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1

Lecka-Czernik, Beata, and John L. Fowlkes, eds. Diabetic Bone Disease. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-16402-1.

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2

Török, M. Estée, Fiona J. Cooke, and Ed Moran. Bone and joint infections. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199671328.003.0022.

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This chapter provides an overview of inflammations of the joint space and bones, such as arthritis and bursitis, including osteomyelitis and bone destruction and formation of sequestra. The chapter also includes prosthetic joint infections such as hip and knee replacements. It also describes diabetic foot infections, defined as any inframalleolar infection in a patient with diabetes mellitus. Infections include paronychia, cellulitis, myositis, abscesses, necrotizing fasciitis, septic arthritis, tendonitis, and osteomyelitis.
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3

Tan, Meng Hee. Diabetes Mellitus: Impact on Bone, Dental and Musculoskeletal Health. Elsevier Science & Technology Books, 2020.

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4

Lecka-Czernik, Beata, and John L. Fowlkes. Diabetic Bone Disease: Basic and Translational Research and Clinical Applications. Springer, 2015.

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5

Lecka-Czernik, Beata, and John L. Fowlkes. Diabetic Bone Disease: Basic and Translational Research and Clinical Applications. Springer, 2016.

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6

Chiu, Sai-Wing Andrew. Vanadium treatment prevents bone loss and maintains bone quality in a combined osteoporosis and diabetes rat model. 2006.

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7

Facchini, Diana Maria. The effects of vanadium on bone quality in rat models of diabetes and postmenopausal osteoporosis. 2005.

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8

Facchini, Diana Maria. The effects of vanadium on bone quality in rat models of diabetes and postmenopausal osteoporosis. 2005.

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9

Fox, Grenville, Nicholas Hoque, and Timothy Watts. Metabolic problems and jaundice. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198703952.003.0013.

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This chapter covers problems of glycaemic control in neonates (including investigation and management of hypoglycaemia and hyperglycaemia); management of babies of women with diabetes (infant of the diabetic mother); the physiological basis and rational approach to the treatment of metabolic acidosis in the newborn; the presentation, investigation, and management of inborn errors of metabolism presenting in the newborn; and metabolic bone disease (also known as osteopenia or rickets of prematurity). There is an overview of the investigation and treatment of neonatal jaundice, including physiological jaundice, aetiology, and investigation of non-physiological jaundice and aims of treatment of this; with guidelines for the use of phototherapy, exchange transfusion, and intravenous immunoglobulin. The importance of assessment of prolonged jaundice with reference to conjugated hyperbilirubinaemia is also covered in this section.
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10

Steiner, Lisa A. Osteomyelitis. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199976805.003.0049.

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Osteomyelitis is an infectious process that affects any part of the bone, including the periosteum, the cortex, or the marrow. It most often occurs in the lower extremities and can be an acute, subacute, or chronic process. Osteomyelitis is often characterized as a consequence of a contiguous spread or hematogenous spread of bacterial infection or as a consequence of vascular insufficiency. Chronic osteomyelitis can be associated with significant bone necrosis, sometimes requiring months to years of treatment with antibiotics or even surgical debridement. Consultation with the orthopedic service (or spine service for vertebral osteomyelitis) should be considered. Vascular service consultation should also occur if there is a concern for osteomyelitis in the foot of a patient with diabetes mellitus. These patients often require admission to the hospital for follow-up.
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11

Forgács, S. Bones and Joints in Diabetes Mellitus. Springer, 2011.

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12

Bones and Joints in Diabetes Mellitus. Springer, 2011.

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13

Gluckman, Sir Peter, Mark Hanson, Chong Yap Seng, and Anne Bardsley. Effects of maternal age on pregnancy outcomes. Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198722700.003.0034.

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Maternal age on both ends of the reproductive spectrum (teenage and 35+) is associated with increased risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes, as compared with the age range from 20–34 years old. Some of the increase in pregnancy complications in older mothers is caused by underlying age-related health issues such as hypertension and diabetes, the prevalence of which increases linearly with age. The risks associated with young maternal age are more related to nutritional deficits and the fact that pregnant adolescents may still be growing themselves. Poor fetal growth often seen in adolescent pregnancies possibly results from competition for nutrients. Maternal bone loss is also a concern, as adolescent diets are commonly low in calcium and vitamin D. Pregnant adolescents may benefit from calcium supplementation to compensate for the increased need for their own bone growth and should at minimum receive vitamin D supplements, as recommended for all pregnant women.
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14

Rogers, Thomas R., and Elizabeth M. Johnson. Mucoraceous moulds. Edited by Christopher C. Kibbler, Richard Barton, Neil A. R. Gow, Susan Howell, Donna M. MacCallum, and Rohini J. Manuel. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198755388.003.0018.

