Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Bonded structures'

The objective of this research was to find patterns of fatigue initiation in adhesively bonded structures. Fatigue initiation plays a very important role in the useful life of any structure, but it is a difficult phenomenon to quantify. Three types of aluminium-FM73M single lap joints (SLJ) were tested in tensile mode at different loads. The damage was recorded using the backface strain technique. Six strain gauges (SGs) were installed to record damage. Several types of tests were performed: tests to failure, tests to limited damage and sectioning, and tests to limited damage and a residual strength test. The tests to failure were performed to obtain backface strain patterns. The specimens tested to limited damage were sectioned, polished and inspected under a microscope to study how the damage affected the adhesive. The tests to limited damage, followed by a static test to failure, were carried out to find the effect of damage on the static strength. The load-life data obtained matched previous data well. Experimental tests found that the damage appeared in the fillet as a microcrack formation, merging at the end of the test into a major crack. This pattern depended on geometry and load. The residual strength tests in specimens with limited damage showed that the joints kept a significant proportion of original static strength, even if the joint had been damaged significantly. Numerical simulations were performed in ABAQUS to match and predict fatigue life and backface strain patterns at different loads. Fortran was used to develop damage models based on user-defined field subroutines. Two elastic damage models were developed (one and two phase), which reduced the elastic modulus as damage increased. A more complete elasto-plastic damage model was also developed. In this model the elastic modulus and yield stress were reduced. This gave good predictions of both fatigue life and backface strain patterns. This model can be used to determine fatigue lives in other bonded structures and represents an important step forward in this area.

Complex tetrahedral structures form good models for amorphous Group IV and III-V semiconductors. With a view of working towards examining non-crystalline materials, the structural, electronic and vibrational properties of complex tetrahedrally bonded semiconductors are investigated by various molecular dynamics techniques. First principles quantum mechanical molecular dynamics calculations are performed on two such structures and the effects of pressure on their behaviour is reported. A full free energy calculation using this method remains unfeasible and therefore an empirical bond charge model is used to calculate the full pressure-temperature phase diagram of the structures. Several surface reconstructions of a complex phase of silicon are then examined and the lowest energy surface of any silicon structure so far is found. Point defects in the diamond phase of silicon and carbon also give insight into various unusual bonding topologies that could be found in their amorphous phase. Structural and vibrational properties of several defects are considered. Finally, calculations on amorphous carbon and silicon at several densities are done and a comparison between the structural and electronic properties made. New bonding topologies are found in the structures including three centre bonding orbitals in the amorphous carbon models.

Airframe assemblers have long recognised that for a new aircraft to be successful it must use less fuel, have lower maintenance requirements, and be more affordable. One common tactic is the use of innovative materials, such as advanced composites. Composite materials are suited to structural connection by adhesive bonding, which minimises the need for inefficient mechanical fastening. The aim of this PhD project was to investigate the application of existing, yet immature Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) techniques to adhesively bonded composite aerospace structures. The PhD study focused on two emerging SHM technologies - frequency response and comparative vacuum monitoring (CVM). This project aimed to provide missing critical information for each technique. This included determining sensitivity to damage, repeatability of results, and operating limitations for the frequency response method. Study of the CVM technique aimed to address effectiveness of damage detection, manufacture of sensor cavities, and the influence of sensor integration on mechanical performance of bonded structures. Experimental research work is presented examining the potential of frequency response techniques for the detection of debonding in composite-to-composite external patch repairs. Natural frequencies were found to decrease over a discrete frequency range as the debond size increased; confirming that such features could be used to both detect and characterise damage. The effectiveness of the frequency response technique was then confirmed for composite patch and scarf repair specimens for free-free and fixed-fixed boundary conditions. Finally, the viability of the frequency response technique was assessed for a scarf repair of a real aircraft component, where it was found that structural damping limited the maximum useable frequency. The feasibility of CVM technique for the inspection of co-cured stiffener-skin aircraft structures was explored. The creation of sensor cavities with tapered mandrels was found to significantly alter the microstructure of the stiffener, including crimping and waviness of fibres and resin-rich zones between plies. Representative stiffened-skin structure with two sensor cavity configurations (parallel and perpendicular to the stiffener direction) was tested to failure in tension and compression. While tensile failure strength was significantly reduced for both configurations (up to 25%), no appreciable differences in compression properties were found. Two potential sensor cavity configurations were investigated for the extension of the CVM technique to pre-cured and co-bonded scarf repair schemes. The creation of radial and circumferential CVM sensor cavities was found to significantly alter the microstructure of the adhesive bond-line and the architecture of the repair material in the case of the co-bonded repair. These alterations changed the failure mode and reduced the tensile failure strength of the repair. A fibre straightening mechanism responsible for progressive failure (specific to co-bonded repairs with circumferential cavities) was identified, and subsequently supported with acoustic emission testing and numerical analysis. While fatigue performance was generally reduced by the presence of CVM cavities, the circumferential cavities appeared to retard crack progression, reducing sensitivity to the accumulation of fatigue damage. These outcomes have brought forward the implementation of SHM in bonded composite structures, which has great potential to improve the operating efficiency of next generation aircraft.

The work contained within this thesis concerns the synthesis and characterisation of novel [2]-rotaxanes, mediated via H-bonded templation. The template in question is based upon the barbiturate receptor as developed by A. D. Hamilton which up until now had not been utilised in the synthesis of interlocked structures. The initial approaches centred on the use of long appendages of the barbiturate towards a threading, and subsequent clipping approach; however a lack of initial threading event prevented formation of the pseudorotaxane. In an attempt to overcome these difficulties, the synthesis of more rigid, dumbbell-barbiturates, were applied towards a receptor-based clipping approach, but the steric bulk acquired from the rigid spacer groups appeared to hinder any cyclisation. To overcome the problem of threading, shorter appendages were utilised and the threading was observed via a crystal structure of the complex. Subsequent stoppering of the azideterminated appendages in a CuAAC reaction afforded the first Hamilton Receptor based [2]- rotaxane. Further studies involving bichromophoric, anthracene-terminated receptors were then utilised with these barbiturate guests in the synthesis of a [2]-rotaxane via a novel light-induced photodimerisation.

Adhesive bonding provides solutions to realize cost effective and low weight aircraft fuselage structures, in particular where the Damage Tolerance (DT) is the design criterion. Bonded structures that combine Metal Laminates (MLs) and eventually Selective Reinforcements can guarantee slow crack propagation, crack arrest and large damage capability. To optimize the design exploiting the benefit of bonded structures incorporating selective reinforcement requires reliable analysis tools. The effect of bonded doublers / selective reinforcements is very difficult to be predicted numerically or analytically due to the complexity of the underlying mechanisms and failures modes acting. Reliable predictions of crack growth and residual strength can only be based on sound empirical and phenomenological considerations strictly related to the specific structural concept. Large flat stiffened panels that combine MLs and selective reinforcements have been tested with the purpose of investigating solutions applicable to pressurized fuselages. The large test campaign (for a total of 35 stiffened panels) has quantitatively investigated the role of the different metallic skin concepts (monolithic vs. MLs) of the aluminum, titanium and glass-fiber reinforcements, of the stringers material and cross sections and of the geometry and location of doublers / selective reinforcements. Bonded doublers and selective reinforcements confirmed to be outstanding tools to improve the DT properties of structural elements with a minor weight increase. However the choice of proper materials for the skin and the stringers must be not underestimated since they play an important role as well. A fuselage structural concept has been developed to exploit the benefit of a metal laminate design concept in terms of high Fatigue and Damage Tolerance (F&DT) performances. The structure used laminated skin (0.8mm thick), bonded stringers, two different splicing solutions and selective reinforcements (glass prepreg embedded in the laminate) under the circumferential frames. To validate the design concept a curved panel was manufactured and tested under loading conditions representative of a single aisle fuselage: cyclic internal pressurization plus longitudinal loads. The geometry of the panel, design and loading conditions were tailored for the requirements of the upper front fuselage. The curved panel has been fatigue tested for 60 000 cycles before the introduction of artificial damages (cracks in longitudinal and circumferential directions). The crack growth of the artificial damages has been investigated for about 85 000 cycles. At the end a residual strength test has been performed with a “2 bay over broken frame” longitudinal crack. The reparability of this innovative concept has been taken into account during design and demonstrated with the use of an external riveted repair. The F&DT curved panel test has confirmed that a long fatigue life and high damage tolerance can be achieved with a hybrid metal laminate low weight configuration. The superior fatigue life from metal laminates and the high damage tolerance characteristics provided by integrated selective reinforcements are the key concepts that provided the excellent performances. The weight comparison between the innovative bonded concept and a conventional monolithic riveted design solution showed a significant potential weight saving but the weight advantages shall be traded off with the additional costs.

