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Journal articles on the topic 'Biosafety level 4'

Author: Grafiati

Published: 7 June 2025

Last updated: 2 August 2025

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1

Thangamani, Saravanan, and Dennis Bente. "Establishing protocols for tick containment at Biosafety Level 4." Pathogens and Disease 71, no. 2 (2014): 282–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/2049-632x.12187.

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Huang, Yi, Jicheng Huang, Han Xia, Yongxia Shi, Haixia Ma, and Zhiming Yuan. "Networking for training Level 3/4 biosafety laboratory staff." Journal of Biosafety and Biosecurity 1, no. 1 (2019): 46–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jobb.2018.12.004.

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3

Chui, Paul, Peter Chong, Bobby Chong, and Stefan Wagener. "Mobile Biosafety Level-4 Autopsy Facility—An Innovative Solution." Applied Biosafety 12, no. 4 (2007): 238–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/153567600701200405.

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NANBO, Asuka, Shuzo URATA, and Yoshimi TSUDA. "Developing a Biosafety Level 4 Laboratory user training program." Uirusu 72, no. 2 (2022): 125–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.2222/jsv.72.125.

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5

Le Duc, James W., Kevin Anderson, Marshall E. Bloom, et al. "Framework for Leadership and Training of Biosafety Level 4 Laboratory Workers." Emerging Infectious Diseases 14, no. 11 (2008): 1685–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.3201/eid1411.080741.

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6

Ippolito, Giuseppe, Carla Nisii, Antonino Di Caro, et al. "European Perspective of 2-Person Rule for Biosafety Level 4 Laboratories." Emerging Infectious Diseases 15, no. 11 (2009): 1858a—1860. http://dx.doi.org/10.3201/eid1511.091134.

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7

Wu, Guoqiang, Qiaoyu Li, Junbiao Dai, Guobin Mao, and Yingxin Ma. "Design and Application of Biosafe Coronavirus Engineering Systems without Virulence." Viruses 16, no. 5 (2024): 659. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/v16050659.

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In the last twenty years, three deadly zoonotic coronaviruses (CoVs)—namely, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV), Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV), and SARS-CoV-2—have emerged. They are considered highly pathogenic for humans, particularly SARS-CoV-2, which caused the 2019 CoV disease pandemic (COVID-19), endangering the lives and health of people globally and causing unpredictable economic losses. Experiments on wild-type viruses require biosafety level 3 or 4 laboratories (BSL-3 or BSL-4), which significantly hinders basic virological research. The

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YAMAMOTO, Yuko, Itsuko HORIGUCHI, and Eiji MARUI. "Current Problems Arising from Not Having Biosafety Level 4 Laboratories in Japan." Nippon Eiseigaku Zasshi (Japanese Journal of Hygiene) 64, no. 4 (2009): 806–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1265/jjh.64.806.

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9

SAIJO, Masayuki, and Kouichi MORITA. "Preparedness for ebolavirus disease outbreak in Japan: Necessity of Biosafety level-4 facility." Uirusu 65, no. 1 (2015): 89–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.2222/jsv.65.89.

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Nisii, Carla, Concetta Castilletti, Hervé Raoul, et al. "Biosafety Level-4 Laboratories in Europe: Opportunities for Public Health, Diagnostics, and Research." PLoS Pathogens 9, no. 1 (2013): e1003105. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.1003105.

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Zou, Ruiwen, Wei Zhang, Jiahong Guo, et al. "Energy efficiency analysis and life cycle assessment of a biosafety level 4 laboratory." Energy and Buildings 345 (October 2025): 116096. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2025.116096.

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12

Olejnik, Judith, Juliette Leon, Daniel Michelson, et al. "Establishment of an Inactivation Method for Ebola Virus and SARS-CoV-2 Suitable for Downstream Sequencing of Low Cell Numbers." Pathogens 12, no. 2 (2023): 342. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12020342.

