Journal articles: 'Birds Nests'

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McLendon, Aidan K. "Classics Revisited: “The evolution of nests and nest-building in birds”, by Dr Nicholas E Collias (1964) American Zoologist 4(2): 175–190." Progress in Physical Geography: Earth and Environment 43, no. 3 (April 9, 2019): 462–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0309133319841897.

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Although one of the most studied organisms in other disciplines, the role of birds as zoogeomorphic agents has been somewhat overlooked in geography literature. Bird nests serve as a manifestation of the reciprocal relationships that birds have with their environment. Dr Nicholas E. Collias’s “The evolution of nests and nest-building in birds”, published in American Zoologist (1964), was one of the first to hypothesize the intimate connection between bird nests and their landscapes. Researchers interested in understanding the role birds have as zoogeomorphic agents should view Collias (1964) as an essential resource for information and inspiration for further exploration.

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Levinson, Nan, and Mahnaz Afkhami. "Birds without Nests." Women's Review of Books 12, no. 6 (March 1995): 1. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/4022105.

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Suárez-Rodríguez, Monserrat, Isabel López-Rull, and Constantino Macías Garcia. "Incorporation of cigarette butts into nests reduces nest ectoparasite load in urban birds: new ingredients for an old recipe?" Biology Letters 9, no. 1 (February 23, 2013): 20120931. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2012.0931.

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Birds are known to respond to nest-dwelling parasites by altering behaviours. Some bird species, for example, bring fresh plants to the nest, which contain volatile compounds that repel parasites. There is evidence that some birds living in cities incorporate cigarette butts into their nests, but the effect (if any) of this behaviour remains unclear. Butts from smoked cigarettes retain substantial amounts of nicotine and other compounds that may also act as arthropod repellents. We provide the first evidence that smoked cigarette butts may function as a parasite repellent in urban bird nests. The amount of cellulose acetate from butts in nests of two widely distributed urban birds was negatively associated with the number of nest-dwelling parasites. Moreover, when parasites were attracted to heat traps containing smoked or non-smoked cigarette butts, fewer parasites reached the former, presumably due to the presence of nicotine. Because urbanization changes the abundance and type of resources upon which birds depend, including nesting materials and plants involved in self-medication, our results are consistent with the view that urbanization imposes new challenges on birds that are dealt with using adaptations evolved elsewhere.

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Iwasa, Mitsuhiro, Koji Hori, and Noriyuki Aoki. "FLY FAUNA OF BIRD NESTS IN HOKKAIDO, JAPAN (DIPTERA)." Canadian Entomologist 127, no. 5 (October 1995): 613–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.4039/ent127613-5.

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AbstractThe Diptera occurring in various kinds of bird nests were investigated in the Japanese island of Hokkaido from 1985 to 1989. A total of 4623 Diptera, consisting of 23 species of eight families (Anthomyiidae, Fannidae, Muscidae, Calliphoridae, Heleomyzidae, Sphaeroceridae, Sepsidae, and Stratiomyiidae), was reared from 69 natural nests of 13 bird species of eight families (Strigidae, Picidae, Paridae, Sittidae, Sturnidae, Ploceidae, Laniidae, and Columbidae). Of 23 species of flies reared, 12 were new records from bird nests. An ectoparasite of birds, Protocalliphora maruyamensis Shinonaga and Kano, frequently emerged from the nests of hole-nesting birds of Paridae, Sturnidae, and Ploceidae, but it did not emerge from the nests of the hole-nesting birds Picoides major and P. minor of Picidae. The nests of Streptopelia orientalis yielded the most species of flies (12). Myospila meditabunda (Fabricius) and Mydaea urbana (Meigen), whose larvae are predacious, proved able to live in the bird nests. Among the scavengers, Potamia littoralis (R.-D.) was the most dominant and occurred in the nests of nine of 10 hole-nesting bird species. Sphaerocerid, sepsid, and stratiomid flies occurred in the nests of S. orientalis in which large quantities of bird feces had accumulated. The factors concerning the occurrence of flies in the nests are discussed.

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Bailey, Ida E., Felicity Muth, Kate Morgan, Simone L. Meddle, and Susan D. Healy. "Birds build camouflaged nests." Auk 132, no. 1 (January 2015): 11–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1642/auk-14-77.1.

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BLYTH, EDWARD. "On Edible Birds' Nests." Ibis 2, no. 4 (June 28, 2008): 323–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1474-919x.1860.tb08162.x.

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Wright, Lynne. "BIRDS AND THEIR NESTS." 5 to 7 Educator 2004, no. 3 (December 2004): ii. http://dx.doi.org/10.12968/ftoe.2004.4.3.17918.

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Oschadleus, H. Dieter. "Who stole my nest? Weaver nests used as nest lining." Afrotropical Bird Biology: Journal of the Natural History of African Birds 1, no. 1 (December 13, 2021): 1–3. http://dx.doi.org/10.15641/abb.v1i.1064.

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Birds stealing nest material from a neighbour’s nest is well known, but stealing entire nests is less well known. This has been reported nine times for raptors and waterbirds taking the domed nests of weaverbirds. Three waterbird species and five raptor species are involved. Nests of four weaver species were identified. Three records were from Kwa-Zulu Natal in South Africa, and the rest from elsewhere in Africa. Weaver nests included green nests, but most were old nests, and at least one occupied nest (with eggs). Since green nests were not the norm, the weaver nests were probably taken as a source of plant material, rather than for any specific benefit relating to weaver nests.

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Chatterjee, L., T. Samanta, S. Sinha, S. Besra, and A. B. Roy. "NESTING PATTERN AND NEST PREDATORS OF SOME RESIDENT BIRDS OF ECOPARK, AN URBAN PARK IN KOLKATA, WEST BENGAL, INDIA." International Journal of Advanced Research 10, no. 08 (August 31, 2022): 110–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.21474/ijar01/15155.

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This Study was conducted from May 2020 to April 2022 at an urban park name Ecopark, located in Kolkata. A total of 116 nests of 38 birds were observed in this study area. Out of these 116 bird nests, 82 bird nests were found to have well developed young, while the other 34 were discovered to be unsuccess due to various reasons. Common Mynas (11) nests were found most. 8 types of nesting structures were observed during this survey namely Deep cup nest, Shallow cup nest, Hole nest, Platform nest, Dome shaped nest, Flat shaped nest, Hanging nest and pear-shaped nest. Hole nest (11) was the most visible nest in this study. Birds were seen nesting lowest on the surface of the water 0 ft to highest over 40 ft height. Storms, heavy rains, human activities, birds of prey, monitor lizards, snakes, rats, ants were indicated as the nests, chicks and birds egg damager.