This thesis describes a series of experimental studies on the use of direct bonding for optical waveguide fabrication. The direct bonding technique involves contacting two ultra-clean polished surfaces to form an adhesive-free vacuum-tight bond. Optical materials bonded in this way can be formed into waveguide devices, and this work extends direct bonding to include periodically poled materials and a new solid-state ion-exchange process. The first result of this work describes the fabrication of a 5.5-mm-long, 12-µm-thick periodically poled LiNbO3 planar waveguide buried in LiTaO3. Frequency doubling experiments performed with this device demonstrate a conversion efficiency of 4.3 %W-1, a value 40% greater than that calculated for an optimised bulk device of similar length. Also demonstrated is a photorefractive iron-doped LiNbO3 waveguide buried in non-photorefractive magnesium-doped LiNbO3. In optical limiting experiments this device demonstrates a change in optical density of 2 and photorefractive response time of 5 milliseconds, representing 20 times greater optical limiting and 60 times faster operational speed than the bulk material. K+-Na+ ion-exchange between direct-bonded glass layers is studied and used as a novel solid-state technique for waveguide fabrication. This process is also developed to incorporate direct-UV-written channel waveguides in an ion-exchanged buried photosensitive glass layer. Finally, operation of a single-mode channel waveguide laser in neodymium-doped photosensitive SGBN glass (based on a composition of silica, germania, boron, and sodium) is demonstrated, with propagation losses of < 0.3 dB cm-1 and milliwatt-order lasing thresholds.

A fully coupled global-local approach for structural analysis has been developed. It is motivated by the need to use a range of scales and modelling techniques when designing a structure in composite materials. These range from the microscale at which the interfaces between fibres and matrix, or buckling of fibres themselves may play a role in the material behaviour, through intermediate scales where delamination and debonding may have an influence up to the macroscale where entire structures may be modelled with service loads directly applied. The method is based on passing boundary conditions from larger to smaller length scale models while passing information about damage and stiffness degradation up through the scales. By using nested levels of submodel, a greater range of length scales may be included in a single set of coupled analyses. Here an explanation of the methods of coupling two scales of solid models as well as coarse shell models to relatively refined solid models is presented. Each of these methods is validated against equivalent models using established modelling techniques, and are shown to produce results comparable to a complete model at the refined scale and preferable to other global-local approaches. Experimental tests have also been carried out on a stiffened panel with two stiffener runouts undergoing debonding. Not only did the coupling method model these tests accurately, but it was also shown to be more appropriate than simple submodelling in this case. A further demonstration of the techniques is included. The largest scale consisting of a shell element mesh is coupled with an intermediate scale with a continuum shell mesh, which in turn is coupled to a refined scale solid model. This demonstration shows how the methods developed here could be used to unify various analyses in the composites design process which until now have remained separate.

Despite the privileged position of Hamilton’s barbiturate binding system in supramolecular chemistry, this motif has never been used in generating interlocked structures, such as rotaxanes or catenanes. This thesis demonstrates the feasibility of such structures. A series of Hamilton-like receptors has been synthesised. Their conversion from “open” to “closed” forms by metathesis and their binding with barbital was studied, demonstrating the importance of the macrocycle size. Barbiturates disubstituted with flexible chains terminated either by reacting groups (anthracenes, olefins) or stoppers (trityl) were also synthesised. The fluorescence properties of anthracene-tagged barbiturates and their kinetics of intramolecular anthracene photodimerisation and thermal return were studied, demonstrating remarkable differences depending on the chain length. Binding studies of these barbiturates with the receptors were then undertaken, revealing smaller binding constants compared with barbital. A series of ring-closing experiments involving the barbiturate complexes was then undertaken, either by anthracene photodimerisation or olefin metathesis. In one metathesis experiment, indirect evidence for the formation of a low amount of catenane was obtained by mass spectrometry, where the smallest ring is formed by a chain of only 19 carbon atoms, which is unprecedented. Finally, different synthetic pathways for the synthesis of barbiturates substituted with large rigid substituents were investigated. Models of their complexes with the receptors and IR studies are presented that suggest that their structure would facilitate the formation of interlocked complexes.

This thesis addresses the issues surrounding the application of the finite element method to analyse composite structure repairs with an emphasis on aircraft applications. A comprehensive literature survey has been carried out for this purpose and the results are presented. A preliminary study and a comparative study of different modelling approaches have been completed. These studies aim to explore and identify the problems in modelling repairso n simplec ompositep anelsw ith speciala ttention given to adhesivem odelling. Three modelling approaches have been considered: Siener's model which is an extension of the traditional plane strain 2D model used for adhesively bonded joints, Bait's model which is a promising new approach and a full 3D model. These studies have shown that these methods are complementary providing a different insight into bonded repairs. They have also highlighted the need for a new modelling approach which will provide an overall view of bonded repairs. Improved modelling approachesh ave been developedf or externallyb onded patch and flush repairs. These models enable the study of adhesive failure as well as composite adherendf ailures.T hesea pproachesh aveb eena ppliedt o real repairs and the predicted results compared to experimental data. Four case studies have been conducted: external bonded patch repairs to composite plates, a scarf joint for bonded repairs, a flat panel repaired with a scarfed patch and a repaired curved panel. These case studies have shown that bonded repairs to composite structures can be analyseds uccessfullyu sing PC-basedc ommercialf inite elementc odes.

This thesis addresses the issues surrounding the application of the finite element method to analyse composite structure repairs with an emphasis on aircraft applications. A comprehensive literature survey has been carried out for this purpose and the results are presented. A preliminary study and a comparative study of different modelling approaches have been completed. These studies aim to explore and identify the problems in modelling repairso n simplec ompositep anelsw ith speciala ttention given to adhesivem odelling. Three modelling approaches have been considered: Siener's model which is an extension of the traditional plane strain 2D model used for adhesively bonded joints, Bait's model which is a promising new approach and a full 3D model. These studies have shown that these methods are complementary providing a different insight into bonded repairs. They have also highlighted the need for a new modelling approach which will provide an overall view of bonded repairs. Improved modelling approachesh ave been developedf or externallyb onded patch and flush repairs. These models enable the study of adhesive failure as well as composite adherendf ailures.T hesea pproachesh aveb eena ppliedt o real repairs and the predicted results compared to experimental data. Four case studies have been conducted: external bonded patch repairs to composite plates, a scarf joint for bonded repairs, a flat panel repaired with a scarfed patch and a repaired curved panel. These case studies have shown that bonded repairs to composite structures can be analyseds uccessfullyu sing PC-basedc ommercialf inite elementc odes.

