Academic literature on the topic 'Bothrops asper'

The assessment of the preclinical neutralizing ability of antivenoms in Latin America is necessary to determine their scope of efficacy. This study was aimed at analyzing the neutralizing efficacy of a polyspecific bothropic-crotalic antivenom manufactured by BIRMEX in Mexico against lethal, hemorrhagic, defibrinogenating and in vitro coagulant activities of the venoms of Bothrops jararaca (Brazil), B. atrox (Perú and Colombia), B. diporus (Argentina), B. mattogrossensis (Bolivia), and B. asper (Costa Rica). Standard laboratory tests to determine these activities were used. In agreement with previous studies with bothropic antivenoms in Latin America, a pattern of cross-neutralization of heterologous venoms was observed. However, the antivenom had low neutralizing potency against defibrinogenating effect of the venoms of B. atrox (Colombia) and B. asper (Costa Rica), and failed to neutralize the in vitro coagulant activity of the venom of B. asper (Costa Rica) at the highest antivenom/venom ratio tested. It is concluded that, with the exception of coagulant and defibrinogenating activities of B. asper (Costa Rica) venom, this antivenom neutralizes toxic effects of various Bothrops sp venoms. Future studies are necessary to assess the efficacy of this antivenom against other viperid venoms.

Bothrops asper es responsable de hasta el 80% del ofidismo del norte de Sudamérica, teniendo su veneno una acción proteolítica y coagulante sobre el miembro afectado. Se realiza un estudio descriptivo, con análisis retrospectivo, con identificación taxonómica y revisión de la literatura. Paciente masculino de doce años, procedente de Sanare, estado Lara, Venezuela, quien es hospitalizado en la Unidad de Cuidados Intensivos por sintomatología grave luego de mordedura por Bothrops en la pierna derecha, recibe quince ampollas de antiveneno, pero la demora del suministro por la grave escases regional del antiveneno y el recibir una dosis alta de la ponzoña, permitieron una intensa acción hemolítica y necrosante sobre los tejidos, presentando síndrome compartimental por lo que ameritó fasciotomía bajo condiciones mínimas aceptables de coagulación. El niño tuvo una buena recuperación salvando el miembro de la amputación. Solo el 20% de los casos de ofidismo llegan a ser graves, produciéndose por inoculaciones superiores a los 300 mg de veneno y a la demora en el traslado al centro especializado, esto permite la necrosis del tejido y el síndrome compartimental, daño que amerita ejecutar la fasciotomía, desbridamiento y drenaje de abscesos para evitar la amputación. Es el primer reporte de fasciotomía tras mordedura de Bothrops asper en el estado Lara. El traslado inmediato del paciente para un tratamiento específico con antiveneno, sigue siendo la principal medida para evitar casos graves de envenenamiento y así disminuir la severidad de la sintomatología y la letalidad.

Background Bothrops asper represents the clinically most important snake species in Central America and Northern South America, where it is responsible for an estimated 50–80% of snakebites. Compositional variability among the venom proteomes of B. asper lineages across its wide range mirrors clinical differences in their envenomings. Bothropic antivenoms generated in a number of Latin American countries commonly exhibit a certain degree of paraspecific effectiveness in the neutralization of congeneric venoms. Defining the phylogeographic boundaries of an antivenom's effectivity has implications for optimizing its clinical use. However, the molecular bases and impact of venom compositions on the immune recognition and neutralization of the toxic activities of across geographically disparate populations of B. asper lineages has not been comprehensively studied. Methodology/Principal findings Third-generation antivenomics was applied to quantify the cross-immunorecognizing capacity against the individual components of venoms of three B. asper lineages (B. asper (sensu stricto), B. ayerbei and B. rhombeatus) distributed in south-western (SW) Colombia, of six Latin American antivenoms, produced against homologous (Colombia, INS-COL and PROBIOL) and Costa Rica (ICP)), and heterologous (Argentina (BIOL), Perú (INS-PERU) and Venezuela (UCV)) bothropic venoms. In vivo neutralization assays of the lethal, hemorrhagic, coagulant, defibrinogenating, myotoxic, edematogenic, indirect hemolytic, and proteolytic activities of the three SW Colombian B. asper lineage venoms were carried to compare the preclinical efficacy of three (Colombian INS-COL and PROBIOL, and Costa Rican ICP) antivenoms frequently used in Colombia. Antivenomics showed that all the six antivenom affinity matrices efficiently immunoretained most of the B. asper lineages venom proteins and exhibited impaired binding towards the venoms' peptidomes. The neutralization profile of the INS-COL, PROBIOL and ICP antivenoms towards the biological activities of the venoms of SW Colombian B. asper (sensu stricto), B. ayerbei and B. rhombeatus lineages was coherent with the antivenomics outcome. In addition, the combination of in vitro (antivenomics) and in vivo neutralization results allowed us to determine their toxin-specific and venom neutralizing antibody content. Noteworthy, heterologous INS-PERU, BIOL, and UCV bothropic antivenoms had equal or higher binding capacity towards the venoms components of SW Colombian B. asper lineages that the homologous Colombian and Costa Rican antivenoms. Conclusions/Significance The combined in vitro and in vivo preclinical outcome showed that antivenoms manufactured in Colombia and Costa Rica effectively neutralize the major toxic activities of SW Colombian B. asper lineage venoms. The antivenomics profiles of the heterologous antivenoms manufactured in Argentina, Venezuela, and Perú strongly suggests their (pre)clinical adequacy for the treatment of B. asper lineage envenomings in SW Colombia. However, their recommendation in the clinical setting is pending on in vivo neutralization testing and clinical testing in humans. Bothrops asper is a highly adaptable snake species complex, which is considered the most dangerous snake throughout much of its distribution range from the Atlantic lowland of eastern México to northwestern Perú. Antivenoms are the only scientifically validated treatment of snakebite envenomings. Venom variation is particularly common in wide ranging species, such as B. asper, and may result in variable clinical presentations of envenomings, as is the case for the B. asper species complex, potentially undermining the efficacy of snakebite treatments depending on the immunization mixture used in the generation of the antivenom. Conversely, phylogenetic conservation of antigenic determinants confers an unpredictable degree of paraspecificity to homologous antivenoms produced for a geographic area, but also to heterologous congeneric antivenoms, towards the venom components of allopatric conspecific populations. This work aimed at comparing the preclinical profile of a panel of Latin American homologous and heterologous antivenoms against the venoms of B. asper lineages distributed in SW Colombia. The outcome of this study strongly suggests the suitability of considering the heterologous antivenoms BIOL (Argentina), UCV (Venezuela) and INS-PERU (Perú) as alternatives to homologous Colombian INS-COL and PROBIOL and Costa Rican ICP antivenoms for the treatment of envenomings by B. asper (sensu stricto) in W Colombia and Ecuador, B. ayerbei in Cauca and Nariño (Colombia), and B. rhombeatus in Cauca river valley, SW Colombia.

