and cognitive dysfunction. A role for genetics in chronic pain disorders has been identified by twin studies, with heritability estimates of around 50%. Susceptibility genes for chronic pain are likely to be involve
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13

Dasgupta, Bhaskar. Polymyalgia rheumatica. Oxford University Press, 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199642489.003.0134.

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This chapter reviews advances in pathogenesis; European League Against Rheumatism/American College of Rheumatology (EULAR/ACR) classification criteria with clinical, laboratory, and ultrasound criteria for classification as polymyalgia rheumatica (PMR); the heterogeneity and overlap between PMR, inflammatory arthritis, and large-vessel vasculitis as illustrated by representative cases; recent guidelines on early and correct recognition, investigations, and management of PMR; the scope of disease-modifying agents; socio-economic impact, outcomes, and patient experience in PMR. It also discusses
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14

Coates, Laura C., and Philip S. Helliwell. Psoriatic arthritis. Oxford University Press, 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199642489.003.0114.

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Psoriasis is a chronic skin condition affecting about 3% of Europeans and North Americans. About 15% of people afflicted with psoriasis will develop psoriatic arthritis—cutaneous risk factors for this are psoriasis of the nails, scalp, and flexures. Since most cases of arthritis develop in people with psoriasis, new screening tools, both clinical and imaging, are available. Some genetic factors may also explain susceptibility and severity. Historically, five clinical subgroups have been described but these may be simplified to axial and peripheral involvement, the latter dividing into oligo- a
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15

Coates, Laura C., and Philip S. Helliwell. Psoriatic arthritis. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199642489.003.0114_update_003.

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Psoriasis is a chronic skin condition affecting about 3% of Europeans and North Americans. About 15% of people afflicted with psoriasis will develop psoriatic arthritis—cutaneous risk factors for this are psoriasis of the nails, scalp, and flexures. Since most cases of arthritis develop in people with psoriasis, new screening tools, both clinical and imaging, are available. Some genetic factors may also explain susceptibility and severity. Historically, five clinical subgroups have been described but these may be simplified to axial and peripheral involvement, the latter dividing into oligo- a
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