This thesis examines a new method of detecting the presence of structural cracks in wing-like structures at an incipient stage. This method is based on the analysis of the dynamics of damaged structures with bonded piezoelectric strips executing flexural oscillations. Such oscillations can be generated by mechanical loads, piezoelectric actuators, or unsteady aerodynamic loads in certain flight conditions of the aircraft. The proposed method of crack detection uses pairs of piezoelectric strip sensors bonded on the opposite sides of the structure and is based on the fact that the presence of a crack causes a difference between the strains measured by the two sensors of a given pair. The structural analysis presented in this thesis uses a nonlinear model for the cracks and a finite element formulation for the piezoelectric strips coupled with the structure. A 3D panel method is used to determine the unsteady aerodynamic loads acting on the oscillating wing. This study includes the dynamic analysis in time domain of cracked wing-like structures undergoing forced flexural vibrations in a range of frequencies generated by a pair of piezoelectric actuators, as well as the analysis of the oscillating wings with piezoelectric strips subjected to unsteady aerodynamic loads. The numerical simulations have shown that the presence of a crack in wing-like structures can be efficiently detected at an early stage by monitoring the response of the piezoelectric sensor pairs.
Cette thèse étudie une nouvelle méthode de détection de la présence de fissures structurelles à un stade précoce dans une structure de type aile. Cette méthode est basée sur l'analyse des oscillations en flexion des structures endommagées munies de bandes piézoélectriques collées. Ces oscillations peuvent être générées par des charges mécaniques, des actionneurs piézoélectriques, ou des charges aérodynamiques instationnaires dans certaines conditions de vol de l'avion. La méthode de détection des fissures proposée utilise des paires de capteurs piézoélectriques collés sur les côtés opposés de la structure et est basée sur le fait que la présence d'une fissure entraîne une différence entre les déformations mesurées par les deux capteurs d'une paire donnée. L'analyse structurale présentée dans cette thèse utilise un modèle non linéaire pour les fissures et une formulation par éléments finis pour les bandes piézoélectriques couplées avec la structure. Une méthode de panneau tridimensionnelle est utilisée pour déterminer les charges aérodynamiques instationnaires agissant sur l'aile oscillante. Cette étude comprend l'analyse dynamique dans le domaine temporel de structure de type aile fissurée subissant des vibrations en flexion forcées dans une gamme de fréquences générées par une paire d'actionneurs piézoélectriques, ainsi que l'analyse des ailes oscillantes équipées de bandes piézoélectriques soumises à des charges aérodynamiques instationnaires. Les simulations numériques ont montré que la présence d'une fissure dans ces structures peut être efficacement détectée à un stade précoce en surveillant la réponse des capteurs piézoélectriques.

The main objective of this research is to investigate the effect of moisture on the degradation of adhesively bonded aluminium joints under both static and fatigue loading. This has been achieved through a combination of experimentation and progressive damage finite element modelling (using a cohesive zone approach). Moisture uptake behaviour in the adhesive was studied to obtain the coefficient of moisture diffusion and of moisture expansion. The coefficient of thermal expansion was also measured to provide the data for the finite element modelling, which included residual stresses due to cooling from cure temperature and swelling of the adhesive layer. The moisture dependent properties of the adhesive were obtained from bulk adhesive tensile tests. The joints investigated included monolithic single lap joints loaded in tension and laminated doublers loaded in bending and tension. Various widths were used to get the full and partial saturation of the adhesive layer. Under both static and fatigue loading, the degradation increased with increasing moisture content and tended to level out when the moisture content approached the saturation level. Most of the failures were cohesive in the adhesive layer, showing that the degradation was due to adhesive, rather than interfacial degradation. Calibration of the cohesive properties was achieved by combining backface strain and load data measured in the monolithic single lap joint. These were then utilised to predict the residual strength of the doublers in bending. In fatigue, the calibrated cohesive zone properties were integrated with a strain-based fatigue damage model to simulate the fatigue response of the monolithic single lap joint and doubler loaded in bending both in the unaged and aged condition. The backface strain technique has been successfully used to monitor the fatigue damage evolution in the joints considered, to calibrate the parameters in the strain based fatigue model, and also to study the effect of adhesive fillet on the fatigue damage evolution in the doubler loaded in bending. Doublers loaded in tension exhibited an entirely different failure mechanism including rupture of both the adhesive and aluminium layer. The effect of moisture on the 11 degradation of this joint was not significant. The butts between aluminium sheets that inevitably exist in laminates were shown to affect the strength of the joint. For these joints, the progressive damage modelling used a cohesive zone approach for the adhesive layer and the butt, and continuum damage for the aluminium layer. In fatigue, the cohesive zone and the continuum damage were integrated with the strain-based fatigue damage model to predict the response. The predicted response under both static and fatigue loading was found to be in good agreement with the experimental data. Finally, experimental and numerical studies have been undertaken on hybrid fibre-metal (aluminium-Glare) laminate (FML) doubler joints to investigate their response under static and fatigue tension loading. The specimens had fibres either parallel to the loading direction (spanwise) or perpendicular to the loading direction (chordwise). Again, the effect of the butt position was investigated. The spanwise specimen was found to have the highest strength followed by chordwise specimens without butts and finally chordwise specimens with butts. The most critical position for a butt was found to be adjacent to the doubler end. Without butts, the static strength for spanwise and chordwise specimens was controlled by the failure in the Glare layer whilst the fatigue failure was precipitated by failure in the aluminium sheet. Where butts are present, they significantly influence the joint response. A progressive damage numerical analysis was undertaken and was found to be in good agreement with the experiment data in terms of both the strength and the failure mechanisms.

Afin de développer un protocole d’essai standardisé et des outils analytiques facilitant la conception de réparations collées en biseau pour des structures composites aéronautiques primaires, le présent mémoire se concentre sur la caractérisation et la modélisation des performances de joints collés en composite de type lisse-escalier soumis à un effort de traction uni-axiale. Dans un premier temps, deux matériaux composites tissés, une toile (PW) et un satin (8-HS) pré-imprégnés de type plastique à renfort de fibre de carbone ont été testés en traction uni-axiale à température ambiante sec (TAS) et à température élevée sec (TES). Les données issues de cette caractérisation ont permis la modélisation numérique des réparations. Dans un deuxième temps, des réparations de type lisse-escalier ont été fabriquées sur des stratifiés en utilisant les matériaux composites PW et 8-HS en suivant la même séquence de plis quasi-isotrope ([+45°/0°/-45°/90°]2s) pour le parent et pour la réparation. Le film adhésif utilisé est le Cytec FM300-2M. L’effet des conditions environnementales et de l’angle de biseau (3°, 5.5° et 7.5°) sur les performances des réparations a été étudié. Les résultats des essais de traction ont révélé que l’angle de biseau a un impact significatif sur le mode de rupture de la structure réparée. Alors que la rupture s’est produite dans le composite pour les réparations avec un angle de biseau de 3°, une rupture en cisaillement de type cohésive a été observée pour les réparations pour les biseaux à 5.5° et 7.5°. Ce changement de mode de rupture a été retrouvé pour les deux conditions environnementales (TAS et TES). Comparativement au stratifié intact, une baisse non-significative de la rigidité a été notée pour tous les angles de biseau. Toutefois, l’augmentation de l’angle de biseau a conduit à une baisse significative de la restitution de la contrainte à la rupture comparativement à celle du stratifié d’origine, indiquant l’importance de l’angle de biseau sur l’intégrité de la structure des réparations adhésives de type lisse-escalier. Les essais de tractions à TES suggèrent qu’il n’y a qu’une très faible diminution de la rigidité et de la contrainte à la rupture pour les réparations à TES comparativement à TAS. Finalement, des analyses par éléments finis 2D dans l’épaisseur ont été conduites en utilisant ABAQUS Standard et Explicit. Une analyse élastique a tout d’abord été menée afin de prédire les distributions des contraintes de pelage et de cisaillement normalisées au milieu de l’adhésif, le long de la ligne adhésive, pour trois différentes configurations géométriques de jointure (lisse-lisse, lisse-escalier, escalier-escalier). Contrairement aux distributions de contraintes uniformes observées le long de la ligne adhésive de la configuration lisse-lisse, de forts et fréquents pics de contraintes de pelage et de cisaillement ont été observés pour les deux autres configurations. Ces observations ont mené à conclure que la modélisation d’un joint de réparation collé en biseau doit être conduite avec précaution. Émettre l’hypothèse que la surface adhésive du stratifié patch est lisse (i.e.: configuration lisse-lisse) alors qu’elle est en fait de type lisse-escalier implique de ne pas prendre en compte les pics de contraintes causés par les irrégularités géométriques de la surface adhésive du stratifié. Cela peut mener à la surestimation de la contrainte à la rupture de la réparation. Pour finir, une analyse élastique-plastique a été conduite en utilisant les modèles de plasticité et d’endommagement par cisaillement déjà implémentés dans ABAQUS. Ces modèles de plasticité et d’endommagement ont été utilisés pour le film adhésif seulement. Le matériau composite a été supposé linéaire élastique jusqu’à la rupture. Le critère des déformations maximales a été utilisé pour prédire la rupture du premier pli dans le composite. Les prédictions obtenues avec le modèle et les résultats expérimentaux ont montré de très bonnes corrélations.
This master’s degree thesis focuses on testing and modeling the bonded scarf-stepped composite joint performance under uniaxial tensile loading as part of the effort to develop testing protocols and analytical tools for the design of scarf bonded repair for primary aeronautical composite structures. First, plain weave (PW) and 8-harness satin (8-HS) carbon fiber-reinforced plastic (CFRP) pre-preg composite materials were tested under uniaxial tensile loading at room temperature dry (RTD) and elevated temperature dry (ETD) conditions. The gathered characterization data was later used for the numerical modeling of the repairs. Furthermore, smoothed parent laminate bonding surface and stepped patch laminate bonding surface (scarf-stepped repairs were performed using both PW and 8-HS composite materials with matching quasi-isotropic ([+45°/0°/-45°/90°]2s) ply stacking sequence between the parent and the patch. The adhesive film that was used is the Cytec FM300-2M. The effects of environmental conditions and the influence of the scarf angle (i.e. 3˚, 5.5° and 7.5˚) on the performance of the bonded repairs were investigated. The tensile test results revealed that the scarf angle has a significant impact on the failure mode of the repaired composite part. While substrate failure occurred with a 3˚ scarf angle, cohesive shear failure was observed for the 5.5° and 7.5˚ angles. This change in failure mode is consistent both at RTD and ETD. When compared with the pristine laminate, an insignificant drop in stiffness was found regardless of the scarf angle. Although, increasing the scarf angle led to a significant drop in strength restitution in comparison with the pristine laminate. This indicates the importance of the scarf angle on the structural integrity of a scarf-step bonded repair. The tensile test results in ETD conditions suggest a slight decrease in stiffness and strength for both materials at ETD. Eventually, 2D through-thickness finiteelement analyses were also conducted using both ABAQUS Standard and Explicit. An elastic analysis was first performed to predict the distribution of normalized shear and peel stresses in the middle of the adhesive along the bondline for three different joint geometries (scarf-scarf, scarf-step and step-step). As opposed to the uniform stress distributions found along the bondline of the scarf-scarf configuration, high and frequent peaks of peal and shear stresses were found for both scarf-step and step-step configurations. These observations led to the conclusion that one must be particularly cautious when modeling a scarf joint bonded repair. Assuming that the patch laminate bonding surface is smoothed (i.e., scarf-scarf configuration) while it is actually stepped (i.e., scarf-step configuration) can lead to overestimating the overall repair strength since the high stress peaks caused by the geometric irregularities of the stepped patch laminate bonding surface would then be ignored. Furthermore, an elastic-plastic analysis was conducted using the already implemented plasticity and shear damage models in ABAQUS. These plasticity and damage models were used for the adhesive film only. The composite material was supposed to behave linear-elastically up to failure. The maximum strain criterion was used to predict the first ply failure in the composite. The predictions obtained with the model correlated very well with the experimental results.

