Academic literature on the topic 'Birds – South Africa'

Avian influenza viruses are pathogens of global concern to both animal and human health. Wild birds are the natural reservoir of avian influenza viruses and facilitate virus transport over large distances. Surprisingly, limited research has been performed to determine avian influenza host species and virus dynamics in wild birds on the African continent, including South Africa. This study described the first wild bird surveillance efforts for influenza A viruses in KwaZulu-Natal Province in South Africa after the 2017/2018 outbreak with highly pathogenic avian influenza virus H5N8 in poultry. A total of 550 swab samples from 278 migratory waterfowl were tested using real-time RT-PCR methods. Two samples (0.7%) were positive for avian influenza virus based on the matrix gene real-time RT-PCR but were negative for the hemagglutinin subtypes H5 and H7. Unfortunately, no sequence information or viable virus could be retrieved from the samples. This study shows that avian influenza viruses are present in the South African wild bird population, emphasizing the need for more extensive surveillance studies to determine the South African avian influenza gene pool and relevant local host species.

The aim of this paper is to summarize our knowledge of the birds of the Bloemfontein area, Free State, South Africa. It presents data on the status, distribution, population densities and habitat of the birds of this area, during the years 1977-2000 (with a special emphasis on the years 1993-1998). Both published and unpublished data are analysed. Population densities were estimated mainly using the line transect method and territory mapping method. For most fairly common, common and very common species, data on population densities are provided, while for 19 species (mainly rare or very rare), distribution maps of their occupied territories are presented. A total of 324 bird species were recorded. Breeding birds comprised 60.2% of the overall species (195), while non-breeding birds made up the remaining 39.8% (129). Among the breeding species, most (55.9%) were residents throughout the year, 3.1% were intra-African migrants and 1.2% were nomads. Non-breeding birds were represented by Palearctic migrants (35 species, 10.8%) classified as vagrants, irregular and regular visitors; and African non-breeding species (94; 29.0%), which were mainly vagrants. Among the breeding species, most were rare or very rare (100 species, 56.4%). Only 24 (12.3%) of them were very common, nine of which were non-passeres and 15 passeres. The main threat to birds in the Bloemfontein area is intensive agriculture. Some suggestions and recommendations are given for more effective and efficient bird conservation in this important area.

Over a period of eleven years (January 1985 – December 1995) approximately 5 000 individuals representing 51 bird species which, potentially, posed a threat to aviation were collected at the Bloemfontein airport. More than half of the species concerned can be considered as medium sized terrestrial birds of which the crowned plover (Vanellus coronatus) is by far the most important. A similar species composition occurred at the Kimberley airport, in contrast to the greater percentage of water associated birds at the Johannesburg airport. Indirectly, food availability appears to be one of the main environmental factors involved in the presence of the five dominant bird species at the Bloemfontein airport.

SummaryForest ecosystems in South Africa are at risk from a variety of anthropogenic threats impacting the faunal species dependent on them. These impacts often differ depending on species-specific characteristics. Range data on forest dependent bird species from the South African Bird Atlas Project (SABAP1 and SABAP2) were analysed to determine links between deforestation, species characteristics and range declines. Half of the species studied were found to have declining ranges. Range change data for these species were correlated with data on changes in land cover from 1990 to 2014. To determine which land cover changes affect extinction, occupancy was modelled for 30 sites across South Africa which experienced a loss of more than 10 species. Most species lost were birds of prey or insectivores. Indigenous forest decreased in 17% (n = 5) sites, while plantations/woodlots decreased in 60% (n = 18) sites. Occupancy modelling showed extinction to be mitigated by plantations in 6/28 species, and forest expansion mitigated extinction in 7/28 species. Responses to deforestation did not appear to be related to particular species characteristics. Half of South Africa’s forest-dependent bird species have declining ranges, with the loss of these species most prominent in the Eastern Cape province. Four responses to changes in forest and plantation cover are discussed: direct effects, with forest loss causing species loss; matrix effects, where plantation loss resulted in species loss; degradation of indigenous forest; and the advent of new forest arising from woody thickening caused by carbon fertilisation, which may not result in optimal habitat for forest-dependent birds.

