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1

Veale, David. Body dysmorphic disorder: A treatment manual. Wiley-Blackwell, 2010.

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Understanding body dysmorphic disorder: An essential guide. Oxford University Press, 2009.

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3

Sony, Khemlani-Petal, and Santos Melanie T, eds. Overcoming body dysmorphic disorder: A cognitive behavioral approach to reclaiming your life. New Harbinger Publications, 2012.

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4

Veale, David. Overcoming body image problems including body dysmorphic disorder: A self-help guide using cognitive behavioral techniques. Basic Books, 2009.

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5

Body image: A handbook of science, practice, and prevention. 2nd ed. Guilford Press, 2011.

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6

National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (Great Britain), British Psychological Society, and Royal College of Psychiatrists, eds. Obsessive-compulsive disorder: Core interventions in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder and body dysmorphic disorder. British Psychological Society, 2006.

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7

Shepphird, Sari Fine. 100 questions and answers about anorexia nervosa. Jones and Bartlett Publishers, 2009.

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8

Vashi, Neelam A., ed. Beauty and Body Dysmorphic Disorder. Springer International Publishing, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-17867-7.

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9

Baughan, Racheal. Body dysmorphic disorder The Butterfly Girl. John Blake Publishing Ltd, 2008.

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10

Winograd, Arie M. Face to Face with Body Dysmorphic Disorder. Routledge, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781315710082.

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11

Judd, Sandra J. Eating disorders sourcebook: Basic consumer health information about anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, binge eating disorder, and other eating disorders and related concerns, such as compulsive exercise, female athlete triad, and body dysmorphic disorder, including details about risk factors, warning signs, adverse health effects, methods of prevention, treatment options, and the recovery process ... 3rd ed. Omnigraphics, Inc., 2011.

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12

Phillips, Katharine A. The Broken Mirror: Understanding and Treating Body Dysmorphic Disorder. Oxford University Press, USA, 2005.

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13

The broken mirror: Understanding and treating body dysmorphic disorder. Oxford University Press, 1996.

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14

El síndrome del espejo: Cómo reconciliarse la propia imagen. Debate, 2013.

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15

Body Dysmorphic Disorder. John Wiley and Sons Ltd, 2006.

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16

Neziroglu, Fugen, and David Veale. Body Dysmorphic Disorder. Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, John, 2010.

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17

Body Dysmorphic Disorder. John Wiley and Sons Ltd, 2006.

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18

Phillips, Katharine A., ed. Body Dysmorphic Disorder. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190254131.001.0001.

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Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) is a devastating yet underrecognized illness. People with BDD are preoccupied with the belief that they look abnormal or ugly—when they actually do not. Their appearance preoccupations cause clinically significant distress or impairment in occupational, academic, social, or other areas of functioning. Psychosocial functioning and quality of life are typically markedly impaired, and rates of suicidality are very high. BDD is common, yet this disorder often goes undiagnosed and untreated. This book provides an up-to-date, comprehensive, and clinically focused overview of this intriguing, complex, and often severe disorder. The book contains nine sections: (1) patients, history, and classification; (2) phenomenology and epidemiology; (3) morbidity; (4) BDD in special populations; (5) assessment; (6) etiology and pathophysiology; (7) recommended treatments; (8) cosmetic treatment; and (9) BDD’s relationship to other disorders. Measures for assessing BDD are provided in the Appendix. Written by leading researchers and clinicians in the field, this book is for anyone who wants to better understand BDD, help patients overcome it, or conduct scientific research to advance knowledge. It is for mental health clinicians, primary care clinicians, and pediatricians, as well as surgeons, dermatologists, and others who provide cosmetic (aesthetic) treatment; cosmetic treatment is commonly received but virtually never alleviates BDD symptoms. This book is also for researchers and students who are interested in anxiety disorders, eating disorders, and obsessive-compulsive and related disorders. Although it is geared toward a professional audience, this book is also for anyone who is interested in or has been affected by BDD.
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19

Feusner, Jamie D., and Danyale McCurdy-McKinnon. Body Dysmorphic Disorder. Edited by Christopher Pittenger. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190228163.003.0050.