This thesis describes the development and validation of methods for damage tolerance substantiation of bonded composite repairs applied to cracked plates. This technology is used to repair metal aircraft structures, offering improvements in fatigue life, cost, manufacturability, and inspectability when compared to riveted repairs. The work focuses on the effects of plate thickness and bending on repair life, and covers fundamental aspects of fracture and fatigue of cracked plates and bonded joints. This project falls under the UBC Bonded Composite Repair Program, which has the goal of certification and widespread use of bonded repairs in civilian air transportation. This thesis analyses the plate thickness and transverse stress effects on fracture of repaired plates and the related problem of induced geometrically nonlinear bending in unbalanced (single-sided) repairs. The author begins by developing a classification scheme for assigning repair damage tolerance substantiation requirements based upon stress-based adhesive fracture/fatigue criteria and the residual strength of the original structure. The governing equations for bending of cracked plates are then reformulated and line-spring models are developed for linear and nonlinear coupled bending and extension of reinforced cracks. The line-spring models were used to correct the Wang and Rose energy method for the determination of the long-crack limit stress intensity, and to develop a new interpolation model for repaired cracks of arbitrary length. The analysis was validated using finite element models and data from mechanical tests performed on hybrid bonded joints and repair specimens that are representative of an in-service repair. This work will allow designers to evaluate the damage tolerance of the repaired plate, the adhesive, and the composite patch, which is an airworthiness requirement under FAR (Federal Aviation Regulations) 25.571. The thesis concludes by assessing the remaining barriers to certification of bonded repairs, discussing the results of the analysis, and making suggestions for future work. The developed techniques should also prove to be useful for the analysis of fibre-reinforced metal laminates and other layered structures. Some concepts are general and should be useful in the analysis of any plate with large in-plane stress gradients that lead to significant transverse stresses.
Applied Science, Faculty of
Mechanical Engineering, Department of
Graduate