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The mucoraceous moulds are members of the order Mucorales and comprise a number of genera within which are species that typically cause life-threatening infections in immunocompromised hosts, but are also pathogens of patients with diabetes mellitus or burns, or following traumatic injuries or near-drowning incidents, and in iron overload. Clinical presentations may be of rhinocerebral, pulmonary, cutaneous, or disseminated disease. Once established at its initial focus, the infection can progress rapidly. Diagnosis is challenging because this is a relatively rare disease, cultures from sites of infection may be negative, and few biomarkers exist to aid laboratory diagnosis. Histopathological examination of infected tissue is useful in diagnosis. Clinicians should have a high level of suspicion when immunocompromised patients present with sinus infection, facial swelling, orbital bone erosion, nodular lung infiltration, or necrotic skin eschars. The only currently available antifungal agents with evidence of clinical utility in mucormycosis are amphotericin B, posaconazole, and isavuconazole.
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15

Kelleher, Clare. Diabetic Foot Infections. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199976805.003.0043.

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Diabetic foot infections (DFI) are diagnosed by two or more classic findings of inflammation (redness, swelling, warmth, and tenderness) or purulent drainage within an existing diabetic foot wound. Wounds without clinical evidence of soft tissue or bone infection often do not require antibiotic therapy. When infection is present, empiric antibiotic regimens must be based on the available clinical and local epidemiologic data, but definitive therapy should be based on cultures of infected tissues or clinical response. Consideration of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) coverage should be given when local prevalence is high, in patients with a prior history of MRSA infection, or when the systemic manifestations are severe. Surgical intervention and vascular assessment play key roles in the management of many DFI; deep DFI require incision, drainage, and debridement. Redistribution of pressure off of the wound is a tenet in the management of DFI.
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16

Goldsmith, David J. Cardiovascular disease and chronic kidney disease. Edited by David J. Goldsmith. Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199592548.003.0098.

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Even after as full a statistical adjustment as can be made for traditional cardiovascular risk factors has been undertaken, impaired kidney function and raised concentrations of albumin in urine each increase the risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD) by two- to fourfold, the degree increasing with severity. If the patient is also suffering from diabetes (as either the cause of CKD or a complication of it), the risks of CVD increase two- to fourfold again. CKD patients should, therefore, be acknowledged as having perhaps the highest cardiovascular risk of any patient cohort. CVD is underdiagnosed and undertreated in these patients. In early CKD the manifestations of CVD are similar to those of other patients. In late CKD and particularly in patients on dialysis the epidemiology is different. Left ventricular hypertrophy is very common and sudden cardiac death is greatly increased in incidence. Heart failure is a common complication. Calcification of valves and vessels becomes increasingly common and bad CVD outcomes are associated with hyperphosphataemia and other manifestations. The mechanisms by which risks are increased are not fully understood. The evidence base for the effectiveness of established therapies for CVD is relatively light in patients with CKD, but there is evidence for benefit of lipid-lowering therapies and most nephrologists believe that blood pressure and volume control are important for good long-term outcomes. Evidence of impact on CVD of interventions to alter mineral bone disease is disappointingly weak.
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17

Armstrong, Neil, and Willem van Mechelen, eds. Oxford Textbook of Children's Sport and Exercise Medicine. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198757672.001.0001.

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Comprehensive and up to date, this textbook on children’s sport and exercise medicine features research and practical experience of internationally recognized scientists and clinicians that informs and challenges readers. Four sections—Exercise Science, Exercise Medicine, Sport Science, and Sport Medicine—provide a critical, balanced, and thorough examination of each subject, and each chapter provides cross-references, bulleted summaries, and extensive reference lists. Exercise Science covers growth, biological maturation and development, and examines physiological responses to exercise in relation to chronological age, biological maturation, and sex. It analyses kinetic responses at exercise onset, scrutinizes responses to exercise during thermal stress, and evaluates how the sensations arising from exercise are detected and interpreted during youth. Exercise Medicine explores physical activity and fitness and critically reviews their role in young people’s health. It discusses assessment, promotion, and genetics of physical activity, and physical activity in relation to cardiovascular health, bone health, health behaviours, diabetes, asthma, congenital conditions, and physical/mental disability. Sport Science analyses youth sport, identifies challenges facing the young athlete, and discusses the physiological monitoring of the elite young athlete. It explores molecular exercise physiology and the potential role of genetics. It examines the evidence underpinning aerobic, high-intensity, resistance, speed, and agility training programmes, as well as effects of intensive or over-training during growth and maturation. Sport Medicine reviews the epidemiology, prevention, diagnosis, and management of injuries in physical education, contact sports, and non-contact sports. It also covers disordered eating, eating disorders, dietary supplementation, performance-enhancing drugs, and the protection of young athletes.
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18

Peterson, Susan, and Staci Reintjes. Otitis Externa, Otitis Media, and Mastoiditis. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199976805.003.0011.