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Rangen, Sheila A., Robert G. Clark, and Keith A. Hobson. "Influence of nest-site vegetation and predator community on the success of artificial songbird nests." Canadian Journal of Zoology 77, no. 11 (December 1, 1999): 1676–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/z99-141.

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Vegetation characteristics are commonly invoked to explain differential nesting success, but few studies have identified how habitat attributes may be associated with specific predator groups responsible for nest losses. We measured vegetation characteristics at artificial songbird nests deployed on and above the ground in mixedwood forest in west-central Alberta, to discriminate characteristics of successful nests from those of nests destroyed by mice and voles, squirrels, and birds. Successful nests, and those depredated by mice and voles, tended to be on the ground and were well concealed by dense shrubs. Squirrels and birds usually raided aboveground nests at sites with few shrubs and high tree densities. These results suggest that nest visibility is a major factor influencing risk of predation, but the relative importance of concealment varies according to the types of predators and their behavior. The characteristics of nests from which eggs were removed, leaving no egg remains to identify predators, closely resembled those of nests visited by squirrels and birds. Our findings have implications for how individual songbird species cope with selection pressures imposed by nest predators associated with vegetation characteristics of birds' nest patches and, ultimately, how predators may shape the structure of avian communities.

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Belthoff, James R. "Using Artificial Nests to Study Nest Predation in Birds." American Biology Teacher 67, no. 2 (February 1, 2005): 105–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/4451794.

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Belthoff, James R. "Using Artificial Nests To Study Nest Predation IN BIRDS." American Biology Teacher 67, no. 2 (February 2005): 105–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1662/0002-7685(2005)067[0105:uantsn]2.0.co;2.

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Gwinner, Helga. "Birds Nests and Construction Behaviour." Ethology 107, no. 9 (September 9, 2001): 857–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1439-0310.2001.0708a.x.

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Biddle, Lucia, Adrian M. Goodman, and D. Charles Deeming. "Construction patterns of birds’ nests provide insight into nest-building behaviours." PeerJ 5 (February 28, 2017): e3010. http://dx.doi.org/10.7717/peerj.3010.

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Previous studies have suggested that birds and mammals select materials needed for nest building based on their thermal or structural properties, although the amounts or properties of the materials used have been recorded for only a very small number of species. Some of the behaviours underlying the construction of nests can be indirectly determined by careful deconstruction of the structure and measurement of the biomechanical properties of the materials used. Here we examined this idea in an investigation of Bullfinch (Pyrrhula pyrrhula) nests as a model for open-nesting songbird species that construct a “twig” nest, and tested the hypothesis that materials in different parts of nests serve different functions. The quantities of materials present in the nest base, sides and cup were recorded before structural analysis. Structural analysis showed that the base of the outer nests were composed of significantly thicker, stronger and more rigid materials compared to the side walls, which in turn were significantly thicker, stronger and more rigid than materials used in the cup. These results suggest that the placement of particular materials in nests may not be random, but further work is required to determine if the final structure of a nest accurately reflects the construction process.

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Rejon, Julian, Ingrid Cauich, Julio Dzul, Nohemi Toledo, Wilbert Chim, Jose Perez, Karla Viana, and Carlos Baak. "Mites associated with budgerigars Melopsittacus undulatus (Psittaciformes: Psittacidae) and the first report of Ornithonyssus bursa (Mesostigmata: Macronyssidae) in Mexico." Open Veterinary Journal 13, no. 1 (2023): 20. http://dx.doi.org/10.5455/ovj.2023.v13.i1.3.

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Background: Hematophagous mites affect numerous bird species, causing severe injuries to the budgerigars. Some species can cause dermatitis in humans. Aims: The purpose was to morphologically identify the mites related to budgerigars (Melopsittacus undulatus) and their nests in Yucatan, Mexico. Methods: In May 2022, a private budgerigar hatchery was visited and mites were collected from the bodies of the birds and their nests. The morphological traits of the mites were confirmed by scanning electron microscopy. Results: Four of 30 birds showed severe clinical signs of mite infestation. The Budgerigars revealed lesions in the cere, nostrils, eyelids, beak, and paws. The bird's skin showed signs of dryness and beige colouring. The birds with severe damage also presented anorexia and had deformed paws and beaks. The parasitosis was caused by the "burrowing mites", Knemidocoptes pilae (Lavoipierre and Griffiths, 1951). The burrowing mites and the Grallacheles bakeri (De Leon 1962) were recovered and identified from paw scabs. To eliminate mites, a topical application of Ivermectin was administered to the necks of the birds. The dose was a single, which has a residuality of 21 days. Two drops (0.115mg/ml) of ivermectin were applied to each bird. A gradual reduction in crusted lesions due to mite mortality was noted. The "tropical fowl mite" Ornithonyssus bursa (Berlese, 1888) was identified in the nests, which represent the first record in Mexico. Conclusions: Three species of mites were discovered in a single budgerigar hatchery. This emphasizes the importance of deworming birds and keeping a clean environment in their cages to reduce the potential for parasitic mite infestation.

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Zanette, Liana, and Bert Jenkins. "Nesting Success and Nest Predators in Forest Fragments: A Study Using Real and Artificial Nests." Auk 117, no. 2 (April 1, 2000): 445–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/auk/117.2.445.