En service, les pièces aéronautiques en matériaux composites et structures sandwiches subissent des dommages qui nécessitent des réparations. Les réparations par patch interne en biseau, en escalier ou par combinaison des deux offrent une excellente restauration de la résistance mécanique pour ces structures composites. Cependant, l’environnement de réparation peut se révéler être un défi de taille quant à leur mise en œuvre, au choix des paramètres géométriques (angle de biseau, nombre de plis extra), à leur comportement mécanique sous différents chargements ainsi qu’à leur processus d’endommagement. Cette thèse présente une étude expérimentale et numérique (éléments finis) du comportement mécanique de réparations par patch interne effectuées sur des structures avec des peaux en composites à renforts tissés fabriquées hors autoclave et âme en Nomex en nid d’abeille. Afin de déterminer l’effet de différents paramètres géométriques sur la résistance de la réparation et de comprendre son comportement mécaniqueet son processus d’endommagement, une série de tests de caractérisation sous différents chargements (traction, compression, flexion) a été effectuée sur des structures sandwiches faite avec deux matériaux composites tissés pour la peau : soit du composite tissé taffetas (PW) ou satin de 8 (8HS) Des simulations numériques ont été effectuées afin de prédire le comportement mécanique de la réparation. Cette étude numérique a été effectuée en plusieurs étapes. Un premier modèle 2D qui suppose que la colle ait un comportement linéaire élastique a été développé et permet d’étudier la distribution des contraintes dans le joint de colle pour différentes configurations de réparation rectangulaire. Ensuite, le modèle 2D est modifié pour tenir compte du comportement élastoplastique de la colle et ceci permet de prédire le comportement mécanique d’une réparation rectangulaire jusqu’à la rupture. Par la suite, un modèle 3D est développé pour prédire le comportement de réparations circulaires sous des chargements de compression. Ce modèle tient compte de l’endommagement progressif des peaux en composite. Les résultats de ces simulations numériques sont comparés par la suite aux mesures expérimentales. Les modèles par éléments finis, avec une loi de comportement élastoplastique pour le joint de colle, permettent une estimation adéquate de la résistance ainsi que de l’endommagement des structures sandwiches réparées. Une étude paramétrique a eu lieu afin d’étudier l’effet de différents paramètres géométriques sur la résistance de la réparation. La mise en œuvre et la détermination de la performance mécanique des réparations par patch interne des structures sandwiches est une tâche complexe avec de multiples paramètres de matériaux et de procédés. D’une manière générale, cette thèse contribue à une meilleure compréhension du comportement mécanique des structures sandwiches réparées et de leur processus d’endommagement. Les modèles par éléments finis développés dans ces travaux ont été validés expérimentalement et des simulations paramétriques ont contribué à une meilleure compréhension de l’influence des différents paramètres géométriques sur la résistance de la réparation par patch interne.
En service, les pièces aéronautiques en matériaux composites et structures sandwiches subissent des dommages qui nécessitent des réparations. Les réparations par patch interne en biseau, en escalier ou par combinaison des deux offrent une excellente restauration de la résistance mécanique pour ces structures composites. Cependant, l’environnement de réparation peut se révéler être un défi de taille quant à leur mise en œuvre, au choix des paramètres géométriques (angle de biseau, nombre de plis extra), à leur comportement mécanique sous différents chargements ainsi qu’à leur processus d’endommagement. Cette thèse présente une étude expérimentale et numérique (éléments finis) du comportement mécanique de réparations par patch interne effectuées sur des structures avec des peaux en composites à renforts tissés fabriquées hors autoclave et âme en Nomex en nid d’abeille. Afin de déterminer l’effet de différents paramètres géométriques sur la résistance de la réparation et de comprendre son comportement mécaniqueet son processus d’endommagement, une série de tests de caractérisation sous différents chargements (traction, compression, flexion) a été effectuée sur des structures sandwiches faite avec deux matériaux composites tissés pour la peau : soit du composite tissé taffetas (PW) ou satin de 8 (8HS) Des simulations numériques ont été effectuées afin de prédire le comportement mécanique de la réparation. Cette étude numérique a été effectuée en plusieurs étapes. Un premier modèle 2D qui suppose que la colle ait un comportement linéaire élastique a été développé et permet d’étudier la distribution des contraintes dans le joint de colle pour différentes configurations de réparation rectangulaire. Ensuite, le modèle 2D est modifié pour tenir compte du comportement élastoplastique de la colle et ceci permet de prédire le comportement mécanique d’une réparation rectangulaire jusqu’à la rupture. Par la suite, un modèle 3D est développé pour prédire le comportement de réparations circulaires sous des chargements de compression. Ce modèle tient compte de l’endommagement progressif des peaux en composite. Les résultats de ces simulations numériques sont comparés par la suite aux mesures expérimentales. Les modèles par éléments finis, avec une loi de comportement élastoplastique pour le joint de colle, permettent une estimation adéquate de la résistance ainsi que de l’endommagement des structures sandwiches réparées. Une étude paramétrique a eu lieu afin d’étudier l’effet de différents paramètres géométriques sur la résistance de la réparation. La mise en œuvre et la détermination de la performance mécanique des réparations par patch interne des structures sandwiches est une tâche complexe avec de multiples paramètres de matériaux et de procédés. D’une manière générale, cette thèse contribue à une meilleure compréhension du comportement mécanique des structures sandwiches réparées et de leur processus d’endommagement. Les modèles par éléments finis développés dans ces travaux ont été validés expérimentalement et des simulations paramétriques ont contribué à une meilleure compréhension de l’influence des différents paramètres géométriques sur la résistance de la réparation par patch interne.
In service, aeronautical components made of composite materials and sandwich structures are subject to type of damages that require repairs. Adhesively bonded repairs (scarf-scarf, step-step or scarf-step) offer an excellent mechanical strength recovery for these composite structures. However, the repair environment can be a significant challenge in terms of the choice of geometrical parameters (scarf angle, addition of an overply), damage process parameters and mechanical behavior under different loads.This thesis presents both experimental and numerical investigations of the mechanical behavior of internal patch repairs carried-out on Nomex honeycomb composite sandwich structures. The skins use an out-of-autoclave woven fabric made of carbon-epoxy composite materials. In order to determine the effect of different geometric parameters on the resistance of the internal patch repair and to better understand its mechanical behavior and damage processes, a series of mechanical tests under different loads (tensile, compression, bending) is conducted on the repaired sandwich panels made with either plain weave or 8 harness satin textile composites. Numerical simulations were carried out, in several stages, in order to determine the mechanical behavior of the repair. First, a 2D model that assumes a linear elastic behavior of the adhesive film was developed. This simple model allows to study the distribution of the stresses in the adhesive joint for different configurations of rectangular patch repair. Then, the 2D model is modified in order to account for the elastoplastic behavior of the adhesive film. The latter allows to predict the mechanical behavior of a rectangular internal patch repair until rupture. Subsequently, a 3D model is developed to predict the mechanical behavior of circular internal patch repairs under compressive loadings. This model takes into account the progressive damage and failure of the woven fabric skins. The results of these numerical simulations are validated by comparing them to experimental measurements. The finite element models that account for the elastoplastic behavior law for the adhesive joint allow predictions of the strength as well as the damage morphology of the repaired sandwich structures. A parametric study has also been conducted in order to determine the influence of the geometrical design parameters in the repair strength. Processing and assessment of the mechanical performance of internal patch repairs on sandwich structures is a complex task with multiple material and process parameters. In general, this thesis contributes to a better understanding of the mechanical behavior of adhesively bonded repaired sandwich structures and their damage process. The finite element models developed in this work and validated experimentally have contributed through parametric numerical simulations to an economical better understanding of the influence of different geometric parameters on the strength and failure of internal patch repaired sandwich panels.
In service, aeronautical components made of composite materials and sandwich structures are subject to type of damages that require repairs. Adhesively bonded repairs (scarf-scarf, step-step or scarf-step) offer an excellent mechanical strength recovery for these composite structures. However, the repair environment can be a significant challenge in terms of the choice of geometrical parameters (scarf angle, addition of an overply), damage process parameters and mechanical behavior under different loads.This thesis presents both experimental and numerical investigations of the mechanical behavior of internal patch repairs carried-out on Nomex honeycomb composite sandwich structures. The skins use an out-of-autoclave woven fabric made of carbon-epoxy composite materials. In order to determine the effect of different geometric parameters on the resistance of the internal patch repair and to better understand its mechanical behavior and damage processes, a series of mechanical tests under different loads (tensile, compression, bending) is conducted on the repaired sandwich panels made with either plain weave or 8 harness satin textile composites. Numerical simulations were carried out, in several stages, in order to determine the mechanical behavior of the repair. First, a 2D model that assumes a linear elastic behavior of the adhesive film was developed. This simple model allows to study the distribution of the stresses in the adhesive joint for different configurations of rectangular patch repair. Then, the 2D model is modified in order to account for the elastoplastic behavior of the adhesive film. The latter allows to predict the mechanical behavior of a rectangular internal patch repair until rupture. Subsequently, a 3D model is developed to predict the mechanical behavior of circular internal patch repairs under compressive loadings. This model takes into account the progressive damage and failure of the woven fabric skins. The results of these numerical simulations are validated by comparing them to experimental measurements. The finite element models that account for the elastoplastic behavior law for the adhesive joint allow predictions of the strength as well as the damage morphology of the repaired sandwich structures. A parametric study has also been conducted in order to determine the influence of the geometrical design parameters in the repair strength. Processing and assessment of the mechanical performance of internal patch repairs on sandwich structures is a complex task with multiple material and process parameters. In general, this thesis contributes to a better understanding of the mechanical behavior of adhesively bonded repaired sandwich structures and their damage process. The finite element models developed in this work and validated experimentally have contributed through parametric numerical simulations to an economical better understanding of the influence of different geometric parameters on the strength and failure of internal patch repaired sandwich panels.

Trends in aircraft design and manufacture are towards the reduction of manufacturing cost and structural weight while maintaining high level of safety. These reductions can be achieved by using integral structures. However, integral structures lack redundant structural members, hence fail safety is not guaranteed. Bonded selective reinforcements (straps) can obviate this problem and improve the damage tolerance capability of integral structures, although increase the design di±culties. The objective of this research is to develop an effective analysis method to predict the fatigue crack growth (FCG) life of integral structures reinforced by bonded crack retarders, determine the effectiveness of the reinforcements, and assess the important strap design parameters. The main mechanisms that influence the crack propagation have been identified, modelled, and discussed. When a crack propagates in the panel skin, bonded straps delay the fracture growth by exerting bridging forces at the crack tip. Nevertheless damage also affects the strap due to the stiffness mismatch and high stress concentration, and the strap/substrate interface is affected by a progressive delamination that advances together with the substrate crack and limits the strap bridging action. Tensile thermal residual stresses (TRS) in the cracked substrate, caused by the adhesive cure process, act to open the crack and hence increase the growth rate. Last but not least, secondary bending caused by the non-symmetric configurations induces a stress gradient along the crack front. This reduces the effectiveness of the bridging action and causes a curved crack front. An enhanced 2D FE modelling technique that takes into account of these mechanisms and their interactions has been developed and implemented in a computerprogram that interfaces the commercial code NASTRAN. This program is used to calculate the stress intensity factors and the FCG life of bonded strap reinforced integral structures. This modelling technique has been validated for a wide range of test samples in terms of TRS and their redistribution with crack propagation, disbond areas, and FCG lives. The FCG life of a large scale integral skin-stringer panel reinforced by various bonded straps has also been predicted and compared with the experiments. Numerical predictions have shown good agreement with the experimental measurements. Parametric studies have been conducted to understand the effectiveness of different strap configurations on crack growth retardation; these include different strap materials, strap dimensions and locations on the substrate. A design tool has been developed aimed at achieving optimal crack retarder design in terms of prescribed fatigue life target and minimum structural weight. In conclusion, a novel modelling tool has been developed, the effectiveness of bonded straps in retarding fatigue crack growth has been demonstrated and, following the parametric analysis, the most important parameters in the design of bonded straps have been identified.