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Technologies that facilitate the bulk sequencing of small numbers of cells as well as single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) have aided greatly in the study of viruses as these analyses can be used to differentiate responses from infected versus bystander cells in complex systems, including in organoid or animal studies. While protocols for these analyses are typically developed with biosafety level 2 (BSL-2) considerations in mind, such analyses are equally useful for the study of viruses that require higher biosafety containment levels. Many of these workstreams, however, are not directly co

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13

Barkham, TMS. "Laboratory Safety Aspects of SARS at Biosafety Level 2." Annals of the Academy of Medicine, Singapore 33, no. 2 (2004): 252–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.47102/annals-acadmedsg.v33n2p252.

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The severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)-associated coronavirus causes severe disease, is transmissible to the community and there is no effective prophylaxis or treatment – perhaps fulfilling the criteria for biohazard group 3 or 4. The recommendation to use Biosafety Level (BSL)3 practices within a BSL2 environment appears to have been a practical decision based on available resources; most diagnostic laboratories operate at BSL2. Safety is achieved with controls in administration, engineering and personal protective equipment/behaviour. At the heart of every safety policy is a risk asse

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14

Crews, C. Jeff, and Edward E. Gaunt. "Comparative Analysis of the Fourth and Fifth Editions of Biosafety in Microbiological and Biomedical Laboratories, Vertebrate Animal Biosafety Level Criteria (ABSL1-4)." Applied Biosafety 14, no. 1 (2009): 11–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/153567600901400104.

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15

Cutts, Todd, Anders Leung, Logan Banadyga, and Jay Krishnan. "Inactivation Validation of Ebola, Marburg, and Lassa Viruses in AVL and Ethanol-Treated Viral Cultures." Viruses 16, no. 9 (2024): 1354. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/v16091354.

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High-consequence pathogens such as the Ebola, Marburg, and Lassa viruses are handled in maximum-containment biosafety level 4 (BSL-4) laboratories. Genetic material is often isolated from such viruses and subsequently removed from BSL-4 laboratories for a multitude of downstream analyses using readily accessible technologies and equipment available at lower-biosafety level laboratories. However, it is essential to ensure that these materials are free of viable viruses before removal from BSL-4 laboratories to guarantee sample safety. This study details the in-house procedure used for validatin

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16

LeDuc, James W., Kevin Anderson, Marshall E. Bloom, et al. "Potential Impact of a 2-Person Security Rule on BioSafety Level 4 Laboratory Workers." Emerging Infectious Diseases 15, no. 7 (2009): e1-e1. http://dx.doi.org/10.3201/eid1507.081523.

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17

Jahrling, Peter, Colleen Rodak, Mike Bray, and Richard T. Davey. "Triage and Management of Accidental Laboratory Exposures to Biosafety Level-3 and -4 Agents." Biosecurity and Bioterrorism: Biodefense Strategy, Practice, and Science 7, no. 2 (2009): 135–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/bsp.2009.0002.

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18

Kasloff, Samantha Beth, Peter Marszal, and Hana M. Weingartl. "Evaluation of Nine Positive Pressure Suits for Use in the Biosafety Level-4 Laboratory." Applied Biosafety 23, no. 4 (2018): 223–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1535676018793151.

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19

Arenas, Miriam Yanett Vizcarra, Lilian Nely Vásquez Regalado, Violeta Joulmina Chuquispuma Torres, and Monica Elisa Meneses-La-Riva. "SDG 3 Health and Well-Being: Biosafety Knowledge and Perception of Biological Risk in Clinical Practice in Health Science Undergraduates." Journal of Lifestyle and SDGs Review 5, no. 1 (2025): e04338. https://doi.org/10.47172/2965-730x.sdgsreview.v5.n01.pe04338.