Os venenos do gênero Bothrops induzem efeitos locais caracterizados por hemorragia, necrose, edema e dor intensa. Apesar da importância clínica do fenômeno de dor, os estudos sobre os mecanismos envolvidos na gênese deste fenômeno são ainda escassos. Além disso, não existem dados sobre a capacidade do antiveneno em neutralizar este fenômeno. Neste trabalho foi investigada, a capacidade dos venenos de Bothrops jararaca, Bothrops asper e da miotoxina III (Fosfolipase A2, variante Asp 49), uma toxina isolada do veneno de Bothrops asper, em induzir hiperalgesia em ratos, a mediação química deste fenômeno e a capacidade dos antivenenos em neutralizar esta ação dos venenos. A possível correlação entre a hiperalgesia e a resposta edematogênica causada pelos venenos ou miotoxina foi também avaliada. O limiar de dor foi determinado antes e em diferentes tempos após a administração dos venenos ou toxina, empregando o teste de pressão de pata de rato. Para o estudo da resposta edematogênica, o aumento do volume das patas posteriores foi determinado por pletismografia. Os venenos e a toxina, administrados por via intraplantar, nas doses de 5µg (VBj), 15µg (VBa) ou 10µg (MIII), induziram hiperalgesia e edema, com respostas máxima na 1a (VBj, MIII) ou 2a (VBa) hora, não sendo mais detectadas na 24a hora. Para o estudo da neutralização, foram utilizados o antiveneno botrópico produzido no Instituto Butantan e o antiveneno polivalente produzido no Instituto Clodomiro Picado da Costa Rica, administrados por via endovenosa, 15 min. ou imediatamente antes ou 15 min. após a injeção dos venenos. O AVIB, quando injetado 15 min. antes do VBj, foi capaz de reverter a hiperalgesia induzida pelo veneno. Em relação ao edema, esta inibição foi observada quando o antiveneno foi administrado 15 min. ou imediatamente antes do VBj. Por outro lado, o AVCP não interferiu com a dor e o edema acarretados pelo VBa. Quando o VBj e o VBa foram incubados, in vitro, por 30 min., a 370C com os AV correspondentes, a hiperalgesia e o edema foram abolidos. Estes resultados indicam que a incapacidade do AVCP, quando administrado in vivo, de bloquear a hiperalgesia e o edema induzidos pelo VBa, não é consequência da ausência de anticorpos específicos no antiveneno, uma vez que estes efeitos foram inibidos quando o veneno foi pré-incubado com o antiveneno. Para avaliação da mediação química da hiperalgesia e do edema, os animais foram submetidos a tratamentos com inibidores de síntese, antagonistas de receptores, anticorpos ou drogas depletoras destes mediadores. Os resultados mostraram que o Hoe-140, dexametasona e NDGA inibem a hiperalgesia induzida pelo VBa, enquanto que apenas a prometazina interferiu com o edema causado pelo veneno. A hiperalgesia induzida pela MIII foi revertida pelo tratamento com prometazina, metisergida, Hoe-140, dexametasona e por NDGA, enquanto que o edema foi inibido apenas por prometazina e dexametasona. Estes dados sugerem que: a) a MIII é um importante componente do veneno para a geração de hiperalgesia, b) a bradicinina e os derivados da lipoxigenase são mediadores da dor acarretada pelo VBa e pela MIII, c) histamina e serotonina participam também da hiperalgesia induzida pela miotoxina e d) a histamina é mediador do edema induzido pelo VBa e pela MIII. Com relação à hiperalgesia induzida pelo VBj, somente o tratamento com Hoe-140 diminuiu este fenômeno, indicando a participação da bradicinina. Por outro lado, este tratamento não foi capaz de interferir com o edema induzido por este veneno. Cabe ressaltar que TEIXEIRA et al. (1994) demonstraram a participação de eicosanóides e PAF na hiperalgesia induzida pelo VBj. Os dados em conjunto sugerem ainda, dissociação entre os fenômenos de dor e edema acarretados por ambos os venenos e pela miotoxina.