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Abstract Area sensitivity in songbirds is commonly attributed to increased nest predation in forest fragments. In 1995 and 1996, we tested whether the nest predators and nesting success of an area-sensitive forest bird, the Eastern Yellow Robin (Eopsaltria australis), varied with fragment size, and we also conducted an artificial nest experiment. The study occurred in two small (55 ha) and two large (>400 ha) forest fragments in a matrix of agricultural land in New South Wales, Australia. Predation accounted for 95% of all failures of 282 robin nests, and the survival of robin nests was negatively correlated with how frequently we observed avian nest predators near nests (i.e. nest-predator activity). Of 461 artificial nests, 84% were depredated, nearly all (99%) by birds. Thus, birds were important predators of nests. The abundance, species richness, and activity of avian nest predators were not related to fragment size. Survival of robin nests averaged 19%; nests in small fragments had a 22% chance of producing at least one fledgling compared with 15% in large fragments, but the difference was not significant. Survival of artificial nests averaged 12% in both small and large fragments. Nest-predator activity accounted for the most variation (68%) in the fate of robin nests, followed by the cumulative density of open-cup nesters (16%). The placement of robin nests had no influence on nest fate. We conclude that nest predation was not area dependent and propose food supply as an alternative hypothesis to explain area sensitivity. We suggest that, rather than being related to fragment size, nest predation increases with decreasing forest cover in a landscape. Increased nest predation in fragmented compared with contiguous landscapes may lower the population viability of songbirds in a region, and hence regional numbers. Therefore, the spatial scale at which fragmentation influences nest predation and songbird populations must be considered carefully.

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Abraham, Rudolf. "Nasonia vitripennis an Insect from Birds' Nests (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea: Pteromalidae)." Entomologia Generalis 10, no. 2 (May 1, 1985): 121–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1127/entom.gen/10/1985/121.

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Beier, Paul, and Agba Issahaku Tungbani. "Nesting With The Wasp Ropalidia Cincta Increases Nest Success of Red-Cheeked Cordonbleu (Uraeginthus Bengalus) in Ghana." Auk 123, no. 4 (October 1, 2006): 1022–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/auk/123.4.1022.

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AbstractAssociations between birds and social Hymenoptera (ants, wasps, bees) are common in tropical regions and are usually assumed to be commensal relationships that benefit birds but neither help nor harm the arthropods. However, benefits to birds have been documented in only four such associations, and no previous research has rigorously investigated costs or benefits to associated hymenopterans. We followed the nesting cycles of an estrildid finch, the Red-cheeked Cordonbleu (Uraeginthus bengalus), and a common nesting associate, the wasp Ropalidia cincta, during 2002 and 2003 in northern Ghana to compare reproductive success of birds and wasps nesting in association with that of birds and wasps nesting separately. Red-cheeked Cordonbleus and wasps nested together in the same tree 3.7 × as often as expected if nesting decisions were made independently, with 74% of bird nests and 74% of wasp colonies occurring in associations. Bird nesting was initiated ≈33 days after founding of an associated wasp colony; bird nests and wasp colonies were, on average, 42 cm apart. In both years, Red-cheeked Cordonbleus in nesting associations with wasps were twice as likely to fledge young as birds nesting in trees without wasps. Reduced predation was apparently a major reason for increased fledging success: we documented four cases of nest predation on 122 Red-cheeked Cordonbleu nests associated with wasps, and 11 cases on 90 nests not associated with wasps. Association with birds did not affect the success of wasp colonies. Although our observational study cannot rule out the possibility that both species coincidentally shared a preference for a habitat feature in limited supply, suitable nest sites did not appear to be limiting (74% of potential nest trees had neither bird nor wasp nests). Reproductive success of Red-cheeked Cordonbleu populations in this region may be limited by the number of available wasp colonies. By designing our study to address four working hypotheses (commensalism, mutualism, parasitism, coincidence of habitat preference), we have provided strong evidence that this relationship is commensal.Augmentation du Succès de Nidification de Uraeginthus bengalus Nichant avec des Guêpes Ropalidia cincta au Ghana

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Sánchez-González, Luis A., Carl Oliveros, Nevong Puna, and Robert G. Moyle. "Nests, Nest Placement, and Eggs of Three Philippine Endemic Birds." Wilson Journal of Ornithology 122, no. 3 (September 2010): 587–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1676/09-160.1.

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De Almeida Amélio, Leandro, Dimas Marchi Do Carmo., Jéssica Soares de Lima, and Denilson Fernandes Peralta. "Bryophytes as a material to build birds’ nests in Brazil." Boletín de la Sociedad Argentina de Botánica 52, no. 2 (July 7, 2017): 199–208. http://dx.doi.org/10.31055/1851.2372.v52.n2.17434.

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Birds’ nests are elaborate constructions that are built to provide a safe and secure environment for the eggs and hatchlings of birds to develop. Twigs and leaves represent common nesting materials in birds’ nests globally and with their beaks, they can carry materials, sometimes larger than the birds themselves, to construct their nests. In addition to twigs and leaves, birds also use various other materials less frequently, such as bryophytes, and in this study we examined the prevalence of bryophytes in birds’ nests in Brazil. We analyzed the nest composition of 21 birds’ nests from the Brazilian bryophyte collection at the Institute of Botany (SP Herbarium) and found that bryophytes were a widely used nesting material. The liverworts were dominant in terms of the species richness and the main structural components of the nests were mosses because they represent the main group of structurally bigger and constitutive bryophytes in the habitat in which the birds bred.

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Korniłłowicz-Kowalska, Teresa, Ignacy Kitowski, Justyna Bohacz, and Edyta Kwiatkowska. "Fungal Frequency and Diversity in the Nests of Wetland Birds from Poland: Relationships between Birds, Nest Properties and Inhabiting Fungi." Avian Biology Research 11, no. 4 (October 2018): 245–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.3184/175815618x15360537405342.

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Avian nests are a unique and sometimes extreme environment in which fungi occur. In this study, a correlation was recorded between the breeding biology and ecology of wetland birds and the biology and ecology of fungi in nests of wetland birds. The abundance of ecophysiologically diversified fungi, i.e. saprotrophs, cellulolytic fungi, and potentially zoo- and phytopathogenic fungi, was shown to be significantly higher in large nests, while species diversity (Shannon index) of fungi in nests with similar properties was not significant. The taxonomic structure (genus and species composition) and the spatial structure (frequency) of the nest mycobiota are mainly affected by nests’ specific physical and chemical properties which depend on the breeding and feeding preferences of the birds. In dry, highly sun-exposed nests of the Grey Heron (Ardea cinerea), a species that establishes breeding colonies high in the trees, mainly feeds on fish and has young who defecate into the nest, populations of xerophilic, alkali- and thermotolerant fungi, including keratinolytic fungi (Chrysosporium tropicum), developed. In the nests of the Mute Swan (Cygnus olor), a precocial species which constructs very large, relatively low-hygiene nests at the water's edge and which feeds on plant food, populations of hydrophilic and thermotolerant fungi, including highly cellulolytic fungi such as Chaetomium globosum, were detected. Nests of other small species of wetland birds, whose nests are also located on water but contain smaller amounts of animal-derived material, did not differ significantly mycologically and were colonised mainly by species such as Trichoderma viride and Penicillium purpurogenum, ubiquitous fungi with very high water and thermotolerant requirements.