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Instroduction: The study is linked to SDG 3’s well-being and health. Objective: was to determine the relationship between biosafety knowledge and the perception of biological risk in clinical practice in university health sciences, 2024. Method: It was quantitative, correlational, non-experimental, and cross-sectional. The sample was obtained through the statistical formula made up of 274 university students of health sciences, nursing and human medicine, For data collection, the questionnaire on biosafety knowledge of Urquiaga & Chunga (2022) was applied, which consists of 4 dimensions wi

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La-Rotta, Ehideé Isabel Gómez, Clerison Stelvio Garcia, Felipe Barbosa, Amanda Ferreira dos Santos, Gabriela Mazzarolo Marcondes Vieira, and Mariângela Carneiro. "Evaluation of the level of knowledge and compliance with standart precautions and the safety standard (NR-32) amongst physicians from a public university hospital, Brazil." Revista Brasileira de Epidemiologia 16, no. 3 (2013): 786–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/s1415-790x2013000300021.

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Brazil is the first country in the world to have broad coverage standard (NR-32) focused on protecting health workers exposed to biological risks. This study evaluated the degree of knowledge of the NR-32 Standard and the level of knowledge and compliance with the standard precautions. A cross-sectional study was conducted with 208 randomly selected health professionals; 93 of them were residents and 115 were physicians at a Brazilian Clinical Hospital. To collect information, the participants were interviewed and/or they completed semi-structured questionnaires divided into three domains: kno

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21

Günther, Stephan, Heinz Feldmann, Thomas W. Geisbert, et al. "Management of Accidental Exposure to Ebola Virus in the Biosafety Level 4 Laboratory, Hamburg, Germany." Journal of Infectious Diseases 204, suppl_3 (2011): S785—S790. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/infdis/jir298.

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22

Nisii, C., C. Castilletti, A. Di Caro, et al. "The European network of Biosafety-Level-4 laboratories: enhancing European preparedness for new health threats." Clinical Microbiology and Infection 15, no. 8 (2009): 720–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-0691.2009.02946.x.

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23

Landon, Paul, Stewart Wood, Kristin Bower, et al. "Performance Characteristics of a Primary Containment System for Large Animals in Animal Biosafety Level 4." Applied Biosafety 22, no. 1 (2017): 14–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1535676016683172.

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24

Zhang, Huajun, Chen Peng, Bobo Liu, Jun Liu, Zhiming Yuan, and Zhengli Shi. "Evaluation of MICRO-CHEM PLUS as a Disinfectant for Biosafety Level 4 Laboratory in China." Applied Biosafety 23, no. 1 (2018): 32–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1535676018758891.

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25

Wurtz, N., A. Papa, M. Hukic, et al. "Survey of laboratory-acquired infections around the world in biosafety level 3 and 4 laboratories." European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases 35, no. 8 (2016): 1247–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10096-016-2657-1.

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26

Li, Dapeng, Tan Chen, Yang Hu, et al. "An Ebola Virus-Like Particle-Based Reporter System Enables Evaluation of Antiviral DrugsIn Vivounder Non-Biosafety Level 4 Conditions." Journal of Virology 90, no. 19 (2016): 8720–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/jvi.01239-16.

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ABSTRACTEbola virus (EBOV) is a highly contagious lethal pathogen. As a biosafety level 4 (BSL-4) agent, however, EBOV is restricted to costly BSL-4 laboratories for experimentation, thus significantly impeding the evaluation of EBOV vaccines and drugs. Here, we report an EBOV-like particle (EBOVLP)-based luciferase reporter system that enables the evaluation of anti-EBOV agentsin vitroandin vivooutside BSL-4 facilities. Cotransfection of HEK293T cells with four plasmids encoding the proteins VP40, NP, and GP of EBOV and firefly luciferase (Fluc) resulted in the production of Fluc-containing f

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27

Shapshak, Paul. "Emergent Risk Group-4 (RG-4) Filoviruses: A paradox in progress." Bioinformation 19, no. 8 (2023): 829. http://dx.doi.org/10.6026/97320630019829.