Bothrops venoms cause pronounced local tissue-damage characterized by hemorrhage, myonecrosis, edema and pain. Venom-induced pain has been poorly investigated, despite its clinical relevance. Furthermore, the ability of antivenom to neutralize hyperalgesia induced by these venoms is not known. In the present study the hyperalgesia and edema induced by Bothrops jararaca (BjV) and Bothrops asper (BaV) venom and by myotoxin III-MIII (Asp49- phospholipase A2), a toxin isolated from BaV, were investigated. The chemical mediators involved in these phenomena and the ability of the antivenom to neutralize the hyperalgesia and edema induced by these venoms were also investigated. Pain threshold was assessed before and at several intervals after venom injection, using the rat paw pressure test. Edema of paw was measured phethysmographically at the same periods of time. The intraplantar injection of BjV (5µg/paw), BaV (15µg/paw) or MIII (10µg/paw) caused hyperalgesia and edema, whose peak were observed at the 1st (BjV, MIII) or 2nd (BaV) hours after venom/toxin administration, decreasing thereafter. For neutralization studies, the antivenoms produced either at Instituto Butantan from Brazil (AVIB) or Instituto Clodomiro Picado from Costa Rica (AVCP) were administered intravenously 15 min prior to, or immediately before, or 15 min after venoms injection. When the antivenom from Instituto Butantan was injected 15 min. before BjV, the hyperalgesia and edema were abolished. Furthermore, partial inhibition of edema was also observed when the antivenom was injected together with BjV. On the other hand, hyperalgesia and edema induced by BaV were not modified by AVCP. Incubation of BjV and BaV, for 30 min. at 37oC, with the antivenoms in vitro, abolished the hyperalgesia and edema. The inability of the in vivo treatment with antivenom in abolishing hyperalgesia and edema induced by BaV seems not to be related to the lack of neutralizing antibodies in antivenom, because neutralization was achieved in pre-incubation experiments. In order to investigate the chemical mediation of hyperalgesia and edema induced by the venoms or toxin, animals were treated with several drugs. Pretreatment with Hoe-140, dexamethasone and NDGA blocked the hyperalgesia induced by BaV, whereas only promethazine reduced the edema induced by this venom. The MIII-induced hyperalgesia was blocked by promethazine, methysergide, Hoe-140, dexamethasone and NDGA, whereas the edema was reduced only by promethazine and dexamethasone. These results suggest that: a) MIII may contribute to the BaV-induced hyperalgesia, b) bradykinin and leukotrienes mediate the BaV- and MIII-induced pain and MIII; c) histamine and serotonin also participate in the myotoxin-induced hyperalgesia and d) the edema induced by BaV and MIII is mediated by histamine. Pre-treatment of the animals with Hoe-140 abolished BjV-induced hyperalgesia, suggesting that bradykinin may mediate the venom-induced hyperalgesia. However, this treatment did not modify the BjV-induced edema. It is important to stress that previous studies have shown that BjV-induced hyperalgesia is mediated, at least partially, by eicosanoids and PAF (TEIXEIRA et al.,1994). The data presented herein also suggest that distinct mechanisms may be involved in the development of hyperalgesia and edema induced by both venoms and myotoxin III.

Understanding the ways in which animals utilize space and obtain food are central themes in modern ecology. Formulating broad principles and elucidating the factors explaining such patterns are limited, however, by the availability of data from a broad range of species and systems. This problem especially true of snakes, a predator group about which even the most basic natural history data are often entirely lacking, even among abundant, widespread, and ecologically-important species. I studied the natural history and ecosystem role of one such species, the fer-de-lance (Bothrops asper) in lowland rainforest in Costa Rica. B. asper is a large, cryptic pitviper that is highly abundant in many Central American ecosystems and is strongly relevant to human health due to high incidence of snakebite, yet its biology under natural conditions is almost entirely undocumented. I used radiotelemetry to quantify home range, movement patterns, habitat usage, and foraging behavior. B. asper was found to have smaller home ranges and reduced movement patterns than similarly-sized temperate pitvipers, likely due to a greater reliance upon ambush foraging in patches of high prey density. Snakes also demonstrated strong selection for swamp habitat, which may reflect efforts to exploit frogs as a primary food source due to low availability of small mammals at the study site. I subsequently addressed the trophic status of this B. asper population using a supplemental-feeding experiment. In comparison to control snakes, individuals receiving supplemental food had smaller home ranges, shorter and less frequent movements, increased mass acquisition, and shifted to primarily forest rather than swamp habitat. These results support the suggestion that B. asper at the study site are strongly food-limited. Finally, I tested the hypothesis that fer-de-lance mediate local seed-predation rates by influencing habitat usage and foraging behavior of rodents. A series of behavioral experiments conflicted with many existing studies in failing to support this idea, as three rodent species demonstrated little snake avoidance, and none of likely ecological relevance. Collectively, this dissertation represents the first comprehensive field study of Bothrops asper and is among the first for any tropical snake, and suggests several avenues for future research.