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This chapter covers the latest studies addressing neurobiological and genetic/heritable factors that may contribute to body dysmorphic disorder (BDD). BDD affects approximately 2% of the population and involves perceived defects of appearance along with obsessive preoccupation and repetitive, compulsive-like behaviors. Studies of visual processing suggest that disturbances in visual perception and visuospatial information processing, characterized by heightened attention to detail and impairment in holistic and global assessment, contribute to the condition. Also reviewed are studies of brain circuitry in BDD, which implicate white matter and structural connectivity abnormalities as playing possible roles in the pathophysiology of BDD. Finally, this chapter reviews the evidence that the susceptibility for BDD may be partly heritable and that there may be shared genetic factors among the obsessive-compulsive and related disorders (of which BDD is a member) as a group.
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20

Neziroglu, Fugen, and David Veale. Body Dysmorphic Disorder: A Treatment Manual. Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, John, 2013.

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21

Neziroglu, Fugen, and David Veale. Body Dysmorphic Disorder: A Treatment Manual. Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, John, 2010.

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22

Neziroglu, Fugen, and David Veale. Body Dysmorphic Disorder: A Treatment Manual. Wiley & Sons, Limited, John, 2010.

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23

Grant, Jon E., Eric W. Leppink, and Sarah A. Redden. The Relationship Between Body Dysmorphic Disorder and Eating Disorders. Edited by Katharine A. Phillips. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190254131.003.0036.

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This chapter discusses research findings regarding body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) and eating disorders, and it provides guidelines for distinguishing between them. BDD and eating disorders show many similarities, including negative and distorted body image, decreased quality of life, compensatory behaviors such as dieting, and abnormalities in visual processing. Patients with BDD express specific concerns with different parts of their bodies and physical appearance; common examples are complexion, nose, breasts/genitals, and hair. In patients who have prominent concerns about weight and body fat and shape, however, the diagnosis of BDD can be complicated because such concerns can occur as a symptom of BDD but also overlap with those in eating disorders such as anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa. BDD and eating disorders are often comorbid, which is accompanied by notably higher rates of suicidality and psychiatric hospitalization than occur in patients with either disorder alone. BDD and eating disorders represent distinct pathologies, and it is important to distinguish between them, particularly given the increased risk of suicidality when the disorders are comorbid.
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24

Clarke, Alex, Rob Willson, and David Veale. Overcoming Body Image Problems Including Body Dysmorphic Disorder. Little, Brown Book Group Limited, 2012.

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25

Overcoming Body Image Problems Including Body Dysmorphic Disorder. Little, Brown Book Group Limited, 2009.

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26

Gazzarrini, Denise, and Giulio Perugi. Gender and Body Dysmorphic Disorder. Edited by Katharine A. Phillips. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190254131.003.0015.

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Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) in females and males appears to have more similarities than differences; however, gender-related factors appear to influence some aspects of BDD’s clinical expression and prevalence. In epidemiologic studies, BDD is slightly more common in females than in males, but in clinical samples and samples of convenience, the gender ratio is more variable. Gender seems to influence some specific body parts of concern (e.g., men are more likely to be concerned about their genitals, women their breasts and legs). Women appear more likely than men to use certain camouflaging techniques and to pick their skin in response to skin concerns. Differences in comorbidity have also been reported, with substance use disorders more common in males and eating disorders more common in females. Men and women are equally likely to seek cosmetic treatment for BDD, which differs from the general population, but women are more likely to receive it. The possible influence of gender on treatment response deserves further research.
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27

Hart, Ashley S., and Martha A. Niemiec. Comorbidity and Personality in Body Dysmorphic Disorder. Edited by Katharine A. Phillips. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190254131.003.0011.

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Comorbidity is common in body dysmorphic disorder (BDD). Major depressive disorder, social anxiety disorder (social phobia), obsessive-compulsive disorder, and substance use disorders are the most frequently co-occurring Axis I conditions. Except for eating disorders (more common in women) and substance use disorders (more common in men), Axis I comorbidity rates in BDD appear similar across genders. Axis I comorbidity is associated with greater functional impairment and morbidity. Rates of comorbid personality disorders in BDD are high. Disorders from cluster C occur most frequently, with avoidant personality disorder the most common. Associated traits include low self-esteem and high levels of neuroticism, introversion, unassertiveness, social anxiety and inhibition, rejection sensitivity, and perfectionism. Research is needed on the relationship between BDD and psychiatric comorbidity, the causes and consequences of comorbidity in BDD, and the relationship between BDD and associated personality traits.
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28

Vashi, Neelam A. Beauty and Body Dysmorphic Disorder: A Clinician's Guide. Springer, 2015.

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29

Beauty and Body Dysmorphic Disorder: A Clinician's Guide. Springer, 2015.