of the thesis entitled: Computational studies on supramolecular hydrogen-bonded structures: from nanocapsules to proteins.
In this thesis different methods were used to study several systems in which the hydrogen bond has a key role. The validity of the theoretical methods applied was always contrasted with the experimental evidences available from the group of Prof. Javier de Mendoza in the context of an intense collaboration in the Institute of Chemical Research of Catalonia (ICIQ). In certain cases the theoretical results provided an explanation to experimental observations and in other cases they had the prediction as main objective.
In Chapter II the general concepts of the Density Functional Theory (DFT) and of the Molecular Mechanics (MM) are described, emphasizing the specific methods used in the thesis.
In Chapter III a DFT study is presented on the dimerization of the 2-ureidopyrimidone (UPy), and also on the tautomeric equilibrium established from this molecule. The influence of the substituent in position 6 of the pyrimidinone ring and the solvent effects were explained.
Chapter IV deals with systems also based in dimers of ureidopyrimidone, but much larger. A molecule is described, composed of 3 UPy moieties bound to a cyclotriveratrylene unit, which self-assembles leading to the formation of a nanocapsule able to trap fullerenes inside. The nanocapsule shows higher affinity for certain fullerenes. The viability of the complexes (CTV-3UPy)2Cn(n=60,70,76,78,84,90) was studied as well as the preferences of the host. The aim was giving an explanation to experimental results obtained with C60 and C70 and predicting selectivity for higher fullerenes.
Chapter V presents a Molecular Dynamics study on the effect of the punctual mutation R337H in the stability of the tetramerization domain of the protein p53 (p53TD). It has been experimentally demonstrated that this mutation prevents the protein from carrying out its normal function as a tumour suppressor. The simulations allowed explaining the disruption process suffered by the mutant protein.
Using the same methods as in the previous chapter, chapter VI presents a study on the interaction of several ligands with the surface of the wild type protein (p53TD) and the mutant protein (R337H p53TD). The ligands tested were of the oligoguanidinium type and tetraguanidilated calix[4]arenes. The calixarenes proved to stabilize the structure of the mutant protein, maintaining it in a conformation similar to that of the wild type protein.
Chapter VII describes the study, by means of Molecular Dynamics, of the unspecific interaction between a DNA molecule and undecaguanidinium ligands. The simulations proved that the ligands have high affinity for the DNA.
In Chapter VIII the conclusions of the overall thesis are summarized.Resumen de la tesis doctoral titulada: Computational studies on supramolecular hydrogen-bonded structures: from nanocapsules to proteins.
En esta Tesis se han utilizado diferentes métodos computacionales para estudiar diversos sistemas en los cuales los enlaces de hidrógeno juegan un papel crucial. La validez de los métodos teóricos aplicados se ha contrastado siempre con las evidencias experimentales disponibles, procuradas por el grupo del Prof. Javier de Mendoza en el contexto de una estrecha colaboración en el Instituto Catalán de Investigación Química (ICIQ). En determinados casos los resultados teóricos han proporcionado una explicación a fenómenos observados experimentalmente y en otros casos han tenido como objetivo la predicción.
En el Capítulo II se exponen los conceptos generales de la Teoría del Funcional de la Densidad (DFT) y de la Mecánica Molecular, poniendo mayor énfasis en los métodos concretos que se han utilizado en la Tesis.
En el Capítulo III se presenta un estudio mediante métodos DFT sobre la dimerización y el equilibrio tautomérico establecido a partir de la 2-ureidopirimidona (UPy). Se estudió la influencia del sustituyente en posición 6 del anillo de pirimidona y del disolvente CHCl3.
En el Capítulo IV se presenta un estudio sobre sistemas también basados en el dímero de UPy, pero mucho más grandes. Se describe una molécula compuesta por 3 UPys unidas a una unidad de ciclotriveratrileno (CTV) que dimeriza por auto-ensamblaje dando lugar a una nanocápsula capaz de atrapar fulerenos, mostrando mayor afinidad por algunos de ellos. Se estudió la viabilidad de los complejos (CTV-3UPy)2Cn(n=60,70,76,78,84,90) y las preferencias de la cápsula con ánimo explicativo y predictivo.
En el Capítulo V se presenta un estudio de Dinámica Molecular sobre el efecto de la mutación puntual R337H en la estabilidad del dominio de tetramerización de la proteína p53 (p53TD). Se ha demostrado experimentalmente que tal mutación impide que la proteína lleve a cabo su función como supresor tumoral y por tanto favorece el desarrollo de tumores. Las simulaciones permitieron explicar el proceso de disrupción de la proteína mutada.
Usando los mismos métodos que en el capítulo anterior, el Capítulo VI presenta un estudio sobre la interacción de ligandos tipo oligoguanidinas y calix[4]arenos tetraguanidilados con la superficie de la proteína de tipo salvaje p53TD y de la proteína mutada R337H p53TD. Los calixarenos demostraron estabilizar la estructura de la proteína mutada, manteniéndola en una conformación parecida a la de la proteína de tipo salvaje.

En el Capítulo VII se describe el estudio, también mediante Dinámica Molecular, de la interacción inespecífica entre una molécula de ADN y ligandos undecaguanidina. Las simulaciones demostraron que los ligandos tienen una alta afinidad por el ADN.
En el Capítulo VIII se presenta un resumen de las conclusiones de la Tesis.