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The Bothrops asper is one of the main species of Central America because of its medical importance in countries such as Panamá and Costa Rica, where they cause a high number of accidents. A great number of basic phopholipase A2 (PLA2s, EC 3.1.1.4) this species have been characterized, but a few number of studies have been carried out with acidic isoforms. Moreover, as the snake venom is a rich source of bioactive, the investigation of the biotechnological potential is required. Therefore, from the B. asper venom, this study shows three main lines of research: the caracterization of novel PLA2s isoforms; the study of PLA2s in poisoning pathophysiology and the study of potential antiparasitic of PLA2s. The snake venom was fractionated on three chromatographic methods that have proved effective in purification: ion exchange, hydrophobic interaction and reversed phase, giving rise to nine PLA2, four acidic (BaspAc-I, BaspAc-II, BaspAc-III e BaspAc-IV) and five basic (BaspB-I, BaspB-II, BaspB-III, BapsB-IV e BaspB-V). The molecular weight was determined by mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF) showed values ranging between 13.8 and 14.3 kDa. The isoelectric point of the acidic PLA2 were determined by 2D SDS-PAGE, showing pI values between 4.6 and 5.0. The N-terminal sequence of nine PLA2 was determined, and 05 are new [four Asp49 (BaspAc-I, BaspAc-II, BaspAc-III and BaspAc-IV) and one Lys49 (BaspB-II)]. The enzymatic activity and the evaluation of the preferred substrates by PLA2 Asp49 was performed using fluorescent phospholipids which was observed that, among the tested phospholipids, acid PLA2 catalyzed all substrates, however, the basic PLA2 showed the highest specificity for phosphatidyl glycerol and phosphatidic acid. A discussion about the role of acidic PLA2 in case of poisoning by snake bite is performed based on myotoxicity assay. Moreover, it is demonstrated the antiparasitic action of these molecules, since the acidic PLA2 (BaspAc-I, BaspAc-II, BaspAc-III and BaspAc-IV) showed effects against epimastigote and pomastigotes forms of Trypanossoma cruzi and Leishmania infantum respectively. On the other hand, the basic PLA2, BaspB-II and IV-BaspB showed activity against Plasmodium falciparum. Furthermore, for the first time it demonstrated the synergistic action between Lys49 and Asp49 PLA2s against the malaria parasite, demonstrating that these molecules might be important targets in the development of new therapeutics. Keywords: Snake Venoms, Bothrops Asper, Phospholipase A2, Venomics, Synergism in Parasiticide Action
A serpente Bothrops asper é uma das espécies mais importantes da América Central, principalmente, por sua importância médica em países como Panamá e Costa Rica, onde causam um número elevado de acidentes. Diversas fosfolipases A2 (PLA2s, EC 3.1.1.4) básicas desta espécie já foram caracterizadas, porém poucos estudos foram realizados com as isoformas ácidas. Além disso, sendo o veneno de serpente uma rica fonte de bioativos, faz-se necessária a investigação de seu potencial biotecnológico. Desta forma, a partir do veneno de B. asper, o presente trabalho teve objetivos principais: a caracterização de novas isoformas de PLA2s, o estudo das PLA2s na fisiopatologia do envenenamento e o estudo do potencial antiparasitário das PLA2s. Para tanto, o veneno foi fracionado em três métodos cromatográficos que se mostraram eficientes na purificação: troca iônica, interação hidrofóbica e fase reversa, dando origem a nove PLA2 isoladas, quatro ácidas (BaspAc-I, BaspAc-II, BaspAc-III e BaspAc-IV) e cinco básicas (BaspB-I, BaspB-II, BaspB-III, BapsB-IV e BaspB-V). As massas moleculares foram determinadas por espectrometria (MALDI TOF) com valores variando entre 13,8 e 14,3 kDa. Os pontos isoelétricos das PLA2s ácidas foram determinados por 2D-SDS-PAGE com valores de pI variando entre 4,6 e 5,0. A sequência N-terminal das nove PLA2s foram determinadas, sendo observado que dentre as nove, 05 são inéditas [quatro Asp49 (BaspAc-I, BaspAc-II, BaspAc-III e BaspAc-IV) e uma Lys49 (BaspB-II)]. A atividade enzimática e a avaliação dos substratos preferenciais das PLA2s Asp49 foram realizadas utilizando-se fosfolipídeos fluorescentes e observou-se que, dentre os fosfolipídeos testados, as PLA2s ácidas catalisaram a degradação de todos os substratos, entretanto, para a PLA2 básica houve preferência para o fosfatidilglicerol e ácido fosfatídico. Uma discussão a respeito do papel das PLA2s ácidas no envenenamento ofídico é conduzida com base no ensaio de miotoxicidade. Ademais, é demostrado a ação antiparasitária dessas moléculas, já que as PLA2s ácidas (BaspAc-I, BaspAc-II, BaspAc-III e BaspAc- IV) tiveram ação contra as formas epimastigotas de T. cruzi e formas promastigotas de L. infantum e as PLA2s básicas BaspB-II e BaspB-IV apresentaram atividade contra Plasmodium falciparum. Posto isto, pela primeira vez, foi demonstrado a ação sinérgica entre uma PLA2 Lys49 e uma PLA2 Asp49 contra o parasita da malária, demonstrando que estas moléculas podem ser importantes alvos no desenvolvimento de novos terapêuticos.