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30

Vashi, Neelam A. Beauty and Body Dysmorphic Disorder: A Clinician's Guide. Springer International Publishing AG, 2016.

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31

The Broken Mirror: Understanding and Treating Body Dysmorphic Disorder. Oxford University Press, USA, 1998.

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32

Stein, Dan J. Evolutionary Psychiatry and Body Dysmorphic Disorder. Edited by Katharine A. Phillips. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190254131.003.0019.

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Most work on the psychobiology of body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) has focused on “proximal” mechanisms: the possible cognitive-affective processes, neuronal circuitry, and genetic variants involved in underpinnings of this disorder. Evolutionary medicine has, however, emphasized that a comprehensive biologic approach to medical and psychiatric disorders should also address “distal” mechanisms. These are the adaptive processes that have underpinned phylogeny and ontogeny, and that are therefore relevant to a comprehensive understanding of biologic states and traits. Evolutionary accounts of disease have emphasized constructs such as co-evolution, constraints, defenses, mismatch, reproductive success, and tradeoffs. This chapter discusses how concepts from evolutionary theory may be useful in developing a more comprehensive model of BDD, and how this may in turn be useful for guiding aspects of clinical assessment and intervention.
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33

Phillips, Katharine A. Differentiating Body Dysmorphic Disorder from Normal Appearance Concerns and Other Mental Disorders. Edited by Katharine A. Phillips. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190254131.003.0018.

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This chapter discusses differentiation of body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) from disorders that may be misdiagnosed as BDD or that present differential diagnosis challenges: eating disorders, major depressive disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, trichotillomania (hair-pulling disorder), excoriation (skin-picking) disorder, illness anxiety disorder, social anxiety disorder, agoraphobia, panic disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders, gender dysphoria, avoidant personality disorder, olfactory reference syndrome, and several other constructs. This chapter also discusses how to differentiate BDD from normal appearance concerns and from problematic preoccupation with obvious physical defects.BDD is commonly misdiagnosed as another mental disorder. Sometimes misdiagnosis occurs because patients are too embarrassed and ashamed to reveal their appearance concerns; in such cases, BDD symptoms that are more readily observable (such as social anxiety) may be assigned an incorrect diagnosis while BDD goes undetected. In other cases, BDD symptoms are recognized but are misdiagnosed as another disorder. BDD must be differentiated from other conditions so appropriate treatment can be instituted.
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34

Kelly, Megan M., and Katharine A. Phillips. Phenomenology and Epidemiology of Body Dysmorphic Disorder. Edited by Gail Steketee. Oxford University Press, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195376210.013.0018.

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Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) is an often severe DSM-IV disorder characterized by distressing or impairing preoccupations with imagined or slight defects in appearance. Individuals with BDD suffer from time-consuming obsessions about their bodily appearance and excessive repetitive behaviors (for example, mirror checking, excessive grooming, and skin picking). Functioning and quality of life are typically very poor, and suicidality rates appear markedly elevated. While prevalence data are still limited, they suggest that BDD affects 0.7% to 2.4% of the population; however, BDD typically goes unrecognized in clinical settings. In this chapter we discuss demographic and clinical features of BDD, prevalence, and morbidity. In addition, we discuss BDD’s relationship to obsessive compulsive disorder, hypochondriasis, and psychotic disorders.
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35

Jerome, Laurence. Body Dysmorphic Disorder over the Past Century. Edited by Katharine A. Phillips. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190254131.003.0003.

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This chapter reviews the history of dysmorphophobia, the precursor of body dysmorphic disorder (BDD), in the world literature. The chapter also reviews the evolution of the more refined concept of BDD in recent years, its evolving definitions, and its current status as a distinct psychiatric illness. The first known clinical description of a syndrome describing patients who complain about their appearance as their primary concern dates back to Enrico Morselli’s seminal description in 1891. Morselli called this condition “dysmorphophobia,” a concern about imagined ugliness. Over the years, the nature of the excessive appearance concerns has been seen variously as a symptom of characterological disturbance, one manifestation of a continuum of obsessional disorders, or a discrete psychiatric illness. While many earlier descriptions of psychopathology have waned or disappeared, this intriguing and often severe disorder that involves a disorder of consciousness of the self has persisted into contemporary scientific literature.
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36

Cognitivebehavioral Therapy For Body Dysmorphic Disorder A Treatment Manual. Guilford Publications, 2013.