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Silva, Darliane Evangelho, Guilherme Liberato Da Silva, Joseane Moreira Do Nascimento, and Noeli Juarez Ferla. "Mite fauna associated with bird nests in Southern Brazil." Systematic and Applied Acarology 23, no. 3 (February 23, 2018): 426. http://dx.doi.org/10.11158/saa.23.3.2.

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Interactions between birds and mites have allowed mites to act as ectoparasites or to be associated with the micro-environments of nests. The aim of this study was to identify the mite fauna associated with wild bird nests in the rural and urban zones of different environments, and analyze the importance of birds as potential carriers of these organisms to households or poultry houses. In the rural zone, the following environments were assessed: Countryside (C), Forest (F), Aquatic (A), Orchards (O), and Residential (R), and in the urban zone, a similar division was used (C, O, R), with absence of environments (A) and (F). Apart from the Suborder Oribatida found in the 52 bird nests sampled in both zones, a total of 24,274 mites were collected and identified as 67 species in 34 families. There was a predominance of mites in the rural zone (90%), with higher richness in (C) of both zones and higher abundance in (R) and (A) of the rural zone and (O) of the urban zone. Mite species of medical-veterinary importance with the highest abundance were Ornithonyssus bursa in nests of Certhiaxis cinnamomeus and Columbina picui; Tyrophagus putrescentiae in nests of Columbina picui and Pitangus sulphuratus; and Dermatophagoides pteronyssinus in nests of Troglodytes musculus and Pitangus sulphuratus. This study showed that the wild bird nests are depositories of mites, including ectoparasites of medical-veterinary importance.

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Harvey, Mark S., Patricia C. Lopes, Gregory R. Goldsmith, Ali Halajian, Mia J. Hillyer, and Joel A. Huey. "A novel symbiotic relationship between sociable weaver birds (Philetairus socius) and a new cheliferid pseudoscorpion (Pseudoscorpiones : Cheliferidae) in southern Africa." Invertebrate Systematics 29, no. 5 (2015): 444. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/is15027.

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Birds harbour a wide array of other taxa in their nests or in their plumage, which either have an ectoparasitic or commensal relationship with the host. We report on the discovery of a cheliferid pseudoscorpion found in the plumage and nests of the sociable weaver bird (Philetairus socius) in southern Africa. The nests of these communal birds are the largest of any bird, and may contain up to 500 individuals. The pseudoscorpion is likely to have a mutualistic relationship with the birds, most likely preying on other small invertebrates in the nests. Molecular data derived from two populations of the pseudoscorpion found divergence levels of 1.1% in cytochrome oxidase 1 (CO1), and an analysis of CO1 and two rRNA genes (18S and 28S) found a close relationship with Chelifer and Parachelifer in the tribe Cheliferini, which is supported by the morphology of the male genitalia. The molecular analysis also suggests that Beierius may not belong to the Cheliferini. The pseudoscorpion found in association with the sociable weaver represents a new genus and species, Sociochelifer metoecus Harvey, sp. nov.

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Eichholz, Michael W., and Walter D. Koenig. "Gopher Snake Attraction to Birds' Nests." Southwestern Naturalist 37, no. 3 (September 1992): 293. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3671872.

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TURIENZO, PAOLA, and OSVALDO DI IORIO. "Insects found in birds’ nests from Argentina. Part I: a bibliographical review, with taxonomical corrections, comments and a hypothetical mechanism of transmission of cimicid bugs." Zootaxa 1561, no. 1 (August 27, 2007): 1–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.1561.1.1.

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A bibliographical review of the insects found in birds’ nests from Argentina is herein presented. The bird species are cited as they were originally recorded in the respective publications, but their nomenclature is updated. For each kind of nest, the data are ordered in the following manner: by insect order, family, subfamily and species (references, without locality) and by province: locality with specimens when stated (reference with locality data). Comments on nomenclature and some corrections are included under the respective notes. Three items that have received most attention were the hematophagous Reduviidae: Triatominae, Cimicidae, and the larvae of Philornis (Diptera: Muscidae). Identifications of other insects are scarce, and were explicitly mentioned in only three short works, and in an anecdotal manner in other papers. In general, insects found in birds’ nests may be grouped by ecological guilds (predators, hematophagous parasitoids, detritivores, phytophagous and some predator insect hibernants, and inquilines), permanency (temporal and permanent residents) inside the nests, and according to their direct relationship to the birds. A transmission mechanism is hypothesized for the hematophagous bugs of the family Cimicidae based upon data on birds that nidificate in nests of other birds. Some new records are included.

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Rohwer, Vanya G., Anton Pauw, and Paul R. Martin. "Fluff-thieving birds sabotage seed dispersal." Royal Society Open Science 4, no. 1 (January 2017): 160538. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsos.160538.

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Characterizing many species interactions as mutualisms can be misleading because some members of the interaction derive greater fitness benefits at the expense of other members. We provide detailed natural history data on a suspected bird–plant mutualism in South Africa where many species of birds use fluffy Eriocephalus seed material to construct their nests, potentially dispersing seeds for the plant. We focus on a common bird, Prinia maculosa , which invests heavily in gathering Eriocephalus material. Prinias spent 5 of their median 6-day nest construction period adding seed material to their nests and frequently travelled outside their territory boundary to gather Eriocephalus material. Yet, prinias gathered primarily Eriocephalus fluff and actively avoided gathering seeds. The average prinia nest contained only 6.6 seeds, but contained fluff from 579 seeds. These data suggest that prinias provide limited dispersal benefits to Eriocephalus plants. By contrast, the large amounts of Eriocephalus fluff in prinia nests, and the effort that prinias invest in gathering it, suggest that prinias benefit from constructing their nests with Eriocephalus material. We end by outlining hypotheses for possible fitness benefits that Eriocephalus material could provide prinias and other birds.

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Robinson, W. Douglas, Jennifer Nesbitt Styrsky, and Jeffrey D. Brawn. "Are Artificial Bird Nests Effective Surrogates for Estimating Predation on Real Bird Nests? A Test With Tropical Birds." Auk 122, no. 3 (July 1, 2005): 843–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/auk/122.3.843.