The objective of this project is the analysis and control of the aeroelastic oscillations of a wing structure with bonded piezoelectric strips subject to unsteady subsonic aerodynamic loads. Active control of aeroelastic oscillations and the use of piezoelectric materials in vibration analysis and control of structures have been the subjects of many researches in air vehicle design. However, most of the research in these areas has been restricted to simple models such as two-dimensional or quasi-steady aerodynamic models. Hence, in order to obtain accurate and valid results, considering the effects of unsteadiness and three-dimensionality in the modeling is necessary.This complex problem requires time-dependent simultaneous solution of the dynamics equations of the elastic structure with the piezoelectric strips, coupled with the equations of the unsteady flow past oscillating wings. In the present thesis, the unsteady subsonic aerodynamic loading of a trapezoidal wing structure is calculated using numerical panel methods for two- and three-dimensional flows. The developed models are validated with the existing literature and the results show good agreement. Piezoelectric strips are employed as sensors and actuators bonded to the surface of the wing. The finite element formulation of the combined structural model for the wing and the piezoelectric strips is presented. The structural model is coupled with the aerodynamic model using an interactive computer model to transfer the data at each time step and solve the equations simultaneously. The transient analysis is used to simulate the aeroelastic oscillations and an active PID feedback controller is proposed and applied to suppress the oscillations. The numerical results for the various cases of the control of oscillations caused by the vertical gust loads are presented. The results show that the PID control is effective in reducing the amplitude of the oscillations in relatively short time and with relatively small gains, hence low cost. A systematic approach is presented to calculate the gains of the feedback controller using the system matrices. An analysis is performed as well to investigate the effects of the actuator placement on the performance of the controller in suppression of the oscillation for various scenarios. It was demonstrated that the actuators placed close to the wing root are more effective in reducing the amplitude of the oscillations in less time.
L'objectif de ce projet est l'analyse et le contrôle des oscillations aéroélastiques d'une structure de l'aile avec des bandes collées piézoélectriques soumises à des charges aérodynamiques subsoniques instables. Le contrôle actif des oscillations aéroélastiques et l'utilisation de matériaux piézoélectriques dans l'analyse des vibrations et le contrôle des structures a fait l'objet de nombreuses recherches dans la conception des véhicules aériens. Cependant, la plupart des recherches dans ces domaines ont été limitées à des modèles simples tels que les modèles aérodynamiques à deux dimensions ou quasi-stables. Par conséquent, afin d'obtenir des résultats précis et valables, il est nécessaire de considérer les effets de l'instabilité et de la tridimensionnalité dans la modélisation. Ce problème complexe nécessite de résoudre de manière simultanée en fonction du temps l'équation de la dynamique de la structure élastique avec des bandes piézoélectriques couplée avec les équations du flux instable autour des ailes oscillantes. Dans cette thèse, la charge aérodynamique subsonique instable d'une structure d'aile trapézoïdale est calculée en utilisant des méthodes de panneaux numériques pour des flux à deux et trois dimensions. Les modèles développés sont validés avec la littérature existante et les résultats démontrent un bon accord. Des bandes piézoélectriques sont utilisées comme capteurs et des actionneurs liés à la surface de l'aile. La formulation des éléments finis du modèle structurel de l'aile combiné avec les bandes piézoélectriques est présentée. Le modèle structurel est couplé avec le modèle aérodynamique à l'aide d'un modèle informatique interactif pour transférer les données à chaque pas de temps, et résoudre les équations simultanément. L'analyse transitoire est utilisée pour simuler les vibrations aéroélastiques et un contrôleur de retour PID actif est proposé et appliqué pour supprimer les oscillations. Les résultats numériques pour les différents cas de contrôle des oscillations provoquées par les charges des rafales de vents verticales sont présentés. Les résultats démontrent que le contrôle PID est efficace pour réduire l'amplitude des oscillations en relativement peu de temps et avec relativement peu de gains, donc à faible coût. Une approche systématique est présentée pour calculer les gains du contrôleur de rétroaction en utilisant les matrices du système. L'analyse est aussi effectuée pour étudier les effets de la mise en place de l'actionneur sur la performance du dispositif de commande dans la suppression de l'oscillation de divers scénarios. Il a été démontré que les actionneurs placés à proximité de l'emplanture de l'aile sont plus efficaces dans la réduction de l'amplitude des oscillations en moins de temps.

The trend in aircraft design is to produce greener airplanes through lighter structures and/or structures with extended life and reduced maintenance. Bonded crack retarders (BCR) are one of the solutions towards that objective. BCR are reinforcing straps bonded to the structure in order to improve the fatigue and damage tolerance properties of the assembly. The aim of this study was to demonstrate that the BCR hybrid technology – beneficial for upper wing cover – could also be applied to lower wing covers. The project also focused on evaluating BCR most important parameters. The fatigue life improvement obtained from BCR was evaluated through a series of coupons and skin-stringer assemblies tested under constant and variable amplitude loading. While the coupon tests demonstrated a life improvement of only 17% under constant amplitude loading, the variable amplitude load tests performed on the skin-stringer assembly demonstrated increased fatigue lives with a factor of 5 and reduced crack growth rates with a factor of 5 to 6. A finite element calculation tool was developed in order to conduct a parametric analysis of BCR geometry through the evaluation of the substrate stress intensity factor in the case of fatigue loading. The main difficulty was to include the interacting mechanism of the substrate lead crack and the disbond of the adhesive layer. The novelty of the approach was to incorporate the fatigue delamination calculation in order to evaluate the fatigue disbond propagation with crack growth. This was embedded in a 3D finite element design tool ReSLIC (Reinforced Structures Life Improvement Calculation). A necessary step to the development of ReSLIC was the analysis of fatigue properties of the adhesive system in order to provide input data for fatigue delamination calculations. To that end, a series of fatigue tests were performed in pure Mode I, pure Mode II and mixed mode with ratios of 25%, 50% and 75% of mode II ... [cont.].

Using experimental data obtained from standard fracture test configurations, theoretical and numerical tools are developed to mathematically describe non-self-similar progression of cracks without specifying an initial crack. A cohesive-decohesive zone model, similar to the cohesive zone model known in the fracture mechanics literature as the Dugdale-Barenblatt model, is adopted to represent the degradation of the material ahead of the crack tip. This model unifies strength-based crack initiation and fracture-mechanics-based crack progression. The cohesive-decohesive zone model is implemented with an interfacial surface material that consists of an upper and a lower surface that are connected by a continuous distribution of normal and tangential nonlinear elastic springs that act to resist either Mode I opening, Mode II sliding, Mode III sliding, or a mixed mode. The initiation of fracture is determined by the interfacial strength and the progression of the crack is determined by the critical energy release rate. The adhesive is idealized with an interfacial surface material to predict interfacial fracture. The interfacial surface material is positioned within the bulk material to predict discrete cohesive cracks. The interfacial surface material is implemented through an interface element, which is incorporated in ABAQUS using the user defined element (UEL) option. A procedure is established to formulate a rate dependent model based on experiments carried out on compact tension test specimens. The rate dependent model is incorporated into the interface element approach to capture the unstable crack growth observed in experiments under quasi-static loading conditions. The compact tension test gives the variation of the fracture toughness with the rate of loading, this information is processed and a relationship between the fracture toughness and the rate of the opening displacement is established. The cohesive-decohesive zone model is implemented through a material model to be used in an explicit code (LS-DYNA). Dynamic simulations of the standard test configurations for Mode I (Double Cantilever Beam) and Mode II (End Load Split) are carried out using the explicit code. Verification of these coupon tests leads to the crash analysis of realistic structures like the square composite tube. Analyses of bonded and unbonded square tubes are presented. These tubes shows a very uncharacteristic failure mode: the composite material disintegrates on impact, and this has been captured in the analysis. Disadvantages of the interface element approach are well documented in the literature. An alternative method, known as the Extended Finite Element Method (XFEM), is implemented here through an eight-noded quadrilateral plane strain element. The method, based on the partition-of-unity, is used to study simple test configuration like the three-point bend problem and a double cantilever beam. Functionally graded materials are also simulated and the results are compared to the experimental results available in the literature.
Ph. D.

The present document covers the studies over Structural Health Monitoring systems via vibration based methods. The topic is organized in two parallel studies. The first one analyzes the integrity of metal-composite single lap bonded joints. The second one approaches similar analyses for sandwich structures. The monitoring was made by investigating the dynamic response both computationally and experimentally to verify the reliability of applying vibration based SHM procedures, specifically with the objective of identifying the presence of debonding damage. The dynamic responses were obtained via accelerometers and piezoelectric sensors placed on top of the investigated structures (on the outward surface). The purpose for the accelerometers is to provide reference data for the analyses involving the piezoelectric sensors. Different metrics of damage identification were investigated, all working over a determined frequency range. They quantify the damage by analyzing either the magnitudes or phase angles of the dynamic responses among the undamaged and damage structures. This present work proposed modifications to some methodologies of damage quantification found in the literature and compared the results. The new metrics offered more reliable values for the damage quantification on several of the analyses. It was verified that the metrics are valid for the scenarios observed in the present study. The experimental analyses showed also the influence on the dynamic response due to the position of small elastomeric elements. In regards to the finite element analyses, the computational models showed similar results to the experimental data, the more accurate ones being the models for the bonded joints. For the computational models, improvements can be applied into the piezoelectric sensor (e.g. by using new finite element formulations), as well as the region of debonding (e.g. by using contact algorithms). It is important to highlight that the elastic properties of the skins for the sandwich structure were obtained by the literature, so the model can be improved in the future by applying properties obtained experimentally.
Esta dissertação aborda os estudos realizados no campo de Sistemas de Monitoramento da Integridade Estrutural por meio de métodos baseados em vibrações. O tópico abordado é organizado em dois estudos paralelos. O primeiro é relativo ao monitoramento da integridade de juntas coladas metal-compósito. O segundo versa sobre análises semelhantes em estruturas sanduíche. O monitoramento foi executado através das análises das assinaturas dinâmicas das estruturas, tanto computacionalmente quanto experimentalmente, visando avaliar a capacidade de metodologias vibracionais de SHM em detectar dano de descolamento. As respostas dinâmicas foram obtidas por meio de acelerômetros e sensores piezelétricos dispostos sobre a superfície das estruturas avaliadas. Os acelerômetros fornecem dados de referência para as análises realizadas com base nas respostas do sensor piezelétrico. Diferentes métricas de identificação de dano são abordadas, sendo que todas estão baseadas em análise no domínio da frequência, utilizando parâmetros de magnitude ou ângulo de fase das estruturas danificadas e intactas. O presente trabalho propôs alterações em algumas das metodologias encontradas na literatura e comparou os resultados das métricas originais com as modificadas. As métricas modificadas apresentaram resultados mais consistentes em vários cenários de análise. Constatou-se também que as métricas abordadas mostram-se válidas para os casos observados no presente estudo. As análises experimentais também evidenciaram a influência na assinatura dinâmica da estrutura sanduíche causada pelo posicionamento de pequenos elementos elastoméricos. Com relação às análises via elementos finitos, os modelos computacionais apresentaram resultados similares aos obtidos experimentalmente, sendo os da junta colada os mais precisos. Tais modelos computacionais podem ser melhorados no futuro por meio de uma modelagem mais detalhada dos elementos piezelétricos (por exemplo: por meio de novas formulações), como também da região de descolamento (por exemplo: por meio da implementação de algoritmos de contato). Deve-se ressaltar também que as propriedades elásticas das lâminas externas da estrutura sanduíche foram obtidas da literatura, assim sendo, o modelo poderá ser melhorado em estudos futuros por meio do emprego de propriedades obtidas experimentalmente.