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37

Morris, Katherine J. Body Image Disorders. Edited by K. W. M. Fulford, Martin Davies, Richard G. T. Gipps, et al. Oxford University Press, 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199579563.013.0037.

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This chapter examines so-called body image disorders, focusing on body dysmorphic disorder, anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and binge eating disorder. These disorders have been studied extensively by psychologists and psychiatrists from both the "body image" and "body shame" research orientations. Body image disorders have also proved, for feminist thinkers mindful of the gender imbalance in many of these disorders, to be an important locus for cultural criticism, including criticism of psychological and psychiatric perspectives. Those philosophers and anthropologists with a phenomenological bent, particularly those with an interest in the lived body and embodiment, have also found a fruitful terrain in body image disorders. These different disciplines and approaches provide multiple perspectives which are often complementary, occasionally in some tension with one another, but always mutually enriching, and all of them are sketched here.
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38

Phillips, Katharine A. Body Dysmorphic Disorder in Children and Adolescents. Edited by Katharine A. Phillips. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190254131.003.0014.

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Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) usually has its onset during childhood or adolescence. Prevalence studies indicate that BDD is common in adolescents. BDD symptoms in children and adolescents appear largely similar to those in adults, although BDD may be somewhat more severe in youth. Youth with BDD typically have poor psychosocial functioning and mental health–related quality of life. BDD often causes academic underachievement, social avoidance, and other types of psychosocial impairment; it may lead to school refusal and dropping out of school. Suicidal ideation and attempts, physical aggression behavior that is attributable to BDD symptoms, and substance use disorders are common risk behaviors in youth with BDD. BDD can derail the developmental trajectory, which makes appropriate treatment especially important during childhood and adolescence. Youth in mental health settings and cosmetic treatment settings, as well as youth who express suicidal ideation or have attempted suicide, should be screened for BDD.
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39

Winograd, Arie M. Face to Face with Body Dysmorphic Disorder: Psychotherapy and Clinical Insights. Taylor & Francis Group, 2016.

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40

Kelly, Megan M., and Mark Kent. The Relationship Between Body Dysmorphic Disorder and Social Anxiety Disorder. Edited by Katharine A. Phillips. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190254131.003.0035.

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Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) and social anxiety disorder (SAD) are highly comorbid disorders that share high levels of social anxiety, social avoidance, and rejection sensitivity. In addition, in emotional processing studies, patients with BDD and SAD both show a heightened sensitivity to hostility. However, BDD and SAD differ in many important ways, including key phenomenologic and clinical differences as well as treatment approaches. This chapter reviews similarities and differences between BDD and SAD across demographic, clinical, biologic, and other domains. Future research directions for work that may further elucidate the relationship between these two disorders are also discussed.
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41

Honigman, Roberta, and David J. Castle. Living With Your Looks (Contemporary Issues (Prometheus)). University of Western Australia Press, 2007.

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42

Phillips, Katharine A. Classification of Body Dysmorphic Disorder and Relevance for Patient Care. Edited by Katharine A. Phillips. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190254131.003.0004.

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The classification of body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) in the American Psychiatric Association’s Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) has evolved over the decades. This chapter discusses these changes and highlights their relevance to patient care. BDD was first briefly mentioned in DSM-III (1980). DSM-III-R (1987) was the first edition of DSM to classify BDD as a separate disorder and provide diagnostic criteria. The most notable changes introduced in DSM-IV (1994) and DSM-5 (2013) were the addition of a clinical significance criterion to DSM-IV and the addition of a repetitive behaviors criterion, as well as specifiers for insight and muscle dysmorphia, in DSM-5. Earlier editions of DSM classified delusional BDD symptoms as a distinct psychotic disorder, whereas DSM-5 classifies such beliefs as BDD with the absent insight specifier and as the same disorder as nondelusional BDD. DSM-5 also moved BDD to a new chapter; it is now classified as an obsessive-compulsive and related disorder rather than a somatoform disorder. This change has important implications for how BDD is conceptualized.
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43

Phillips, Katharine A. Pharmacotherapy and Other Somatic Treatments for Body Dysmorphic Disorder. Edited by Katharine A. Phillips. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190254131.003.0025.