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Filoviruses, categorized as World Health Organization (WHO) Risk Group 4 (RG-4) pathogens, represent significant global health risks due to their extraordinary virulence. The Filoviridae family encompasses Ebola strains such as Sudan, Zaire, Bundibugyo, Tai Forest (formerly known as Ivory Coast), Reston, and Bombali, in addition to the closely related Marburg and Ravn virus strains. Filoviruses originated from a common ancestor about 10,000 years ago and displayed remarkable consistency in genetic heterogeneity until the 20th century. However, they overcame a genetic bottleneck by mid-century.

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28

Pickering, Brad S., Jessica R. Spengler, Elnaz Shadabi, Antonia E. Dalziel, Elizabeth A. Lautner, and Primal Silva. "The Biosafety Level 4 Zoonotic Laboratory Network (BSL4ZNet): Report of a workshop on live animal handling." Antiviral Research 172 (December 2019): 104640. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.antiviral.2019.104640.

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29

Mahanty, Siddhartha, Rizwan Kalwar, and Pierre E. Rollin. "Cytokine measurement in biological samples after physicochemical treatment for inactivation of biosafety level 4 viral agents." Journal of Medical Virology 59, no. 3 (1999): 341–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/(sici)1096-9071(199911)59:3<341::aid-jmv14>3.0.co;2-c.

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30

Sharova, I. N., I. G. Karnaukhov, E. S. Kazakova, et al. "Development of Mobile Indication Laboratory for Carrying out the Epizootiological Monitoring of Natural-Focal and Other Dangerous Infectious Diseases." Problems of Particularly Dangerous Infections, no. 4(102) (August 20, 2009): 45–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.21055/0370-1069-2009-4(102)-45-48.

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Determined and substantiated were the main characteristics of mobile indication laboratory in view of carrying out epizootiologic monitoring of natural-focal and other dangerous infectious diseases (functional capabilities, type of basic means of transport, production capacity, technical staff, proposed biosafety level and independence degree).

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31

McGirr, Rebecca, Christopher Sample, Leslee Arwood, James Burch, and Scott Alderman. "Validating Autoclave Cycles for Carcass Disposal in Animal Biosafety Level 2/3 Containment Laboratories." Applied Biosafety 24, no. 3 (2019): 134–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1535676019856799.

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Introduction:Animal carcasses differ in composition from other types of solid waste, and through prior testing it was determined that cycle parameters applied to general, solid biohazardous waste did not ensure proper sterilization of ferret carcasses.Objectives:The goals of this study were to develop and validate an autoclave cycle that would ensure the decontamination of infectious animal carcasses before removal from an animal biosafety level 2/3 containment suite for downstream disposal and to test different ways to prepare and package animal carcasses for autoclaving.Methods:Intact ferret

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Galván, Estela M., Manoj Kumar Mohan Nair, Huaiqing Chen, Fabio Del Piero, and Dieter M. Schifferli. "Biosafety Level 2 Model of Pneumonic Plague and Protection Studies with F1 and Psa." Infection and Immunity 78, no. 8 (2010): 3443–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/iai.00382-10.

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ABSTRACT Attenuated Yersinia pestis pgm strains, such as KIM5, lack the siderophore yersiniabactin. Strain KIM5 does not induce significant pneumonia when delivered intranasally. In this study, mice were found to develop pneumonia after intranasal challenge with strain KIM5 when they were injected intraperitoneally with iron dextran, though not with iron sulfate. KIM5-infected mice treated daily with 4 mg iron dextran died in 3 days with severe pneumonia. Pneumonia was less severe if 4 mg iron dextran was administered only once before infection. The best-studied experimental vaccine against pl

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Alrasheed, Rasheed Saud, Mohammed Mahrous Al-Mahrous, Raed Mohammed Alshahrani, and Nadiah Rabee Alsaadi. "Safety and Decontamination Procedures for Infectious Sample Handling." JOURNAL OF HEALTHCARE SCIENCES 04, no. 12 (2024): 1010–15. https://doi.org/10.52533/johs.2024.41249.