Thesis (M. S.)--Civil and Environmental Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, 2007.
Committee Chair: Mulalo Doyoyo; Committee Co-Chair: Reginald Desroches; Committee Member: Laurence J. Jacobs.

The microwave spectra were measured in the 4–15 GHz regime for cyclopropanecarboxylic acid, 1,2-cyclohexanedione, maleimide, phthalimide, and 4a,8a-azaboranaphthalene. Doubly hydrogen bonded dimers formed with formic acid were also measured with the molecules cyclopropanecarboxylic acid, 1,2-cyclohexanedione, maleimide, and tropolone. Measurements were made using a pulsed beam Fourier transform microwave spectrometer. Rotational and centrifugal distortion constants were determined from the microwave spectra. In the case of the systems that exhibit electric quadrupole coupling interactions, the electric quadrupole coupling strengths were also determined from the analysis of the hyperfine structure in the spectra, yielding additional electronic structure information for the molecules studied. The spectra were also measured for a number of unique, singly substituted isotopologues under natural abundance concentrations. This isotopologue data is crucial in order to obtain key gas phase molecular structure parameters of the molecules and complexes studied. Many theoretical computations, using ab initio and DFT methods, were also performed to obtain optimized electronic structures of the systems studied. These computations aid in the search and assignments of the rotational transitions measured. Comparisons between the theory and the experimental results are described in greater detail in the respective chapters for those systems. The experimental results for the organic systems studied agreed well (within a few percent) with the gas phase optimization computations performed.

An experimental technique for conducting low speed impact of adhesively bonded automotive composite joints is presented. Based on the use of a modified drop tower, mode I, II, and mixed mode values for critical energy release rate were determined for a composite/epoxy system and used to create a fracture failure envelope. Because load measurements become erratic and unreliable at higher test rates, displacement-based relationships were used to quantify these energy release rates. Displacement data was collected with an imaging system that utilized edge detection to determine displacement profiles, end displacements, and opening displacements where applicable. Because of the resolution of the image-based approach used, determining crack length experimentally was extremely difficult. As a result, numerical methods were developed to objectively determine the crack length based on the available experimental data in mode I, II, and mixed mode I/II configurations. This numerical method uses a nonlinear fit to determine mode I crack lengths and a theoretical model based on cubic equations for mode II and mixed-mode I/II, where the coefficients of the equations are determined by using both boundary and transition conditions that are a result of the test setup. A double cantilever beam (DCB) geometry was chosen to collect mode I data, an end-loaded split (ELS) geometry was used for mode II, and a single leg bend (SLB) geometry was used for mixed-mode I/II. These geometries were used to determine the fracture characteristics of adhesively bonded automotive composites to create fracture failure envelopes as well as provide mode I, II, and mixed-mode I/II data to be used in finite element models. The chosen adhesive exhibited unstable, stick-slip crack growth, which resulted in very few data points being collected from each static DCB specimen as well as drastic drops in energy release rate between initiation and arrest points. Unstable growth also created issues in dynamic testing, as data points surrounding these "stick-slip" events were lost due to the insufficient sampling rate of the available imaging system. Issues also arose with differences between thick and thin composite adherend specimens. These differences could result from additional curing in thick adherend composite specimens due to the adherends retaining heat. DSC testing was conducted on uncured adhesive using a 2, 5, and 10 minute hold at the cure temperature, and significant additional curing was observed between the two and five minute cures. Due to the difference in relative stiffness between the 12 and 36 ply composite, the local loading rate at the crack tip was lower in the 12 ply adherends, possibly allowing for a larger plastic zone and thus a higher energy release rate. As a result, tests were conducted on 36 ply composite specimens at rates of 1 mm/min and 0.1 mm/min to determine if there were loading rate effects. This testing showed that higher initiation energy relase rates were found at the lower test rate, thus reinforcing the local loading rate theory. Due to issues with plastic deformation in aluminum adherends, mode II and mixed-mode I/II data were collected using only composite adherends. Only one data point was collected per specimen as the crack propagated directly into the composite after initiating from the precrack, thus multiple tests were conducted to collect sufficient data for constructing a failure envelope. Once mode I, II and mixed-mode I/II fracture data was collected, a fracture failure envelope was created. This failure envelope, combined with a predetermined factor of safety, could provide some of the necessary tools for design with this adhesive/composite system.
Master of Science

The composite repair of metallic aircraft structures is a proven technology used in many repair applications on both military and commercial aircraft. Composite bonded repairs to metallic aircraft structures are generally used for fatigue enhancement, crack patching, as well as in different kinds of damage repairs. A classical research approach has been adopted for the project. A literature review has been conducted to become acquainted with the crack initiation and crack growth prediction methods in composite bonded repair situations and to gather experimental data for validation purposes. Test data generated by DERA and the USAF has been used to evaluate crack growth and crack initiation analysis tools. Both classical and FEA based fatigue analysis have been evaluated for accuracy. From the evaluation, a list of deficiencies has been developed, and a new methodology proposed to improve the fatigue life prediction for thick cracked aluminum structures. The new methodology provides a good compromise between accuracy and complexity in the analysis of bonded repair designs. A new set of data was generated, due to the lack of experimental crack growth data available for typical CF18 materials and spectrum loading. The proposed methodology has been evaluated against existing and new test data generated for the project. The designed test coupons had a centre section of 6.35 mm (0.25 inch) of thickness and were made of 7050-T7451 Aluminum. Coupon testing was realized using spectrum loading representative of CF-18 usage. This project has been realized in collaboration with the Canadian Department of National Defence (DND), Martec Limited and the Université de Sherbrooke"--Résumé abrégé par UMI

A materially non-linear layered beam super element is developed for the analysis of RC beams and columns strengthened by externally bonded steel/FRP plates. The elasto-plastic behavior of RC member is incorporated by its internally generated or externally supplied moment-curvature diagram. The steel plate is assumed to be elasto-plastic and the FRP laminate is assumed to behave linearly elastic up to rupture. The thin epoxy layer between the RC member and the externally bonded lamina is simulated by a special interface element which allows for the changing failure modes from steel plate yielding/FRP plate rupture to separation of the bonded plates as a result of bond failure in the epoxy layer. An empirical failure criterion based on test results is used for the epoxy material of the interface. The most critical aspect of such applications in real life frame structures is the anchorage conditions at the member ends and junctions. This has direct influence on the success and the effectiveness of the application. Therefore, a special corner piece anchorage element is also considered in the formulation of the joint super element, which establishes the fixity and continuity conditions at the member ends and the joints.