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AbstractArtificial bird nests are often used in studying birds whose nests are difficult to find, such as those of many tropical species. Yet the underlying assumption that predation on artificial nests accurately estimates predation on real nests may be invalid. We compared rates at which contents of real and artificial nests were lost to predators in a Panamanian rainforest. We attempted to make artificial nests as realistic as possible by moving real, undamaged nests to species-typical nest sites in a study area where the same species were actively breeding. Characteristics of new sites for the moved nests were statistically similar to nest sites chosen by birds. We baited nests with two quail eggs and monitored them for species-specific incubation periods. Predation on real and artificial nests was dissimilar in three of four species, revealing that predation on artificial nests correlated poorly with predation on real nests. In a fourth species, artificial and real nests were lost at similar rates. The latter result may have occurred by chance, because depredated real nests rarely showed any sign of damage; whereas depredated artificial nests were torn, which suggests that real and artificial nests attracted different predators. Our results indicate that artificial nests, even when built by the species themselves and placed in realistic situations, are poor predictors of real nest success and we caution against their use in the tropics.Son los Nidos Artificiales Sustitutos Efectivos para Estimar la Depredación de Nidos Verdaderos? Una Prueba con Aves Tropicales

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Zhou, Bo, Changzhang Feng, and Wei Liang. "Nests built on power lines: Nest-site selection by long-tailed broadbills (Psarisomus dalhousiae) in Nonggang of Guangxi, China." Avian Biology Research 13, no. 3 (July 28, 2020): 63–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1758155920943005.

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The quality of breeding habitat may directly affect the survival and development of progeny. Therefore, the selection of a suitable nest-site is an important factor affecting the reproductive success of birds. The most important reason for a bird’s reproductive failure is nest predation. Predation may cause birds to change their nest-sites and even nest morphology. Here we investigated the nest-site characteristics by long-tailed broadbills ( Psarisomus dalhousiae) in Nonggang, Guangxi, southwestern China. Our results showed that long-tailed broadbills in Nonggang mainly build their nests on power lines (88.5%) and nest-site selection was mainly affected by predation pressure and food resources. At the same time, nest-site concealment was trade-off against predator avoidance. This anti-predator strategy effectively utilizes human infrastructure.

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Crego, Ramiro Daniel, Rocio F. Jara, Ricardo Rozzi, and Jaime E. Jiménez. "UNEXPECTED LACK OF EFFECT OF THE INVASIVE AMERICAN MINK ON NESTING SURVIVAL OF FOREST BIRDS." Ornitología Neotropical 31, no. 1 (January 7, 2021): 88–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.58843/ornneo.v31i1.579.

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Nest predation by invasive mammalian predators can cause major impacts on native bird populations. The American mink (Neovison vison) was recently introduced on Navarino Island in southern Chile. The mink established as a new terrestrial mesopredator on the island with documented impacts on waterfowl breeding success. However, little is known about mink effects on forest bird’s reproduction. Here, we investigated nest-predation rate by native predators and the invasive mink on open-cup nesting forest birds by using artificial and natural nests. In six different plots, we deployed a grid (7 x 2) of 14 artificial nests spaced by 50 m and at random heights from the ground. We used camera traps in each nest to identify predators. At each plot, we estimated predator relative abundance using camera traps, Sherman traps, and bird point counts. We estimated nest survival probability as a function of nest age, concealment, distance to the river, and nest height. Additionally, we monitored 43 natural nests of five open-cup nesting bird species. Contrary to expected, mink was not a main predator of nests, depredating only one natural nest. The native raptor Chimango Caracara (Milvago chimango) was the main nest predator, preying on 39.8% artificial nests and 27.0% natural nests. We also found evidence that Chimango Caracara learned to associate the artificial nests with the egg reward. We argue that the lower abundance of mink in the forest and a mismatch between mink peak activity patterns and bird breeding phenology can result in low depredation. Mink impacts, however, may be more pervasive in summer months and on fledglings when mink activity peaks, and more research should be conducted to assess these questions. Our results are valuable to better understand mink impacts on biodiversity and to prioritize conservation actions on species more severely affected.

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Atmoko, T., A. W. Nugroho, and Mukhlisi. "Bird’s species response to the ex-coal mining reclamation stages." IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1027, no. 1 (May 1, 2022): 012009. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/1027/1/012009.

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Abstract Birds played an essential role in the life cycle. This study aimed to determine the bird diversity in coal mining reclamation areas with different ages of reclamation plants: one, four, and eight years old, located in East Kalimantan, Indonesia. The bird diversity was determined using two methods: direct observation and capture-released using mist nets. The birds captured by mist nets were identified, and morphometric measurements were conducted. The results showed 26 species of birds found in this study. Birds species were dominated by Blue-throated bee-eater (Merops viridis), Yellow-vented bulbul (Pycnonotus goiavier), Asian-glossy starling (Aplonis panayensis), and Javan myna (Acridotheres javanicus). The bird’s diversity in the reclamation area with four years of reclamation plants was higher than the other areas. However, the number of birds in the reclamation area with eight years of reclamation plants was the highest. Differences in habitat conditions in the three research areas might cause a low similarity index of bird diversity. Javan myna and Yellow-vented bulbul were found in all research sites. In conclusion, pioneer bird species were observed during the early process of post-coal mining reclamation. The existence of cover crops was essential as a source of food for the birds and nests.

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Major, RE, and G. Gowing. "An inexpensive photographic technique for identifying nest predators at active nests of birds." Wildlife Research 21, no. 6 (1994): 657. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/wr9940657.

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Change in rate of nest predation due to environmental modification is considered a major cause of population decline of many bird species. Our ability to adequately understand and effectively manage this effect is limited by our ability to identify the relative roles of individual nest predators. This is because nest predation is seldom witnessed despite its high frequency. We describe and evaluate an inexpensive photographic technique for identifying nest predators at active nests. Each camera unit (A$220) was triggered by circuitry (A$30), using a magnetic reed switch attached to a supplementary egg. A total of 51 nests of New Holland honeyeaters (Phylidonyris novaehollandiae) was monitored with the equipment. Of these, 39 were preyed upon. Predation was never witnessed, but predators were captured on film for 72% of nests at which predation occurred.