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Biosafety protocols play a critical role in safeguarding laboratory personnel, the environment, and the public from risks associated with handling infectious samples. With the increasing prevalence of emerging pathogens and complex research activities, the development and adherence to stringent decontamination, risk assessment, and regulatory standards have become indispensable. Modern decontamination technologies, such as ultraviolet germicidal irradiation, cold atmospheric plasma, and deep eutectic solvents, have enhanced the efficacy of pathogen inactivation, offering tailored and environme

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34

Devignot, Stephanie, Eric Bergeron, Stuart Nichol, Ali Mirazimi, and Friedemann Weber. "A Virus-Like Particle System Identifies the Endonuclease Domain of Crimean-Congo Hemorrhagic Fever Virus." Journal of Virology 89, no. 11 (2015): 5957–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/jvi.03691-14.

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ABSTRACTCrimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus(CCHFV; genusNairovirus) is an extremely pathogenic member of theBunyaviridaefamily. Since handling of the virus requires a biosafety level 4 (BSL-4) facility, little is known about pathomechanisms and host interactions. Here, we describe the establishment of a transcriptionally competent virus-like particle (tc-VLP) system for CCHFV. Recombinant polymerase (L), nucleocapsid protein (N) and a reporter minigenome expressed in human HuH-7 cells resulted in formation of transcriptionally active nucleocapsids that could be packaged by coexpressed CCHFV

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Deffrasnes, Celine, Glenn A. Marsh, Chwan Hong Foo, et al. "Genome-wide siRNA Screening at Biosafety Level 4 Reveals a Crucial Role for Fibrillarin in Henipavirus Infection." PLOS Pathogens 12, no. 3 (2016): e1005478. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.1005478.

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36

Hume, Adam J., Judith Olejnik, Mitchell R. White, et al. "Heat Inactivation of Nipah Virus for Downstream Single-Cell RNA Sequencing Does Not Interfere with Sample Quality." Pathogens 13, no. 1 (2024): 62. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13010062.

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Single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) technologies are instrumental to improving our understanding of virus–host interactions in cell culture infection studies and complex biological systems because they allow separating the transcriptional signatures of infected versus non-infected bystander cells. A drawback of using biosafety level (BSL) 4 pathogens is that protocols are typically developed without consideration of virus inactivation during the procedure. To ensure complete inactivation of virus-containing samples for downstream analyses, an adaptation of the workflow is needed. Focusing o

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37

Olschewski, Silke, Anke Thielebein, Chris Hoffmann, et al. "Validation of Inactivation Methods for Arenaviruses." Viruses 13, no. 6 (2021): 968. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/v13060968.

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Several of the human-pathogenic arenaviruses cause hemorrhagic fever and have to be handled under biosafety level 4 conditions, including Lassa virus. Rapid and safe inactivation of specimens containing these viruses is fundamental to enable downstream processing for diagnostics or research under lower biosafety conditions. We established a protocol to test the efficacy of inactivation methods using the low-pathogenic Morogoro arenavirus as surrogate for the related highly pathogenic viruses. As the validation of chemical inactivation methods in cell culture systems is difficult due to cell to

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Olejnik, Judith, Kristina Meier, Jarod N. Herrera, et al. "Harnessing Hazara Virus as a Surrogate for Crimean–Congo Hemorrhagic Fever Virus Enables Inactivation Studies at a Low Biosafety Level." Pathogens 14, no. 7 (2025): 700. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14070700.