Os envenenamentos causados pelas serpentes do gênero Bothrops são os mais importantes do ponto de vista médico e econômico na América Central. Dentre estas, a serpente Bothrops asper é responsável por 90% dos envenenamentos ofídicos registrados no Panamá anualmente. Apesar da relevância médica e econômica, só a peçonha de populações de B. asper da Costa Rica e Guatemala tem sido estudadas em detalhes. Neste trabalho apresentamos a caracterização da peçonha da B. asper do Panamá e o isolamento, a caracterização funcional e estrutural de quatro fosfolipases A2 básicas denominadas MTX-I, MXT-II, MTX-III e MXT-IV e de uma fosfolipase A2acídica denominada Basp-I-PLA2. As fosfolipases A2 foram isoladas da peçonha em duas etapas usando cromatografia de troca iônica em CM-Sepharose (0,05 M NH4HCO3 pH 8,1), e cromatografia hidrofóbica em Fenil-Sepharose (0,05 M Tris-HCl pH 7,4) seguida de gradiente de concentração de 4 a 0 M NaCl no mesmo tampão a temperatura ambiente (25°C). A isoforma acídica demonstrou maior atividade catalítica que as isoformas básicas, quando atuou sobre fosfatidilcolina e fosfatidilglicerol. A focalização isoelétrica evidencia pIs de 8,1 a 8,3 para as MTXs e 4,6 para isoforma Basp-I-PLA2. A determinação da massa molecular por espectrometria de massa mostrou que MTX-1 14,156.5; MTX-2 14,249.5 e MTX-3 14,253.0 e Basp-I-PLA2 14,246.0 Da. As PLA2s (MTX-I, II, III e IV) induziram atividade miotóxica, reação inflamatória com migração de leucócitos ao músculo e ativação de macrófagos para exercer fagocitose e produção de superóxido. MTX-II exerceu um forte efeito citotóxico contra células tumorais JURKAT, C. albicans e E. coli. A fosfolipase A2 acídica, testada no plasma enriquecido com plaquetas, mostrou potente efeito inibitório na agregação plaquetária induzida pela ADP e colágeno. A análise de seqüência N- terminal demonstrou que as proteínas MTX-I, MTX-III e Basp-I-PLA2 pertencem à subclasse de fosfolipases A2 Asp49 cataliticamente ativas, enquanto que, MTX-II e MTX-IV pertencem à subclasse de fosfolipases A2 Lys49-homólogas cataliticamente inativas. Além disso, a sequência N-terminal das fosfolipases A2 básicas isoladas, demonstrou claramente que as miotoxinas isoladas neste trabalho são similares às miotoxinas previamente isoladas da peçonha da B. asper da Costa Rica. A Basp-I-PLA2 é uma nova fosfolipase A2 acídica isolada da peçonha de B. asper do Panamá e sua seqüência N-terminal revelou uma alta homologia com outras PLA2s acídicas Asp49 isoladas de peçonhas de serpentes.
Envenoming by Bothrops snakes is the most serious kind of envenoming from the medical and economical point of view in Central America. Bothrops asper snake is responsible for 90% of the snakebites registered in Panama every year. Despite its medical and economical relevance, only the venom of Costa Rica and Guatemala populations of this species has been studied to some detail, and there is very little information on intraspecies variability in venom composition and toxicity. In this study the crude venom of B. asper from Panama was characterized and its pharmacological and biochemistry activities were investigated with standard laboratory assays. Furthermore, we describe the isolation, functional and structural characterization of four basic phospholipases A2, named MTX-I, MTX-II, MTX-III, MTX-IV and a new acid phospholipase A2 named Basp-I-PLA2. The proteins were isolated from the crude venom by a combination of two chromatographic steps, using ion-exchange chromatography on CM-Sepharose (0.05 M NH4HCO3 pH 8.1 buffer), and hydrophobic chromatography on Phenyl-Sepharose (0.05 M Tris-HCl pH 7.4), followed by concentration gradient from 4 to 0 M NaCl at 25°C in the same buffer. Analyses of phospholipids hydrolyzed by these enzymes have shown that all phospholipases belong to type A2. The acidic isoform demostraded more catalytic activity than the basic PLA2s. This enzyme was more active on substrates as phosphotidylcholine and phosphatidylglycerol. The isoelectric focusing evidenced pIs beetwen 8.1 to 8.3 for the MTXs and 4.6 for the isoform Basp-I-PLA2. Its mol. Wt was estimated by Mass spectrometry to be MTX-1 14,156.5; MTX-2 14,249.5 and MTX-3 14,253.0 and Basp-I-PLA2 14,246.0 Da. The PLA2s (MTX-I, II, III and IV) induced myotoxic activity, inflammatory reaction mainly leukocyte migration to the muscle and activation of macrophages to exert phagocytic activity and production of superoxide. MTX-II, the most abundant one showed to be cytotoxic against JURKAT tumor cell line, C. albicans and E. coli. The acidic phospholipases A2 when tested in platelet rich plasma, showed a potent inhibitory effect on aggregation induced by ADP and collagen. The analysis of the sequence N-terminal demonstrated that the MTX-I, MTX-III and BASP-I-PLA2 belong to the subclass of Asp49 phospholipases A2 catalytically active, whereas, MTX-II and MTX-IV belong to proteins of the subclass of the enzymatically inactive Lys49 PLA2 s-like. In addition, a sequence of the region N-terminal of the PLA2s basic isolated, demonstrated clearly, that the isolated myotoxins in this work are similar of the previously isolated myotoxins of the snake venom Bothrops asper from Costa Rica. The Basp-I-PLA2 is a new acidic PLA2 and his sequence N-terminal revealed a high homology with other Asp49 acidic PLA2 s from snake venoms.