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Akresh, Michael E., Daniel R. Ardia, and David I. King. "Effect of Nest Characteristics on Thermal Properties, Clutch Size, and Reproductive Performance for an Open-Cup Nesting Songbird." Avian Biology Research 10, no. 2 (May 2017): 107–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.3184/175815617x14878495604724.

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Maintaining avian eggs and young at optimum temperatures for development can increase hatching success and nestling condition, but this maintenance requires parental energetic demands. Bird nests, which often provide a structure to safely hold the eggs and nestlings and protect them from predators, can additionally be designed to help maintain eggs’ optimum temperatures by minimising heat loss, especially in climates where eggs cool rapidly when unattended. We collected and measured Prairie Warbler ( Setophaga discolor) nests in western Massachusetts, U.S. in 2009 and conducted a climate-controlled, nest-cooling experiment to determine how nest characteristics affect thermal properties for small, open-cup nesting birds. We then assessed if nests with better insulation properties resulted in any fitness benefits, and also tested if nest structural characteristics affected birds’ fitness. We found that nest characteristics influenced their thermal properties, with thicker, heavier, and larger nests having slower cooling rates and higher predicted equilibrium egg temperatures. Both nest cup depth and clutch size significantly declined over the breeding season, and we observed a trend, although non-significant, that nests with shallower cups had smaller clutches. Contrary to studies on cavity-nesting birds, we found no significant effects of nest thermal properties or nest structure on hatching and fledging success, nestling condition, brood parasitism, or nest survival. Prairie Warblers in our study site may already be adapted to build nests within a range that maximises their fitness. Furthermore, studies have shown that open-cup nests of other species are relatively thicker and more insulated in colder environments at higher latitudes than our study. Instead of building nests to solely minimise heat loss, open-cup nesting birds in temperate climates may also be driven by opposing selection pressures when building their nests, such as to prevent nestlings from overheating during hot days.

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Sodhi, Navjot S., Andrew Didiuk, and Lynn W. Oliphant. "Differences in bird abundance in relation to proximity of Merlin nests." Canadian Journal of Zoology 68, no. 5 (May 1, 1990): 852–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/z90-123.

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Point counts made at different distances from Merlin (Falco columbarius) nests revealed that there were fewer birds near the nests than further away. All species showed this trend, regardless of the likelihood of predation by the Merlins. We propose that this is primarily an avoidance reaction of birds towards nesting Merlins to avoid predation and (or) potential injuries. Point counts made after the Merlins left their nests showed that the number of birds was independent of the distance from the nests.

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Martens, Johanne M., Helena S. Stokes, Mathew L. Berg, Ken Walder, Shane R. Raidal, Michael J. L. Magrath, and Andrew T. D. Bennett. "A non-invasive method to assess environmental contamination with avian pathogens: beak and feather disease virus (BFDV) detection in nest boxes." PeerJ 8 (June 11, 2020): e9211. http://dx.doi.org/10.7717/peerj.9211.

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Indirect transmission of pathogens can pose major risks to wildlife, yet the presence and persistence of wildlife pathogens in the environment has been little studied. Beak and feather disease virus (BFDV) is of global conservation concern: it can infect all members of the Psittaciformes, one of the most threatened bird orders, with infection often being lethal. Indirect transmission of BFDV through contaminated nest hollows has been proposed as a major infection source. However, data on whether and for how long nest sites in the wild remain contaminated have been absent. We determined the BFDV status of birds (parents and nestlings) for 82 nests of Crimson Rosellas, Platycercus elegans and Eastern Rosellas, Platycercus eximius. In 11 of these nests (13.4%, 95% confidence interval 6.9–22.7), we found an infected parent or nestling. Using nest swabs, we then compared BFDV presence at three points in time (before, during and after breeding) in three groups of nest boxes. These were nest boxes occupied by infected birds, and two control groups (nest boxes occupied by uninfected birds, and unoccupied nest boxes). Detection of BFDV on nest swabs was strongly associated with the infection status of parents in each nest box and with the timing of breeding. During breeding, boxes occupied by BFDV-positive birds were significantly more likely to have BFDV-positive nest swabs than boxes occupied by BFDV-negative birds; nest swabs tested BFDV-positive in 80% (28.4–99.5) of nests with parental antigen excretion, 66.7% (9.4–99.2) of nests occupied by parents with BFDV-positive cloacal swabs and 66.7% (22.3–95.7) of nests occupied by parents with BFDV–positive blood. 0% (0–52.2) of nests with BFDV–positive nestlings had BFDV–positive nest swabs. Across all boxes occupied by BFDV-positive birds (parents or nestlings), no nest swabs were BFDV–positive before breeding, 36.4% (95% CI 10.9–69.2) were positive during breeding and 9.1% (0.2–41.3) remained positive after breeding. BFDV was present on nest swabs for up to 3.7 months. Our study provides novel insights into the potential role of nest cavities and other fomites in indirect transmission of BFDV, and possibly other pathogens, and offers a non-invasive method for surveillance of pathogens in wild bird populations.

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Price, J. Jordan, and Simon C. Griffith. "Open cup nests evolved from roofed nests in the early passerines." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 284, no. 1848 (February 8, 2017): 20162708. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2016.2708.

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The architectural diversity of nests in the passerine birds (order Passeriformes) is thought to have played an important role in the adaptive radiation of this group, which now comprises more than half of avian species and occupies nearly all terrestrial ecosystems. Here, we present an extensive survey and ancestral state reconstruction of nest design across the passerines, focusing on early Australian lineages and including members of nearly all passerine families worldwide. Most passerines build open cup-shaped nests, whereas a minority build more elaborate domed structures with roofs. We provide strong evidence that, despite their relative rarity today, domed nests were constructed by the common ancestor of all modern passerines. Open cup nests evolved from enclosed domes at least four times independently during early passerine evolution, at least three of which occurred on the Australian continent, yielding several primarily cup-nesting clades that are now widespread and numerically dominant among passerines. Our results show that the ubiquitous and relatively simple cup-shaped nests of many birds today evolved multiple times convergently, suggesting adaptive benefits over earlier roofed designs.

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Pinho, JB, and MÂ Marini. "Birds' nesting parameters in four forest types in the Pantanal wetland." Brazilian Journal of Biology 74, no. 4 (November 2014): 890–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/1519-6984.08713.