AbstractThere are few published studies quantifying the volume of wildlife being traded through Singapore. We report on Singapore's involvement in the trade of avifauna listed on CITES based on government-reported data to CITES, with particular emphasis on Singapore's role in the trade of the globally threatened African grey parrot Psittacus erithacus. During 2005–2014 Singapore reported commercial import permits for 225,561 birds, from 35 countries, listed on CITES Appendices I and II, and the export of 136,912 similarly listed birds to 37 countries, highlighting the country's role as a major international transshipment hub for the global aviculture industry. Major exporters to Singapore included the Solomon Islands, the Netherlands, Taiwan, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and South Africa. Major importers from Singapore included Taiwan, the United Arab Emirates and Japan. Singapore imported significant quantities of CITES-listed birds from African countries, including the Central African Republic, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Guinea and South Africa, a number of which have a history of abuse of CITES export permits, discrepancies in reported trade data, or an acknowledged lack of wildlife law enforcement capacity. Significant discrepancies were detected between import and export figures of CITES-listed avifauna reported by Singapore and its trading partners. Based on these findings we present three recommendations to improve the regulation and monitoring of the trade in CITES-listed bird species in Singapore.

Thesis (MSc)--Stellenbosch University, 2015.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Forests in South Africa have had a long history of human utilization and disturbance, and are under threat from a variety of anthropogenic land use changes. Foremost of these are deforestation and forest degradation, impacting the species native to these forests. The aims of this study were to determine changes in the distribution of forest dependent bird species according to the South African Bird Atlas Project; to relate these changes to changes in land-use; to identify links between these changes; to determine the extent, location and causes of the decline of each forest dependent bird species; and to identify current risks to forest dependent bird species in South Africa. Range data on 57 forest dependent bird species from SABAP1 (1987-1992) and SABAP2 (2007-present) were analyzed. Of these, 28 species were found to have declining ranges. Thirty sites across South Africa were identified as being most at risk, with all having experienced a loss of more than 10 of the 57 forest dependent bird species between SABAP1 and SABAP2. The range change data of the 28 species with decreasing ranges were correlated with data on changes in land cover over the same time period to infer relationships between changes in land use and change in bird ranges. Occupancy modelling was done to determine which land cover types affect extinction and initial presence. Individual species characteristics were analyzed to determine links between characteristics and response to land use change. A pan-European trait-based risk assessment framework was applied to all 57 species to identify habitats and species most at risk, as well as the most important threats to species persistence. Results showed that natural vegetation decreased in 67% of sites, while plantations and cultivation increased in 50% of sites. Occupancy modelling showed extinction likelihood to increase with plantations in some species, while plantations mitigated extinction likelihood in other species. Urbanization and cultivation likewise mitigated extinction likelihood in some species. Natural vegetation was replaced by cultivation, while cultivation was replaced by urbanization. The number of species lost increased with a loss of natural vegetation. Twenty two of the thirty sites experienced deforestation of indigenous forests between 2000 and 2013/2014; changes in natural vegetation in these sites can be attributed primarily to deforestation, and a loss of plantations. While most at-risk sites were in the Eastern Cape, there was no geographic grouping of species loss or of land use change. Most species lost were birds of prey or insectivores, and species characteristics and habitat preferences determined the sites from which they were lost. The Cape parrot (Poicephalus robustus), rufous-chested sparrowhawk (Accipiter rufiventris) and the migratory Eurasian golden oriole (Oriolus oriolus) suffered the largest declines in range size and are thought to be most at risk. Montane forests were found to be more at risk than other forest types. The major risks facing montane forests were increased abundance of small predators, increased fire suppression, increased soil management, removal of deadwood and reduced diversity of tree species. These threats are all products of plantation forestry and local harvesting. Nesting risk was higher than foraging risk for all species, indicating that nesting habitat should be better preserved. Half of South Africa’s forest dependent bird species have declining ranges, with the loss of these species most prominent in the Eastern Cape. Natural vegetation loss, comprising mostly recent deforestation; increased cultivation and urbanization; and changes in plantation cover are thought to be the main factors determining these declines. Montane forests in particular should be better protected to preserve forest dependent species, and the negative effects of plantation forestry and local harvesting should be mitigated.