Os efeitos da MT-I, uma fosfolipase A2 isolada do veneno de Bothrops asper (VBa), foram avaliados em mastócitos (MC) em cultura, quanto à: i) desgranulação e liberação de prostaglandina E2 (PGE2); ii) papel da atividade catalítica na desgranulação; iii) papel da PLD, PLC, cPLA2, iPLA2, PI3K, MAPK, PKC, PTK, ERK1/2, Junk, Gαi, Gαq e do cálcio na desgranulação; iv) expressão gênica de citocinas Th1 e Th2, e v) alterações ultraestruturais em MC. Os resultados mostraram que a MT-I, em concentrações não citotóxicas, causou a desgranulação de MC. Este efeito foi parcialmente dependente da atividade catalítica e dependente da cPLA2, PLC, PLD e PI3K, mas não da iPLA2, ERK1/2, p38MAPK, PKC, MEK, Junk, Gαi e Gαq. O cálcio intra e extracelular (CRAC e LTCC) estão envolvidos neste efeito da MT-I. Ainda, a MT-I induziu a síntese e liberação da PGE2, expressão de genes de citocinas Th1 e Th2, aumento do número de vesículas citoplasmáticas e de endocitose dependente de clatrina. O VBa também causou a desgranulação de MC sugerindo que a MT-I é relevante para este efeito.
The effects of Myotoxin-I (MT-I), a phospholipase A2 (PLA2) from Bothrops asper venom (BaV) in cultured mast cells (MC) were evaluated focusing: i) degranulation and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) release; ii) role of PLA2 catalytic activity in degranulation; iii) role of PLD and PLC, cPLA2 and iPLA2, PI3K, MAPK, PKC, PTK, ERK1/2, Junk, Gαi and Gαq protein and calcium in degranulation; iv) gene expression of Th1 and Th2 cytokines, and v) MC ultrastructural alterations. Results showed that MT-I, at non-cytotoxic concentrations, caused MC degranulation. This effect was partially dependent on its catalytic activity and dependent on cPLA2, PLC, PLD and PI3K, but not iPLA2, ERK1/2, p38MAPK, PKC, MEK, Junk, Gαi nor Gαq. Both intra and extracellular calcium (CRAC and LTCC) are involved in MT-I-induced degranulation. Furthermore, MT-I induced synthesis and release of PGE2, gene expression of Th1 and Th2 cytokines, increased numbers of cytoplasmic vesicles and clathrin-dependent endocytosis. BaV also caused MC degranulation suggesting that MT-I is relevant for this effect.

As fosfolipases A2 secretadas, particularmente do grupo II são abundantes nos venenos de serpentes, incluindo o gênero Bothrops e estão envolvidas em diversos processos fisiológicos e fisiopatológicos, como inflamação e dor, incluindo artrite. Contudo, não está totalmente caracterizado o papel da FLA2 para a gênese e manutenção dos quadros de inflamação articular. Nosso objetivo foi padronizar um novo modelo de artrite, utilizando sFLA2 do grupo IIA (miotoxina II) isolada do veneno da serpente Bothrops asper e avaliar a mediação química envolvida no processo nociceptivo deste quadro. Os resultados indicaram aumento de permeabilidade vascular, infiltrado celular e hiperalgesia. A hiperalgesia é um processo multimediado com a participação de prostanóides, sendo sua produção decorrente da ativação de FLA2 endógenas. Estes dados sugerem que esta FLA2 pode se tornar uma ferramenta científica importante para o entendimento dos mecanismos fisiopatológicos envolvidos nos processos de inflamação articular.
Secretory phospholipases A2 are abundant in different animal tissues and particularly group II are found in venom snakes and are proteins involved in many physiological and pathophysiological processes, like inflammation and pain, components of arthritis. However, the involvement of PLA2 in the genesis and maintenance of articular inflammation is not well characterized. Our aim is to characterize the articular inflammatory response induced by Lys 49-PLA2 (IIA group) isolated from B. asper snake venom. It was analyzed the nociceptive process involved, developing a new experimental model of articular inflammation. Our results indicated that sPLA2 induces increase in the vascular permeability, cell migration and hyperalgesia. Hyperalgesia is a multimediated process and prostanoids are involved in the nociceptive process, being its production dependent of the endogenous PLA2 activation. These data indicate that this PLA2 could be an important scientific tool for the understanding of the pathophysiological mechanisms involved in articular inflammation processes.

Fosfolipases A2 miotóxicas (Lys49, enzimaticamente inativa, e Asp49, com atividade) isoladas do veneno de Bothrops asper, induzem hipernocicepção. Assim, avaliamos os mecanismos estruturais, moleculares e mediadores centrais envolvidos neste efeito. A injeção intraplantar das FLA2s acarretou hiperalgesia, enquanto que apenas a FLA2-Asp49 induziu alodinia. A região C-terminal é a responsável pelo efeito da FLA2-Lys49, enquanto que a atividade catalítica da FLA2-Asp49 parece ser responsável pela indução de hipernocicepção. Canais de Ca2+ e Na+ participam deste efeito. Na medula espinhal, receptores NK1 e para CGRP, receptores ionotrópicos para glutamato, NO, IL-1, prostanóides e adenosina participam da hiperalgesia induzida pelas FLA2s. Adicionalmente, receptores metabotrópicos para glutamato e o TNF?, estão envolvidos na hiperalgesia induzida pela FLA2-Asp49. Receptores NK1 e NK2 e para CGRP, receptores para glutamato, TNF? e prostanóides medeiam a alodinia. A ativação de astrócitos e microglia, na medula espinhal, contribui para a gênese do efeito hipernociceptivo.
Phospholipase A2 (Lys49, catalytically-inactive and Asp49, catalytically active), isolated from Bothrops asper snake venom, induce pain. The present studies examined the molecular, structural and central mechanisms involved in hypernociception induced by both PLA2s. These PLA2s induced mechanical hyperalgesia, whereas only PLA2-Lys49 evoked allodynia. The C-terminal region of the PLA2-Lys49 seems to be responsible for hyperalgesia, whereas the enzymatic activity of PLA2-Asp49 contributes to such an effect. Calcium and sodium channels are involved in PLA2s-induced hyperalgesia. In the spinal cord, NK1 and CGRP receptors, glutamate ionotropic receptors, NO, IL-1, prostanoids and adenosine contribute to hyperalgesia caused by PLA2s. Additionally, metabotropic glutamate receptors and TNF are involved in hyperalgesia induced by PLA2-Asp49. NK1, NK2 and CGRP receptors, glutamate receptors, TNF and prostanoids mediate allodynia. Activation of spinal astrocytes and microglia contribute to the generation of hyperalgesia and allodynia induced by both toxins.