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We tested the heterogeneity/productivity hypothesis with respect to the abundance and richness of birds and the vegetation density hypothesis with respect to birds' nest predation rates, and determined the relative importance of forested vegetation formations for the conservation of birds in the Pantanal. We estimated the apparent nesting success, and the abundance and richness of nesting birds' in four forest types, by monitoring nests during two reproductive seasons in four forested physiognomies (two high productivity/heterogeneity evergreen forests = Cambará and Landi; two low productivity/heterogeneity dry forests = Cordilheira and Carvoeiro) in the Pantanal wetland in Poconé, State of Mato Grosso, Brazil. We found 381 nests of 46 species (35 Passeriformes and 11 non-Passeriformes) in the four forest types. Of these, we monitored 220 active nests belonging to 44 species, 101 during the reproductive season of 2001 and 119 in 2002. We supported the productivity/heterogeneity hypothesis since the two evergreen forests had higher nest abundance and one of them (Cambará) had higher nesting species richness than the dry forests. The number of nests found in each habitat differed with most nests monitored in the Cambará forest (82%), followed by Landi (9%), Cordilheira (6%) and Carvoeiro (3%) forests. The total number of nests monitored was significantly higher in evergreen forests than in dry forests. Also, more species nested in evergreen (37 species) than in dry (16 species) forests. A Correspondence Analysis revealed that only Carvoeiros had a different nesting bird community. The overall apparent nesting success of 220 nests was 26.8%. We did not support the vegetation density hypothesis since nest predation rates were similar between evergreen (73.5%) and dry (70%) forests, and were higher in the Landi (85%) than in the other three forests (69.2 to 72.2%). Our data indicate that Cambará forests seem to be a key nesting habitat for many bird species of the Pantanal. If this local pattern also occurs in other regions of the Pantanal, the use and management of Cambará forests might prove to be important for the conservation of forest birds of this biome. However, conflicting results with other taxonomic groups show that conservation measures for these forests and land use policies should be based on a more complete biodiversity evaluation of the region.

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Padyšáková, Eliška, Martin Šálek, Lukáš Poledník, František Sedláček, and Tomáš Albrecht. "Predation on simulated duck nests in relation to nest density and landscape structure." Wildlife Research 37, no. 7 (2010): 597. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/wr10043.

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Context Density-dependent predation has been recently discussed as a contributing cause of duck nest failure. Aims We tested whether nest density increases the nest predation rate (density-dependent predation) in patches of littoral vegetation surrounding fishponds in two contrasting landscape types, the first dominated by forest and the other dominated by agricultural fields. Methods In total, 576 simulated ground nests were deployed in 48 littoral patches in South Bohemia, Czech Republic, in two replicates (June and July), for two consecutive years (2005 and 2006). Nests were deployed either solitarily (low-density plots) or in groups of five nests (high-density plots). Key results Despite differences in local predator communities, we found no evidence of different survival rates of solitary nests and nests placed in high-density patches in either habitat. Mammalian predators were the most common nest predators, followed by birds. The composition of nest predator community depended on landscape type, with mammals predominating in forest landscape and birds in agricultural areas. Our data thus do not support the theory of density-dependent predation of duck nests in littoral patches, regardless of predominant nest predator type. Conclusions Based on our results, we conclude that nest predator responses to different habitats are complex, taxon specific, and context dependent. Implications Conservation efforts for waterfowl may need to be customised according to the nest-predator species primarily responsible for local nest mortality and the nature of the landscape mosaic.

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Pandian, M. "Nest tree preference shown by Ring-necked Parakeet Psittacula krameri (Scopoli, 1769) in northern districts of Tamil Nadu, India." Journal of Threatened Taxa 13, no. 5 (April 26, 2021): 18189–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.11609/jott.5991.13.5.18189-18199.

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This paper pertains to the nesting aspects of Psittacula krameri with specific reference to nesting-related habitats, number of individuals encountered, inter-specific interactions, and abnormalities in 71 villages covering seven northern districts of Tamil Nadu. A total of 797 nests (500 active and 297 non-active nests) and 1,119 individuals were enumerated on 284 trees and 13 temples/buildings belonging to eight species, seven genera, and five families. The highest number of nests (320) and birds (469) occurred on Borassus flabellifer L., followed by Cocos nucifera L., Albizia lebbeck (L.) Benth., Madhuca longifolia J.F.Gmel., Phoenix sylvestris (L.) Roxb., and Ficus benghalensis L. This species prefers dead trees than living trees for nesting. The study reveals that 63.4% nests (n= 505) and 65.1% birds (n= 729) were found on dead trees of B. flabellifer, C. nucifera, and P. sylvestris. They generally prefer to build nests on trees situated near agricultural lands, followed by those near water bodies, human settlements, and temples/buildings. Pearson’s chi-square test indicates that the birds showed preference towards certain nesting sites/nesting species. Inter-specific interactions occurred between P. krameri and Blue Rock Pigeon, Spotted Owlet, Indian Roller, and Black-rumped Flameback for sharing of cavities/holes for construction of nests. Abnormalities in bird’s beak, cere, colour of feathers, and a suspected psittacine beak & feather disease (PBFD) were observed.

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Mallory, Mark L., Wallace B. Rendell, and Raleigh J. Robertson. "Responses of Birds to Broken Eggs in Their Nests." Condor 102, no. 3 (August 1, 2000): 673–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/condor/102.3.673.

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Abstract We tested the responses of two bird species which nest on unmovable substrates (e.g., cavities and walls) to simulated and actual egg damage in their nest. Tree Swallows (Tachycineta bicolor) and Barn Swallows (Hirundo rustica) removed broken eggs and continued to incubate the rest of their clutch, but response times took up to 8 days, and observed rejection rates were lower than reported for some other passerines. Collectively, these data and other studies suggest that broken eggs represent a continuing selection pressure to which all birds respond, although there appears to be some variability among species in the strength and speed of the response to damaged eggs.

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Mumme, Ronald L. "Helpers at Birds' Nests Alexander F. Skutch." Auk 105, no. 2 (April 1988): 402–3. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/4087520.

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ETC., John Gould F. R. S. "OBSERVATIONS ON THE NESTS OF HUMMING BIRDS." Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London 21, no. 1 (August 20, 2009): 100. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7998.1853.tb07193.x.

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Haywood, Sacha. "Can birds count eggs in their nests?" Ibis 158, no. 1 (November 20, 2015): 195–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/ibi.12328.