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Suid-Afrika het ‘n lang geskiedenis van woude wat deur mense gebruik, asook vernietig word. Woude word bedreig deur verskeie menslike grondgebruike en veranderinge. Die mees vooraanstaande van die bedreigings is ontbossing en woud verdunning, wat ‘n invloed het op inheemse spesies in die woude. Die doelwitte van hierdie studie was om veranderinge in die verspreiding van bos-afhanklike voëlspesies vas te stel volgens die Suid Afrikaanse Voël Atlas Projek; om hierdie veranderinge te verband met veranderinge in grondgebruik; om verbande tussen hierdie veranderinge te identifiseer; om die mate, die plek en die oorsake van die agteruitgang van elke bos-afhanklike voëlspesies te bepaal; en om huidige risiko's aan die bos afhanklik voëlspesies in Suid-Afrika te identifiseer. Trefwydte inligting oor 57 woud afhanklike voëlspesies van SABAP1 (1987-1992) en SABAP2 (2007-nou) was geanaliseer. Daar was gevind dat vanuit die spesies, het 28 ‘n afneming in trefwydte ervaar. Dertig terreine in Suid-Afrika was uitgeken as dié met die hoogste risiko, met ‘n verlies van meer as 10 van die 57 woud afhanklike voëlspesies tussen SABAP1 en SABAP2. Die trefwydte inligting van die 28 spesies met ‘n afnemende trefwydte was gekorreleer met inligting oor veranderinge in grond bedekking oor dieselfde tydperk om verhoudings tussen veranderinge in grond gebruik en veranderinge in voël trefwydtes aftelei. Besetting modellering was gedoen om te bepaal watter tipes grond bedekking beinvloed uitwissing en aanvanklike teenwoordigheid. Kenmerke van individuele spesies is ontleed om verbande tussen kenmerke en reaksie op verandering in grondgebruik te bepaal. ‘n Pan-Europese eienskap gebaseerde risiko-analise raamwerk is toegepas op die 57 spesies om die spesies en habitatte met die grootse risiko te identifiseer, asook die belangrikste bedreigings vir spesies-volharding. Die resultate het gewys dat natuurlike plantegroei het verminder in 67% van terreine, terwyl plantasie en verbouing vermeerder het in 50% van terreine. Besetting-modellering het gewys dat waarskynlikheid van uitwissing vermeerder met plantasies in sommige spesies, terwyl plantasies die waarskynlikheid van uitwissing verminder het in ander spesies. Verstedeliking en verbouing het ook die waarskynlikheid van uitwissing verminder in sommige spesies. Natuurlike plantegroei was vervang deur verbouing, terwyl verbouing vervang is deur verstedeliking. Die aantal spesies verlies het vermeerder met die vermindering van natuurlike plantegroei. Twee en twintig van die dertig terreine het ontbossing van inheemse woude ervaar tussen 2000 en 2013/2014. Veranderinge in natuurlike plantegroei in die terreine is meestal as gevolg van ontbossing, en ‘n vermindering van plantasies. Terwyl meeste van die hoë risiko terreine in die Oos-Kaap was, was daar geen geografiese groepering van spesies vermindering of grondgebruik veranderinge nie. Meeste spesies wat vernietig is was roofvoëls of insectivore, en spesies kenmerke en habitat voorkeure het die terreine bepaal waaruit hulle verloor is. Die grootpapegaai (Poicephalus robustus), rooiborssperwer (Accipiter rufiventris) en die trekvoël Europese wielewaal (Oriolus oriolus) het die grootste vermindering in trefwydte grootte ervaar, en is vermoedelik die grootste risiko. Bergwoude was gevind om meer in gevaar te wees as ander woud tipes. Die grootste risikos wat bergwoude beïnvloed het was ‘n toenemende hoeveelheid klein roofdiere, verhoogde vuur onderdrukking, verhoogde grondbestuur, verwydering van dooie hout, en verlaagde diversiteit van boomspesies. Hierdie bedreigings is almal as gevolg van plantasie bosbou en plaaslike oes. Nes-risiko was hoër as kos soek risiko vir alle spesies, wat aandui dat nes-habitat beter bewaar moet word. Die helfte van Suid-Afrika se woud-afhanklike-voëlspesies het dalende trefwydtes, met die verlies van hierdie spesies mees opvallend in die Oos-Kaap. Die verlies van natuurlike plantegroei, as gevolg van onlangse ontbossing; verhoogde verbouing en verstedeliking; en veranderinge in plantasie bedekking is vermoedelik die hooffaktore wat die vermindering van voëlspesies veroorsaak. Veral bergwoude moet beter beskerm word om woud-afhanklike-voëlspesies te bewaar en die negatiewe invloede van plantasiebosbou en plaaslike oes te verminder.