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Otitis Externa is an infection of external auditory canal. Infection typically occurs via penetration of the epithelial barrier. Patients typically present with inflammation of the auricle, external auditory canal, or outer tympanic membrane. First-line therapy includes topical acidic agents and antibiotic drops. Oral antibiotics should be considered for recurrent infections, those resistant to topical therapy, severe disease, extension beyond the external auditory canal, diabetics, or immunocompromised patients. Otitis Media is an infection of the middle ear. Patients typically present with otalgia, otorrhea, fever, irritability, anorexia, and hearing loss. Mastoiditis is an infection of the mastoid bone. Patients present with pain, swelling, and erythema over the mastoid bone. Fever, irritability, otalgia, and hearing loss are also often present. Infection can be serious and may lead to sepsis, sigmoid sinus thrombosis, and intracranial abscess if not treated appropriately. More common complications include chronic infection, resistant bacteria, and mild hearing loss.
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19

Edwards, Nolan. Magnesium : What Your Doctor Needs You to Know : Including: How to Fight Diabetes, Have a Healthy Heart, and Get Strong Bones! CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 2015.

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20

Thomas London, W., Jessica L. Petrick, and Katherine A. McGlynn. Liver Cancer. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190238667.003.0033.

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Primary liver cancer is the sixth most frequently occurring cancer in the world and the second most common in terms of cancer deaths. The global burden of liver cancer is borne principally by countries in East Asia and Africa, where 80% of liver cancer arises. Incidence rates of liver cancer, however, have begun to decline in Asia, while rates are increasing in low-rate areas such as Europe and North America. The dominant histology of liver cancer in almost all countries is hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). The major risk factors for HCC—chronic infection with either hepatitis B virus (HBV) or hepatitis C virus (HCV), aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) contamination of foodstuffs, excessive alcohol consumption, and diabetes/obesity/fatty liver disease—all result in chronic inflammation in the liver. HBV infection is preventable by immunization, and HCV infection is largely preventable by public health measures and now is curable with new antiviral therapies.
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21

Kashani, Kianoush B., and Amy W. Williams. Renal Failure. Oxford University Press, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199755691.003.0473.

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Renal failure is caused by acute kidney injury or chronic kidney disease. Acute kidney injury (AKI) is a common, devastating complication that increases mortality and morbidity among patients with various medical and surgical illnesses. Also known as acute renal failure, AKI is a rapid deterioration of kidney function that results in the accumulation of nitrogenous metabolites and medications and in electrolyte and acid-base imbalances. This chapter discusses the definition, epidemiology, pathophysiology, and etiology of AKI; the clinical approach to patients with AKI; and the management of AKI. Chronic kidney disease (CKD) has been categorized into 5 stages. When renal function decreases to stage 3, the complications of CKD become evident. These complications include hypertension, cardiovascular disease, lipid abnormalities, anemia, metabolic bone disease, and electrolyte disturbances. To prevent the progression of CKD, therapy must be directed toward preventing these complications and achieving adequate glucose control in diabetic patients with CKD.
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22

Zhang, Luxia, and Haiyan Wang. Chronic kidney disease in developing countries. Edited by David J. Goldsmith. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199592548.003.0096_update_001.

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The spread of non-communicable diseases (NCDs) is a barrier to the development of goals including reduction of poverty, health equity, economic stability, and human security. NCDs accounted for 61% of the estimated 58 million deaths and 46% of the global burden of diseases worldwide in 2005. Among NCDs, chronic kidney disease (CKD) is of particular significance. It is recognized that the burden of CKD is not only limited to its impact on demands for renal replacement therapy but has equally major impacts on the health of the overall population. For example, it is now well established that among the general population as well as in the diabetic or hypertensive population, the prognosis, especially the mortality and acceleration of cardiovascular events, depends on kidney involvement. Also, CKD is associated with other major serious consequences including increased risk of acute kidney injury, increased risk of mineral and bone disease, adverse metabolic and nutritional consequences, infections, and reduced cognitive function. As a consequence of these amplifying effects, the financial expenditure and medical resources consumed for the management of CKD patients is much higher than expected. The burden of CKD is likely to have profound socioeconomic and public health consequences in developing countries.
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23

Heckman, JD. Instructional course lectures v.42. American Acadamy of Orthopedic Surgeons, 1993.

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