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Mainwaring, Mark C., Ian R. Hartley, Marcel M. Lambrechts, and D. Charles Deeming. "The design and function of birds' nests." Ecology and Evolution 4, no. 20 (September 24, 2014): 3909–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ece3.1054.

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Rendell, Wallace B., and Nicolaas A. M. Verbeek. "Are avian ectoparasites more numerous in nest boxes with old nest material?" Canadian Journal of Zoology 74, no. 10 (October 1, 1996): 1819–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/z96-203.

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Researchers may reduce the numbers of haematophagous ectoparasites in nest boxes of cavity-nesting birds by removing old nests from boxes and, as a result, eliminate an important selective pressure that could influence the results from nest-box studies of birds. We recorded the numbers of parasites in tree swallow (Tachycineta bicolor) boxes in which we manipulated the presence, amount, and quality of old nests. Bird fleas (Ceratophyllus idius) were more numerous in boxes with old nests, and there was a positive correlation between nest volume and flea numbers. In one year, there was a positive association between fowl mite (Ornithonyssus sylviarum) numbers and nest volume; otherwise, fowl mites and blow flies (Protocalliphora sialia) were equally numerous in all nest types. We conclude that ectoparasites whose over-winter survival depends on old nests are more numerous in boxes with old nests, whereas parasites whose over-winter survival is independent of old nests infect nest sites randomly. Also, reinfection and nest microclimate likely contributed to variance in parasite numbers between nest types and years, respectively. We recommend caution when speculating about the possible effects of cleaning boxes on parasites that occur in nests because different species of parasites are not influenced similarly by old nests.

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Mandema, Freek S., Joost M. Tinbergen, Bruno J. Ens, and Jan P. Bakker. "Livestock grazing and trampling of birds’ nests: an experiment using artificial nests." Journal of Coastal Conservation 17, no. 3 (February 28, 2013): 409–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11852-013-0239-2.

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UCHIDA, Hiroshi. "Passerine Birds Nesting close to the Nests of birds of Prey." Japanese Journal of Ornithology 35, no. 1 (1986): 25–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.3838/jjo.35.25.

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Gentry, Dale J., David L. Swanson, and Jay D. Carlisle. "Species Richness and Nesting Success of Migrant Forest Birds in Natural River Corridors and Anthropogenic Woodlands in Southeastern South Dakota." Condor 108, no. 1 (February 1, 2006): 140–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/condor/108.1.140.

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AbstractForest fragmentation is thought to be partially responsible for declines in many Neotropical migrant birds due to the combined effects of higher rates of brood parasitism and increased predation near forest edges. A majority of the forested habitat in the northern prairie region is found in riparian corridors, but this native habitat has been much reduced from its historical extent. However, additional woodland nesting habitat has been established within the last century in the form of isolated woodlots on farms. We compared abundance, species richness, and nesting success of migrant forest birds breeding in native riparian corridors and anthropogenic woodlots. The two habitats had similar bird abundances but native riparian woodlands were more species-rich than woodlots. We located a total of 650 nests, with 320 nests of 15 species in woodlots and 331 nests of 25 species in riparian corridors. Nesting success was not significantly different between the two habitats for all species combined or for individual species with ≥15 nests in each habitat. Nests above 5 m were more successful than lower nests, but distance to woodland edge did not influence nesting success. Nests initiated in the middle and late portions of the nesting season were more successful than early season nests, significantly so in woodlots. Thus, anthropogenic woodlots were as suitable as natural habitats for successful nesting. However, many of the Neotropical migrants occurring in riparian habitats were absent from woodlots, which suggests that riparian corridors are especially important habitats for breeding birds in the northern prairie region.

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Husby, Magne. "Nestling begging calls increase predation risk by corvids." Animal Biology 69, no. 2 (2019): 137–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15707563-20181058.

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Abstract Despite nest predation being the most common cause of breeding failure in open-nesting birds, we have little insight into the cues used by nest predators when they search for nests. So far we have assumed that nest-predating birds are visually oriented while mammal predators to a large extent use scent and auditory cues like nestling begging calls. To evaluate how important nestling begging calls are for corvid nest predators searching for nests, I used artificial nests, which made it possible to find the real costs of the begging without mitigation by parental and nestling behavior. I used paired artificial nests, one with and one without nestling begging call playback. Within 10 days, 62.9% of the nests were predated. The analyses showed that nests with begging calls suffered a significantly higher predation rate than nests without begging calls, especially when the nests were placed close to corvid nests. Moreover, nests with begging calls were predated significantly earlier than nests without begging calls. In artificial nest pairs with both nests predated but on different days, nests with begging calls were predated first. In nest pairs with only one predated nest, nests with begging calls were predated most often. This experiment shows that nestling begging calls imply a cost in terms of increased and earlier nest predation, and that corvids use nestling begging calls as a cue to find and depredate bird nests, challenging earlier expectations.

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Møller, A. P., L. Atkin, and T. R. Birkhead. "Copulation Behaviour of Birds." Behaviour 101, no. 1-3 (1987): 101–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/156853987x00396.

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AbstractInter-specific variation in copulation behaviour among birds is described. The following factors explaining variation in copulation rate are examined: (i) the number of eggs which have to be fertilized (the fertilization hypothesis), (ii) the importance of the pair-bond (the social bond hypothesis), (iii) predation risk during copulation (the predation hypothesis), and (iv) cuckoldry risk (the sperm competition hypothesis). These hypotheses were investigated in preliminary analyses at the generic level using data on copulation behaviour in 131 bird species. The sperm competition hypothesis was supported by several lines of evidence: (i) frequent copulations among genera where males are not able to guard their mates (colonial birds, diurnal birds of prey, and owls), (ii) frequent copulations in polyandrous genera, (iii) copulations inside hole-nests of colonial birds but outside the hole-nests of solitarily nesting genera, and (iv) by the occurrence of forced pair copulations following extra-pair copulation in some species. The predation and social bond hypotheses were not totally dismissed, but there was no evidence that fertilization ability was limited by copulation frequency (i.e. the fertilization hypothesis).

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Šálek, Miroslav, and Václav Zámečník. "Delayed nest predation: a possible tactic toward nests of open-nesting birds." Folia Zoologica 63, no. 2 (July 2014): 67–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.25225/fozo.v63.i2.a3.2014.

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Journal articles on the topic 'Birds Nests'

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