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Research on highly pathogenic biosafety level 4 (BSL-4) viruses that are classified as Select Agents involves transferring inactivated materials to lower containment levels for further analysis. Compliance with Select Agent and BSL-4 safety regulations necessitates the validation and verification of inactivation procedures. To streamline this process, it would be beneficial to use surrogate BSL-2 viruses for inactivation studies. This not only simplifies BSL-4 work but also enables the testing and validation of inactivation procedures in research facilities that lack access to high-containment

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39

Risi, George F., Marshall E. Bloom, Nancy P. Hoe, et al. "Preparing a Community Hospital to Manage Work-related Exposures to Infectious Agents in BioSafety Level 3 and 4 Laboratories." Emerging Infectious Diseases 16, no. 3 (2010): 373–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.3201/eid1603.091485.

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40

Löfstedt, Ragnar. "Good and bad examples of siting and building biosafety level 4 laboratories: a study of Winnipeg, Galveston and Etobicoke." Journal of Hazardous Materials 93, no. 1 (2002): 47–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0304-3894(02)00038-9.

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41

Terasaki, Kaori, and Shinji Makino. "Interplay between the Virus and Host in Rift Valley Fever Pathogenesis." Journal of Innate Immunity 7, no. 5 (2015): 450–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000373924.

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Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV) belongs to the genus Phlebovirus, family Bunyaviridae, and carries single-stranded tripartite RNA segments. The virus is transmitted by mosquitoes and has caused large outbreaks among ruminants and humans in sub-Saharan African and Middle East countries. The disease is characterized by a sudden onset of fever, headache, muscle pain, joint pain, photophobia, and weakness. In most cases, patients recover from the disease after a period of weeks, but some also develop retinal or macular changes, which result in vision impairment that lasts for an undefined period of

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42

Palesch, David, Mohammad Khalid, Christina M. Stürzel, and Jan Münch. "Prevention of Contamination by Xenotropic Murine Leukemia Virus-Related Virus: Susceptibility to Alcohol-Based Disinfectants and Environmental Stability." Applied and Environmental Microbiology 80, no. 8 (2014): 2617–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/aem.04064-13.

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ABSTRACTXenotropic murine leukemia virus-related virus (XMRV) represents a novel γ-retrovirus that is capable of infecting human cells and has been classified as a biosafety level 2 (BSL-2) organism. Hence, XMRV represents a potential risk for personnel in laboratories worldwide. Here, we measured the stability of XMRV and its susceptibility to alcohol-based disinfectants. To this end, we exposed an infectious XMRV reporter virus encoding a secretable luciferase to different temperatures, pH values, and disinfectants and infected XMRV-permissive Raji B cells to measure residual viral infectivi

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Saito, Takeshi, Rachel A. Reyna, Satoshi Taniguchi, Kirsten Littlefield, Slobodan Paessler, and Junki Maruyama. "Vaccine Candidates against Arenavirus Infections." Vaccines 11, no. 3 (2023): 635. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/vaccines11030635.

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The viral family Arenaviridae contains several members that cause severe, and often lethal, diseases in humans. Several highly pathogenic arenaviruses are classified as Risk Group 4 agents and must be handled in the highest biological containment facility, biosafety level-4 (BSL-4). Vaccines and treatments are very limited for these pathogens. The development of vaccines is crucial for the establishment of countermeasures against highly pathogenic arenavirus infections. While several vaccine candidates have been investigated, there are currently no approved vaccines for arenavirus infection ex

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44

Bohannon, J. Kyle, Anna N. Honko, Rebecca J. Reeder, et al. "Comparison of respiratory inductive plethysmography versus head-out plethysmography for anesthetized nonhuman primates in an animal biosafety level 4 facility." Inhalation Toxicology 28, no. 14 (2016): 670–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08958378.2016.1247199.

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45

LaRocca, Christopher J., Kari L. Jacobsen, Kazuho Inoko, Stanislav O. Zakharkin, Masato Yamamoto, and Julia Davydova. "Viral Shedding in Mice following Intravenous Adenovirus Injection: Impact on Biosafety Classification." Viruses 15, no. 7 (2023): 1495. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/v15071495.