A riparian ecosystem is the area between the aquatic and terrestrial setting of a stream, and serves as a corridor and habitat for birds. Several riparian ecosystems are located in urban environments, and three main riparian corridors are located in Potchefstroom. They are the Mooi River, Wasgoed Spruit, and Spitskop Spruit, which encompass a wide range of different vegetation types and anthropogenic factors. Therefore, different habitat types for birds occur along the riparian corridors of Potchefstroom. Factors such as food and water availability, nesting sites, competition, predation, learning, presence of other species, and those species that are able to adapt to environmental changes influence the avian diversity and communities along riparian corridors. The hypothesis is that bird variables along the riparian corridors in Potchefstroom are affected by vegetation, anthropogenic, and seasonal influences. To investigate these affects, two secondary objectives were formulated. The first was to characterise riparian avian habitats (CAHs) according to vegetation and anthropogenic factors, and the second was to identify temporal and spatial changes in avian variables. The three streams were divided into 79 consecutive transects, each 300 m long. The study area consisted of: 17 transects along Spitskop Spruit, 12 along Wasgoed Spruit and 50 along the Mooi River. Bird observations were conducted monthly from June 2006 to June 2007. Birds that were observed with a perpendicular distance ≤ 30 meters towards the streams were included in the results. The bird species that were observed were also classified into different nesting and feeding guilds. Environmental data recorded included: vegetation structure (estimated cover percentages and height classes of trees, shrubs, grasses, herbs, sedges, and reeds), anthropogenic structures (estimated cover percentages of roads, footpaths, bridges, electrical pylons, houses, and drainage pipes), and the presence of informal settlers along each transect (the mean number of people and the space they occupy). Vegetation was monitored in summer– (February 2007 until April 2007) and winter months (June 2007 until August 2007). The anthropogenic structures and the presence of informal settlers (anthropogenic factors) were monitored simultaneously with the bird counts. Transect-time profiles were drawn for the four parameters, which differed on spatial and time scales. Multivariate analyses included non-metric multidimensional scaling (NMS), cluster analysis, and indicator species analysis. Cluster analyses and NMS bi-plots were used to define characterised avian habitats (CAHs). Two types of CAHs were characterised: Summer CAHs (summer vegetation and anthropogenic factors) and Anthropogenically CAHs (Anthropogenic factors alone). Bird species were then ordinated with the summer and anthropogenically CAHs on NMS successional vector graphs. The successional vectors illustrate the avian community trajectories of the different CAHs. Indicator species analyses were performed to describe associations between the bird species and the summer and anthropogenically CAHs. The summer and anthropogenic CAHs that were characterised had different avian community trajectories and different species were associated with these CAHs. Different levels in avian diversity appeared among these CAHs, and convergence and divergence in communities appeared among these CAHs. Birds also selected their habitats according to feeding and nesting behaviours. Consequently, it can be deduced that environmental factors such as vegetation structures and anthropogenic factors, as well as seasonality, had an effect on the distribution of birds along the riparian corridors of Potchefstroom.
Thesis (Master of Environmental Sciences)--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2013