As ligações de hidrogênio (LH), fundamentais na determinação da estrutura da água, proteínas, etc., são muito importantes no reconhecimento molecular e nos mecanismos de reações enzimáticas. A determinação da energia das LHs intramoleculares em proteínas e intermoleculares entre uma proteína e o solvente água, porque fornece informações sobre a estrutura secundária, terciária e quaternária das proteínas. Um método para quantificar e qualificar as LHs foi desenvolvido utilizando critérios de distância, geométricos e energéticos a partir das trajetórias obtidas por simulações de dinâmica molecular. O método foi testado com o monômero de uma fosfolipase A2 homodimérica, sem atividade catalítica, isolada do veneno da Bothrops asper(BaspMT-II). No dímero, a análise das LHs mostrou que elas são também essenciais na manutenção da estrutura quaternária. Essa análise permitiu identificar movimentos do tipo dobradiça acompanhados da formação transitória, na interface dimérica, de LHs controladas pelo triptofano na posição 77. Esses movimentos podem estar associados à ação danosa às membranas, uma vez que podem promover a inserção da região C-terminal na membrana. Estudos prévios mostraram que o peptídeo sintético (3Y codificado pelos aminoácidos 115-129 da BaspMT-II) apresenta atividade bactericida e citolítica. Um outro peptídeo (3W), mutante de 3Y, no qual três resíduos tirosina são substituidos por triptofano, apresenta um aumento do dano às membranas e do efeito miotóxico. Os mecanismos de ação desses peptídeos e as suas estruturas foram estudados por dinâmica molecular, dicroísmo circular (DC), microscopia de fluorescência e monocamadas de Langmuir (Mlang). As adsorções dos peptídeos em monocamadas de ácido dimiristoil fosfatídico (DMPA) e dimiristoilfosfatidilcolina (DMPC) se processam por mecanismos diferentes ocasionados pelas diferentes naturezas físico-químicas dos resíduos tirosina e triptofano. A microscopia de fluorescência acoplada a Mlang de DMPA com 3W adsorvido mostra um aumento da fluidez da monocamada, enquanto que o 3Y modifica os domínios do DMPA para pequenas estruturas circulares. Foram realizadas simulações dos peptídeos 3Y e 3W em meio aquoso e nas regiões interfaciais água/n-hexano e água/bicamadas de DMPC. Os resultados confirmam os obtidos por Mlang, demonstrando que os peptídeos interagem diferentemente com as membranas por adotar conformações alternativas definidas previamente. Essas conformações, diferentes das observadas em meio aquoso, dependem da natureza da interface. As estruturas encontradas no final das simulaçoes corroboram o mecanismo proposto por Mlang, assim como as estruturas sugeridas por DC. Isso sugere que a atividade biológica reduzida do peptídeo 3Y ocorre porque os seus dois resíduos Leu se adsorvem na interface sem penetrá-la. Ao contrário de 3W, os resíduos carregados do peptídeo 3Y não estão localizados corretamente para promover uma interação suficientemente atrativa para permitir a sua inserção na membrana celular.
Hydrogen bonds (HB) are highly important in the determination of the structure of the water and proteins. They also play a important role in molecular recognition and in enzyme reaction mechanisms. The determination of protein/water intermolecular and protein intramolecular HB energies provide information with respect to the formation and stabilization of secondary, tertiary and quaternary protein structure. A method that quantifies and qualifies the properties of HB was developed using distance, geometric and energy criteria as applied to data obtained from the atomic trajectories generated by molecular dynamics simulations. The method was tested with a monomer of a catalytically inactive homodimeric phospholipase A2 from Bothrops asper(BaspMT-II) venom. HBs at dimmer interface are essential for maintaining the quaternary structure, and are highly conserved during hinge-like movements of the dimmer. HB formed by tryptophan residue at position 77 controls this movement. These motions can be associated to the membrane damaging action since they facilitate the insertion of the C-terminus into the cellular membrane. Previous studies have shown that synthetic peptide (3Y, coding the amino acids 115-129 of BaspMT-II ) presents bactericidal and cytolitic activities. A peptide variant ( 3W ), in which tyrosine residues were substituted by tryptophan residues, presents an enhanced membrane damaging activity increased miotoxic effect. The mechanism of action of the peptides and their structures were studied by molecular dynamics simulations, circular dichroism (CD), fluorescence microscopy and Langmuir monolayers (Mlang). The adsorption of the peptides on a monolayer composed of dimiristoyl phosphatidic acid (DMPA) and dimiristoylphosphatidyl choline (DMPC) occurs through different processes due to the differences in the physic-chemical nature of the tyrosine and tryptophan residues. Fluorescence microscopy together with Mlang of DMPA with adsorbed 3W indicates an increase of the membrane fluidity while small circular domains are formed with DMPA. Simulations were conducted with the 3Y and 3W peptides in aqueous media, is a water/n-hexane and water/DMPC bilayers. The results confirm the Mlang results, showing that the peptides interact differently with the membranes by adopting alternative previously defined conformations. These two conformations, both of which are different to those observed in water, are dependent of the nature of the interfaces. The final simulated configurations confirm the mechanism proposed by Mlang and the structures proposed by CD. It is suggest that the reduced biological activity of the 3Y peptide is due to the two Leu residues that only adsorb to the cellular membrane without penetrating the bilayer. In contrast to the 3W peptide, no charged residue is correctly located to promote the interaction and insertion of the 3Y peptide into the membrane.