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There have been numerous advances in gene therapy and oncolytic virotherapy in recent years, especially with respect to cutting-edge animal models to test these novel therapeutics. With all of these advances, it is important to understand the biosafety risks of testing these vectors in animals. We performed adenovirus-based viral shedding studies in murine models to ascertain when it is appropriate to downgrade the animals from Biosafety Level (BSL) 2 to BSL 1 for experimental handling and transport. We utilized intravenous injections of a replication-competent adenovirus and analyzed viral sh

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46

Panning, Marcus, Thomas Laue, Stephan Ölschlager, et al. "Diagnostic Reverse‐Transcription Polymerase Chain Reaction Kit for Filoviruses Based on the Strain Collections of all European Biosafety Level 4 Laboratories." Journal of Infectious Diseases 196, s2 (2007): S199—S204. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/520600.

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47

Veldhuis Kroeze, Edwin J. B., Geert van Amerongen, Marcel L. Dijkshoorn, et al. "Pulmonary pathology of pandemic influenza A/H1N1 virus (2009)-infected ferrets upon longitudinal evaluation by computed tomography." Journal of General Virology 92, no. 8 (2011): 1854–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1099/vir.0.032805-0.

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We investigated the development of pulmonary lesions in ferrets by means of computed tomography (CT) following infection with the 2009 pandemic A/H1N1 influenza virus and compared the scans with gross pathology, histopathology and immunohistochemistry. Ground-glass opacities observed by CT scanning in all infected lungs corresponded to areas of alveolar oedema at necropsy. These areas were most pronounced on day 3 and gradually decreased from days 4 to 7 post-infection. This pilot study shows that the non-invasive imaging procedure allows quantification and characterization of influenza-induce

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48

Nakayama, Eri, and Ayato Takada. "Ebola and Marburg Viruses." Journal of Disaster Research 6, no. 4 (2011): 381–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.20965/jdr.2011.p0381.

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Ebola and Marburg viruses, members of the filovirus family, cause severe hemorrhagic fever in human and nonhuman primates and are classified as biosafety level 4 agents. No effective filovirus-specific prophylaxis or treatment is yet commercially available. Filovirus species vary genetically, with one in the Marburg virus group and five in the Ebola virus group. Epidemiological efforts to prevent outbreaks lie mainly in identifying natural animal reservoirs. Increasingly frequent outbreaks in Africa and concerns about bioterrorism and imported cases in nonendemic areas point to the importance

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Divya V, Aparna V, Lakshmy M, Anu. K, Sunitha V. R. "Exploring The Nipah Virus: Insights Into Pathogenesis And Therapeutic Approaches." Cuestiones de Fisioterapia 54, no. 2 (2025): 2895–903. https://doi.org/10.48047/acfxav57.

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Abstract:

Nipah virus (NiV), classified as a biosafety level-4 (BSL-4) pathogen, poses a significant challenge in the field of infectious diseases, as its capacity to move between animals and humans raises serious global health concerns. This analysis explores the historical progression of NiV outbreaks, examining its effects on communities globally. This study investigates the emergence and epidemiology of the virus, focussing on its transmission dynamics and the significant impact it has had on affected regions. The neurological sequelae observed in survivors highlight the critical need for thorough c

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Dai, Shiyu, Fei Deng, Hualin Wang, and Yunjia Ning. "Crimean-Congo Hemorrhagic Fever Virus: Current Advances and Future Prospects of Antiviral Strategies." Viruses 13, no. 7 (2021): 1195. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/v13071195.

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Abstract:

Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus (CCHFV) is a widespread, tick-borne pathogen that causes Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever (CCHF) with high morbidity and mortality. CCHFV is transmitted to humans through tick bites or direct contact with patients or infected animals with viremia. Currently, climate change and globalization have increased the transmission risk of this biosafety level (BSL)-4 virus. The treatment options of CCHFV infection remain limited and there is no FDA-approved vaccine or specific antivirals, which urges the identification of potential therapeutic targets and the design

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