The general biology of the South African Cliff Swallow Hirundo spilodera was studied over a two year period in the central Orange Free State. This species is highly colonial, nesting mostly on man-made structures such as concrete road bridges. Adult birds were usually faithful to their breeding colony and very few individuals changed colonies. The Cliff Swallow had a surprisingly large vocal repertoire for a swallow and contact calls of the young were individually recognizable. Three species-specific ectoparasites parasitized the Cliff Swallow but none seemed to have a noticeable negative effect on the swallows. Breeding started earlier in larger colonies than in smaller ones and conspecific brood parasitism was a common feature in some colonies. Individual pairs made up to four breeding attempts per season. The findings of this study are compared with the available information on other members of the Hirundinidae and the advantages and costs of Cliff Swallow coloniality are discussed.

Renewable energy is a promising alternative to alleviating fossil fuel-based dependencies, but its development can require a complex set of environmental trade-offs for bird communities in the area, ranging from effective and physical habitat loss to direct collision-related mortality. The wide variation in the nature and significance of predicted impacts of utility-scale photovoltaic (PV) facilities on birds, and the low levels of confidence attending these predictions, has emphasised the need for scientific research. This study assesses the risks to bird populations and guilds at one of South Africa's largest PV developments. Firstly, in order to identify functional and structural changes in bird communities in and around the development footprint, bird transect data were gathered, representing the solar development, boundary, and untransformed landscape. Secondly, to assess the risk of collision mortality with solar-related infrastructure, representative samples (core vs. edge) were surveyed for bird carcasses and other signs of collision for three months covering 20-30% of the facility at search intervals of 4, 7 and 14 days. In order to account for potential biases in carcass detection, searcher efficiency and carcass persistence trials were conducted. The distribution of birds in the landscape changed, from a shrubland to open country and grassland bird community, in response to changes in the distribution and abundance of habitat resources such as food, water and nesting sites. These changes in resource availability patterns were detrimental to some bird species and beneficial to others. Shrubland specialists, such as the black-chested prinia (Prinia flavicans) and chestnut-vented tit-babbler (Parisoma subcaeruleum), appeared to be negatively affected by the presence of the PV facility. In contrast, open country/grassland and generalist species, especially species such as the Cape sparrow (Passer melanurus) and familiar chat (Cercomela familiaris), were favoured by its development. Utility-scale PV facilities inevitably will not substitute for the natural habitats they have replaced, but might offer opportunities for climate protection that do not necessarily conflict with nature conservation. Monitoring success of avian mortality was significantly influenced by variation in detection rates by size class (60 and 95% for birds <100 g and >100 g, respectively) and the location of carcasses relative to the solar panel units (65 and 90% for birds adjacent and under the units, respectively) as well as decreasing persistence rates per search interval (57, 53, and 40% after 4, 7, and 14 days, respectively). Only injuries associated with non-fatal collision of large-bodied birds with the underside of the panels and entrapment between fencing could be concluded with reasonable certainty. An extrapolated fatality estimate of 4.53 fatalities.MW⁻¹.yr⁻¹ (95% CI 1.51-8.50), short study period, and lack of comparable results from other sources made it difficult to provide a meaningful assessment on avian mortality at PV facilities. Despite these limitations, the few bird fatalities that were recorded might suggest that there is no significant link with collision-related mortality at the study site. In order to fully understand the risk of solar energy development on birds, further collation and analysis of data from solar energy facilities across spatial and temporal scales, based on scientifically rigorous research designs, is required.