A ação de fosfolipases A2 (FLA2s): miotoxinas (MTs) ?II e III, isoladas de Bothrops asper (VBa) e CB2, de Crotalus durissus terrificus (VCdt) e os venenos brutos, sobre a expressão de ciclooxigenases (COXs) e síntese de prostaglandina (PG) E2 e PGD2 foi avaliada. As MTs e VBa mas não CB2 e nem VCdt induziram a expressão de COX-2 por leucócitos. Em estudos in vitro ocorreram a liberação de PGs e expressão de COX-2, após a incubação de macrófagos (M?s) com FLA22s e, de neutrófilos (N?s) e M?s, com VBa. A CB2 induziu somente a liberação de PGs. A inibição de FLA2 citosólica (cFLA2), diminuiu os níveis de PG induzidos pelas MTs, mas não pela CB2, e não afetou a expressão de COX-2 induzida pelas MTs. O envolvimento do NF-?kB na expressão de COX-2 foi mostrado com inibidores. Em conclusão, MTs, CB2 e VBa estimulam a síntese de PGs in vivo e in vitro e MTs e VBa, mas não CB2, induzem a expressão de COX-2. O VCdt não afeta estes parâmetros. O efeito das MTs sobre a expressão de COX-2 e PGs é mediado pelo NF-kB e pela cFLA2, respectivamente. Os efeitos de CB2 na produção de PGs são independentes de cFLA2s e COX-2. O fato da MT-II ser destituída de atividade enzimática sugere que a atividade catalítica per se, não seja relevante para os efeitos observados.
Action of the phospholipase A2 (PLA22): myotoxins (MTs) -II and -III, from Bothrops asper (BaV) and CB2, from Crotalus durissus terrificus (CdtV) and these venoms on cyclooxygenases (COXs) and synthesis of prostaglandins (PGs) E2 and D2 were studied in vivo and in vitro. Intraperitoneal injection of sPLA22s and BaV but not CdtV released PGD2 and PGE2. MTs and BaV but neither CB2 nor CdtV induced expression of COX-2 by leukocytes. Release of PGs and expression of COX-2 occurred in vitro after incubation of macrophages (M?s) with PLA2 and neutrophils (N?) and M?s with BaV. CB2 induced only PGs release. Inhibition of cytosolic PLA2 (cPLA2), reduced PG levels caused by MTs, but not by CB2 while did not affect MTs-induced COX-2 expression. Involvement of NF-kB in COX-2 was showed using with inhibitors. In conclusion MTs, CB2 and BaV stimulate the synthesis of PGs in vivo and in vitro and MTs and BaV, but not CB2, induce COX-2 expression. VCdt does not affect these parameters. Effect of MTs on COX-2 is mediated by NF-kB, and on PGs by cPLA2. Effects of CB2 on PGs are independent of cPLA2 and OX-2. Since MT-II lacks catalytic activity the PLA2 activity per se is not relevant for activation of this cascade.

As metaloproteinases são abundantes em venenos de serpentes. Estas enzimas são homólogas às de mamíferos, encontradas em níveis elevados em inflamações articulares. Neste estudo avaliou-se a capacidade da BaP1, induzir: i) a inflamação e incapacitação articulares e a participação do TNF-a e PGE2 nesses efeitos e ii) a ativação de macrófagos em cultura e a natureza de sua interação com estas células. A BaP1 induziu aumento da permeabilidade vascular, liberação de TNF-a, MMP-9 e PGE2 e acúmulo de leucócitos na cavidade articular e tecido sinovial. Ainda, induziu dor articular. O pré-tratamento dos animais com indometacina ou anti-TNF-a reduziu a dor e o influxo leucocitário, induzidos pela BaP1. A BaP1 induziu a expressão de COX-2 e de TNF-a e a liberação desta citocina, em macrófagos isolados. Nestas células detectou-se a internalização da BaP1. Em conclusão, a BaP1 induz inflamação e nocicepção articulares, dependentes de TNF-a e PGE2. A COX-2 deve estar envolvida na liberação de PGE2 e os macrófagos são alvos importantes para as ações dessa metaloproteinase.
Metalloproteinases are major enzymes in snake venoms showing high grade of homology with mammal matrix metalloproteinases, present in high levels in inflamed joints. In this study we examined the ability of BaP1, to induce: i) inflammation and hypernociception in rat articular joints and participation of TNF-a and PGE2 in these effects, and ii) activation of cultured macrophages. BaP1 increased vascular permeability, induced release of TNF-a, PGE2 and pro-MMP-9 in joint cavities, and leucocyte influx into joint cavities and synovial tissues. Moreover, BaP1 induced articular hypernociception. Treatment of animals with indomethacin or antiserum anti-TNF-a significantly reduced hypernociception and leukocyte influx induced by BaP1. Incubation of macrophages with BaP1 caused expression of TNF-a and COX-2 as well as TNF-a release. In conclusion, BaP1 induces inflammation and hypernociception in articular joints. These effects are dependent on PGE2 and TNF-a. COX-2 may contribute for BaP1-induced PGE2 release and macrophages are key targets for BaP1 induced effects.