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This chapter discusses pharmacotherapy for body dysmorphic disorder (BDD), including barriers to treatment, essential groundwork for prescribing, first-line treatment with serotonin-reuptake inhibitors (SRIs), and optimal dosing and trial duration (higher SRI doses and longer trials are more often needed for BDD than for most other disorders). SRIs are the first-line medication treatment for both delusional BDD and nondelusional BDD. Medication may be used for BDD of mild to moderate severity, and it is essential for more severely ill and suicidal patients and for those with severe depressive symptoms. Pharmacotherapy that is optimized for BDD usually alleviates symptoms and not uncommonly leads to remission. The chapter also discusses steps to take when an SRI is not effective, such as raising the SRI dose even further as well as SRI augmentation and switching strategies. SRI continuation and discontinuation, and the potential usefulness of non-SRI medications and other somatic treatments are also discussed. Challenges that clinicians often encounter when treating BDD and that can be addressed with pharmacotherapy—severe depression, suicidality, and problematic substance use—are also discussed.
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44

Face to Face with Body Dysmorphic Disorder: Clinical Insights and Psychotherapy. Taylor & Francis Group, 2016.

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45

Overcoming Body Image Problems Including Body Dysmorphic Disorder: A Self-Help Guide Using Cognitive Behavioral Techniques. ReadHowYouWant.com, Limited, 2013.

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46

Ghori, Ambreen, and Aarti Gupta. Anxiety Disorders. Edited by Rajiv Radhakrishnan and Lily Arora. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190265557.003.0019.

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This chapter reviews topics on anxiety disorders including panic disorder, specific phobia, social anxiety disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, posttraumatic stress disorder, acute stress disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, anxiety disorder due to a general medical condition, Substance/medication-induced anxiety disorder and body dysmorphic disorder
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47

Veale, David, Katharine A. Phillips, and Fugen Neziroglu. Challenges in Assessing and Treating Patients with Body Dysmorphic Disorder and Recommended Approaches. Edited by Katharine A. Phillips. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190254131.003.0024.

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Clinicians commonly encounter multiple challenges when assessing and treating individuals with body dysmorphic disorder (BDD). Some of the major challenges include poor insight and low motivation for appropriate treatment, delay in seeking treatment, desire for usually ineffective cosmetic treatment (e.g., surgery or dermatologic treatment) instead of mental health treatment, co-occurring substance use disorders, and frequent and sometimes severe suicidality. This chapter discusses recommended approaches to these challenges that clinicians can implement when assessing and treating patients with BDD. Strategies for engaging patients in cognitive-behavioral treatment and pharmacotherapy, and for disengaging patients from cosmetic treatment, are reviewed. Suggestions for treating patients with comorbid substance use disorders and suicidal patients are offered.
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48

McCurdy-McKinnon, Danyale, and Jamie D. Feusner. Neurobiology of Body Dysmorphic Disorder : Heritability/Genetics, Brain Circuitry, and Visual Processing. Edited by Katharine A. Phillips. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190254131.003.0020.

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This chapter covers studies addressing neurobiologic factors that may contribute to body dysmorphic disorder (BDD). There are indications that neurobiologic abnormalities are associated with symptoms in BDD. This includes evidence that the susceptibility for BDD may be partly heritable and that there may be shared genetic factors among the obsessive-compulsive and related disorders (of which BDD is a member) as a group. In addition, studies of brain circuitry in BDD implicate white matter and structural connectivity abnormalities as playing possible roles in the pathophysiology of BDD. Furthermore, studies of visual processing suggest that disturbances in visual perception and visuospatial information processing, characterized by heightened attention to detail and impairment in holistic and global assessment, are also contributory.
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49

Mirror Mirror Off the Wall: A Personal Experience of Intertwined Obsessive/Compulsive Spectrum Disorders Body Dysmorphic Disorder and Ttrichotillomania. Writers Club Press, 2003.

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50

Storch, Eric A., Omar Rahman, Mirela A. Aldea, Jeannette M. Reid, Danielle Bodzin, and Tanya K. Murphy. Obsessive Compulsive Spectrum Disorders in Children and Adolescents. Edited by Gail Steketee. Oxford University Press, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195376210.013.0100.

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This chapter reviews the literature on obsessive compulsive spectrum disorders (i.e., obsessive compulsive disorder, body dysmorphic disorder, trichotillomania, Tourette syndrome, and varied body-focused repetitive behaviors) in children and adolescents. For each disorder, data on phenomenology, associated clinical characteristics, etiology, and treatment are reviewed. The chapter concludes with a discussion of future research and clinical directions, such as novel augmentation strategies, diagnostic classification of obsessive compulsive spectrum disorders, and methods of maximizing treatment outcome.
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