Lanner Falcons Falco biarmicus are the commonest large falcons in Africa and this study in the coastal area of the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa investigated their ecology from 1984 to 2000. Lanners have recently been categorised as near-threatened and this study was initiated to ascertain if the population was stable. Breeding success of a small population, in different habitat types, was monitored intensively from 1997 to 2000, and the factors that inhibited breeding were investigated. The earliest onset of incubation was 17 July and the latest 16 August, with 2.2 young fledged per breeding pair over the four-year period. Incubation lasted 32 days and young fledged after 42-45 days. All nest sites were on cliffs with a mean height of 114 m, a mean vertical face of 53 m; 45% of the nests were in ravens’ nests. The aspect of cliff sites also influenced breeding success. Radio tracking was used to determine home range, habitat use and hunting methods, with prey species identified. Home ranges were between 66 km² and 249 km². Preferred prey was domestic chickens, pigeons and small birds during the breeding season. Foraging ranges were smaller in intensively cultivated areas with seed crops. Data obtained from ringing returns showed that no long distance movements occurred in this region, but two juveniles dispersed 152 km and 127 km. Conservation aspects with possible threats to Lanner Falcons such as poisons, electrocutions and direct persecution are discussed with some recommendations made for future research. Evidence from this study indicates that Lanner breeding success is not limited by nest site availability, but by rainfall timing and prey availability. Lanners foraged more in open areas than areas with tall vegetation, and benefited from intensive agriculture. This population appeared to be healthy and in no danger of declining in the near future.

Understanding strategies of resource partitioning within populations is a fundamental aspect of the study of ecology, and one which has been well documented across various taxa. In seabirds, sex-specific differences in foraging behaviour are often thought to reflect strategies of resource partitioning to avoid intra-specific competition. At present Bird Island in Algoa Bay hosts the world’s largest breeding population of gannets, with recent population estimates numbering well over 90 000 breeding pairs. Given the large size of this colony, intense levels of intra-specific competition are expected during the breeding season, particularly in years of poor feeding conditions. In addition, continuous foraging around the breeding colony may lead to the local depletion of prey as the season progresses, calling for flexibility in the foraging behaviour and diet of breeding individuals. Therefore, the aim of this dissertation was to investigate resource partitioning in Cape gannets breeding at Bird Island through strategies of sex-specific foraging and intra-seasonal variability in foraging behaviour and diet. To achieve this, the spatial and temporal aspects of Cape gannet foraging behaviour were assessed during the early stages of chick rearing, over two consecutive breeding seasons (2011/12, 2012/13) using GPS tracking and VHF monitoring. In addition, intra-seasonal variability in foraging behaviour and diet were investigated, taking into account the influence of sex and chick age, to provide a comprehensive assessment of foraging behaviour throughout the chick rearing period. GPS tracking data for 79 birds revealed limited evidence for sex-specific differences over spatial dimensions. An extension in the foraging range of females during a year of lower prey availability (2012/13) was, however, evident. This suggests a possible sex-specific response to prey limitation, likely reflecting resource partitioning strategies or differences in nutritional requirements. VHF data for 95 additional birds revealed a clear pattern in temporal foraging behaviour. In general, females were more likely to be on a foraging trip during the early and mid-day hours, with the probability of males being on a foraging trip increasing towards the late afternoon. Continuous tracking of individuals throughout the 2015/16 breeding season further revealed little evidence for sex-specific differences in spatial distribution and forging effort during both the guard and post-guard stages of chick rearing. A clear increase in foraging range was evident during the early stages of chick rearing as the season progressed. However, birds attending chicks older than 50 days showed an unexpected contraction in foraging range, which appeared to coincide with a dietary shift. During the early stages of breeding the diet was comprised almost exclusively of anchovy, the proportion of which decreased progressively in the diet throughout the breeding season. This was mirrored by a substantial increase in the proportion of saury in the diet. These results suggest that Cape gannets increase their foraging range in response to local prey depletion as the breeding season progresses. However, when alternative prey becomes available they may shift their diet, allowing them to access prey closer to the breeding colony. Overall, this dissertation provides insight into sex-specific behaviour in a monomorphic seabird, suggesting a marginal degree of spatial segregation. The results provide the first support for sex-related temporal foraging segregation in gannets. Such separation could potentially be driven by resource partitioning, but could also relate to differential nutritional requirements. In addition, this study also provided the first comprehensive assessment of foraging behaviour throughout the guard and post guard stages of chick rearing in gannets. These results suggest that a combination of foraging and dietary flexibility may allow Cape gannets to buffer the effects of prey depletion during the breeding season. In conclusion, resource partitioning through sex-specific foraging appears to be limited in the Cape gannet population at Bird Island. Segregation via alternative pathways may however be possible and as such, future studies should consider the influence of individual level segregation and habitat specialization.

The original contribution of this thesis is the examination of the official construction of a post-apartheid foundation myth through the analysis of the dead body politics of five iconic South African women that spans the three presidencies that have defined South Africa’s democratic era. This thesis examines the death and funeral of Albertina Sisulu, the return and burial of Sara Baartman, and the commemoration of Charlotte Maxeke, Lilian Ngoyi, and Helen Joseph. Sisulu, Baartman, Maxeke, Ngoyi, and Joseph have been constructed as heroines and as foundational figures for the post-apartheid nation in official rhetoric. It will contend that the dead body politics of these women not only informs a new foundational mythology, but also features in the processes of regime legitimation when the ANC-dominated government faces strong societal criticism. Although such official expressions of nationalism may appear exhausted, this thesis will show that nationalism remains a powerful and dangerous force in South Africa that attempts to silence opposition and critical analysis of perceived failing government policies or inaction. This thesis will indicate that as women’s bodies and legacies are appropriated for nationalist projects they are subsumed in discourses of domestic femininity in official rhetoric that dangerously detract from women’s democratic rights and their ability to exercise responsible and productive citizenship in the post-apartheid state. It will argue that women’s historic political activism is contained within the meta-narrative of ‘The Struggle’ and that women are re-subsumed into the patriarchal discourses of the past that are inherited in the present. This thesis approaches this topic by considering a top-to-bottom construction of post-apartheid nationalism through applying feminist critical discourse analysis to official rhetoric articulated at the public mourning and commemorative rituals of these five women.

The Fynbos biome in south-western South Africa is a global biodiversity hotspot vulnerable to climate change. Of the six Fynbos-endemic passerines, Cape Rockjumpers (hereafter Rockjumpers; Chaetops frenatus) are most vulnerable to increases in temperature, with population declines correlated with warming, and low physiological heat thresholds. Rockjumper’s preferred mountain habitat is predicted to decrease as they lack opportunity to move to cooler regions as temperatures warm. As Rockjumpers currently occupy the coldest regions of the Fynbos, I hypothesized their thermal physiology would show cold adaptation at the expense of lowered ability to cope with higher temperatures. I aimed to determine the seasonal 1) maintenance metabolism and cold tolerance, and 2) thermoregulatory responses to high temperatures of Rockjumpers. I measured seasonal maintenance metabolic rate, thermal conductance, and maximum thermogenic capacity. I also measured seasonal resting metabolic rate, evaporative water loss, evaporative cooling efficiency, and body temperature at high air temperatures. In winter, Rockjumpers had higher maximum thermogenic capacity, lower maintenance metabolic rate, and lower thermal conductance. Lower maintenance metabolic rates (and thus, lower metabolic heat production) combined with the decreased thermal conductance, confers substantial energy savings in winter. The increased winter maximum thermogenic capacity of Rockjumpers was expected, although the mean seasonal values fell below those expected for a ~ 50 g bird using a global data set, suggesting Rockjumpers are not especially cold tolerant. I further show that in summer Rockjumpers had higher elevations in resting metabolic rates, evaporative water loss, and body temperature, denoting higher rates of heat production and lower heat thresholds in summer compared to winter. My results suggest that Rockjumpers are best suited for relatively mild Krista Oswald Dissertation Chapter 1: General Introduction temperatures. While I found further support for a physiological basis for declining Rockjumper populations, further studies on other mechanisms Rockjumpers may possess to cope with climate warming (e.g. behavioural adjustments) are needed in order to truly understand their vulnerability to climate change.

Complaints of crop damage by cranes on planted maize in the North Eastern Cape, South Africa, have been increasing since the mid-1990‘s, and in some instances severe losses have been reported. Crop damage by the Grey Crowned Crane Balearica regulorum regulorum near the town of Maclear (31º04´S 28º22´E), has been quantified over two growing seasons, and assessed relative to losses caused by foraging Cape Crows Corvus capensis and other feeding damage assumed to be caused by insects. Twelve fields were selected based on previous patterns of crop depredation. Maize seed in seven of the fields was treated with the chemical ‗Gaucho‘ and five fields were planted with untreated maize. In order to determine the source of losses, twenty quadrats (4 m x 4 m) randomly distributed within each field were visited on average every second day, for a period of up to twenty eight days. Results indicate that seed treatments do act as a deterrent to feeding by both cranes and crows, however crane damage is generally insignificant compared to other sources of damage. My study also reviewed past sightings data of the Grey Crowned Crane in an effort to determine if the conversion of former grassland to plantations in this region may have increased foraging activity in maize fields. The data did not allow for clear-cut conclusions regarding changes in distribution or population trends. Conclusions provide direct input into the management of agricultural areas by enabling landowners to take steps to mitigate crop damage. These mitigation measures may either involve the application of seed treatments, or the planting of low risk crops in high risk areas. Future studies should consider the ppossible detrimental effects of chemical seed treatments on crane biology.

The introduction situates the importance of the book within current politics of nature in the Mediterranean. For the few last decades, there has been talk of a “war” on European migrant birds in the southernmost point of the European Union (EU) and former British colony—Malta. Located in the Mediterranean Sea, Malta has long been viewed as a bridge between Europe and North Africa, with its proximity to Tunisia and Libya in the south and Sicily to the north. Each spring and autumn, thousands of European migrating birds use the Maltese Islands as a resting place for their long journeys to and from their wintering grounds in Africa. While some people have claimed that the EU is another form of imperialism now imposed on the Maltese, what is missing from this understanding are the ways in which bird protection in Malta, the production of the Maltese “pothunter,” and environmental ideas of British migrant birds and semitropicality are rooted in part in Britain’s imperial past in the Mediterranean region. Moreover, Malta’s so-called unnatural relationship with birds has been put into sharp relief in comparison to Britain’s other previous Mediterranean colony—Gibraltar. Once a monument to empire, the British overseas territory is now promoted as a model of nature conservation and ornithological study in the Mediterranean.

This chapter explores the activities of the collectors who contributed birds and eggs to Dresser’s collection from China, Japan, Central and South Asia, and Africa. In spite of the vastness of the area covered, collectors who were active in these areas shared much in common as most were involved in the machinery of empire and colonialism in one way or another, whether as part of formal empire as paid ‘professional’ naturalists or geographers, or informally as private travellers or colonialists. The chapter takes some key figures to give particularly detailed outlines of the activities of collectors in non-western settings, notably Robert Swinhoe in China, Russian explorers in Central Asia and British naturalists involved in the Great Game era. Particular emphasis is given to those collectors whose activities are less well known.