Journal articles on the topic 'Botswana’s Diamond Mining Industry'

The Vision 2016, which is a set of strategic plans desired to position Botswana at the completive edge of the socio-economic hierarchy in Africa, is being implemented with concerted efforts from both the private and the public sector, including ordinary citizens. One of the major motivations for drawing this strategy has been the desire to transform Botswana from a resource and industry-based (e.g. agriculture and diamond mining) to knowledge-based economy. This has come from the realisation that in order to compete favourably at a global scale, there is need to put in place efficient knowledge value chains. To this course, several initiatives have been devised and/or implemented by both the government and the public sector. This article surveys the fundamental concepts on which this paradigm shift is hinged and brings out the different issues, initiatives and policies (such as Information and Communications Technology development, nurturing of an appropriate human resource base by way of strategic human resource development plans, investment in intellectual capital, etc.) that have been done so far in Botswana. The article, however, does not claim that it offers a compendium of existing programs towards a knowledgebased economy initiated by Botswana. The article posits that although significant strides have been scored in Botswana’s efforts towards a knowledge-based economy, a lot more needs to be done if it were to compete favourably at an international stage.

The popular film The Gods Must Be Crazy (1980) remains, despite its age, the primary reference point for Westerners with regard to the San people of southern Africa (commonly known outside Africa as the Bushmen). It is a catalyst for tourist interest in the people since many tourists, as this paper demonstrates, credulously accept the mythology that the San people live now as (and where) they do in the film. Indeed, a Lonely Planet ‘coffee-table’ publication of 2010 cites the film as mandatory viewing for tourists prior to visiting Botswana. The San’s lifestyle is depicted in the film as one of Garden-of-Eden tranquility, although the landscape is somewhat more arid than the Genesis idyll. The San had been driven out of the Kalahari by the Botswana government in the interests of diamond mining, big-game hunting and high-end tourism. Meanwhile, tourist ephemera in-country extols the lifestyle of the Bushmen esoterically, producing imagery that suggests they are still living as they did for millennia, omitting any mention of their modern realities and perpetuating a lie about their ongoing relationship with lands to which they no longer have access. The film is explored here via some thematic distinctions of Spurr (1993). This paper transcribes these distinctions (or tropes) of colonialist thought and action as neo-colonialist which are ubiquitously in operation within the modern tourism industry, perpetuating disempowerment to a significant extent

This paper investigates the topic of sustainable natural resource governance, and policy and politics thereof, in the context of Botswana. The authors endeavour to provide a preliminary justification for why Botswana, as a country of investigation, is a potential role model and a site of deep study for researchers of contemporary sustainable resource governance. This paper argues that the rest of Africa can learn from the Government of Botswana’s policies regarding multinational corporations operating in the mining sector, particularly in terms of attracting investment, but, too, Botswana could learn much from others in terms of economic diversification and linkage promotion.

This paper provides basic materials for considering the sustainability of natural resource development in the Arctic, taking the Sakha Republic as a case study of the Russian Arctic regions. The author clarifies the contribution of the mining industry to the economic development of Sakha with special attention paid to the contribution to government budgets by numerical and statistical analysis of regional and municipal data. The paper demonstrates that the mining industry has been a driving force of the economic growth of Sakha and that the oil sector has sharply increased its presence while the diamond sector has decreased its presence. Simultaneously, it reveals that the mining industry is unevenly developed in Sakha, which has caused significant inequality in per capita Gross Municipal Product (GMP). Then, the analysis of the paper shows that Sakha’s contribution to the federal budget has increased significantly in recent years due to growing oil production and that the diamond sector is still more influential than the oil sector in the contribution to the republican and local budgets.

Carbon capture, utilisation and storage (CCUS) via mineral carbonation is an effective method for long-term storage of carbon dioxide and combating climate change. Implemented at a large-scale, it provides a viable solution to harvesting and storing the modern crisis of GHGs emissions. To date, technological and economic barriers have inhibited broad-scale utilisation of mineral carbonation at industrial scales. This paper outlines the mineral carbonation process; discusses drivers and barriers of mineral carbonation deployment in Australian mining; and, finally, proposes a unique approach to commercially viable CCUS within the Australian mining industry by integrating mine waste management with mine site rehabilitation, and leveraging relationships with local coal-fired power station. This paper discusses using alkaline mine and coal-fired power station waste (fly ash, red mud, and ultramafic mine tailings, i.e., nickel, diamond, PGE (platinum group elements), and legacy asbestos mine tailings) as the feedstock for CCUS to produce environmentally benign materials, which can be used in mine reclamation. Geographical proximity of mining operations, mining waste storage facilities and coal-fired power stations in Australia are identified; and possible synergies between them are discussed. This paper demonstrates that large-scale alkaline waste production and mine site reclamation can become integrated to mechanise CCUS. Furthermore, financial liabilities associated with such waste management and site reclamation could overcome many of the current economic setbacks of retrofitting CCUS in the mining industry. An improved approach to commercially viable climate change mitigation strategies available to the mining industry is reviewed in this paper.

Diamond mining is a rapidly developing industry, with an immensely large presence in Canada's Northwest Territories (NWT) with two currently functioning mines. Since the opening of the first mine in NWT in 1998, the Canadian federal government has viewed diamond production as 'essential' to both the territorial and national economies, frequently highlighting the benefits of diamond production. Entrenched in colonial language, the very existence of diamond mines in operation within NWT violate teachings, values, and the time honoured reciprocal relationships with the land held by Indigenous peoples across the territory. In problematizing this relationship, this paper employs the theories of Glen Coulthard's work For the Land: The Dene Nation's Struggle for Self- Determination, and examines the ways in which the operation of diamond mines exist as strongholds of settler-colonialism while simultaneously seeking to 'modernise' Canada's North. This is achieved through an exploration of Indigenous land relationships, the false beneficiary nature of diamond mine corporations, and finally the homeland vs. colonial frontier dichotomy.

ABSTRACT The highly prospective Precambrian Guyana shield south of the Orinoco River in Venezuela can be divided into five main provinces: Imataca, Pastora-Botanamo, Cuchivero, Amazonas, and Roraima. The combination of gold-rich granite-greenstone belts, felsic volcanic and granitic terrains, highly diamondiferous kimberlites, widespread gold and diamond placers, and large unexplored areas makes this region an exciting exploration province. Important mineralization events occurred at different times over a wide range of geologic time, from 3.2 Ga for banded iron formation in Imataca, 2.0 to 1.9 Ga for gold mineralization in Pastora-Botanamo, 0.71 Ga for diamondiferous kimberlite emplacement in Cuchivero, and the Tertiary for formation of enriched iron ores and bauxite ores in Imataca and Amazonas. Iron and aluminum mining is controlled by state mining corporations, with current annual ore production of 23 and 5.2 Mt, respectively. Gold mining is divided between state and private companies and artisanal operations. Total gold production is probably about 750,000 oz per year, including artisanal production. All diamond production is currently artisanal, with total estimated annual production of 500,000 ct. When current project go into production, Venezuela’s gold and diamond production will pass 1.3 Moz/yr and 1 Mct/yr, respectively. Artisanal mining is a key part of the gold and diamond-mining industry in Venezuela, and prospective exploration and mining companies must be aware of this; they should include projects with artisanal miners and local communities in their exploration and development planning.

Polycrystalline diamond (PCD) materials have a variety of applications, mainly as cutting tools for machining non-ferrous metals and non-metallic materials. A significant application of PCD is in oil and gas industry for rock drilling operations. Other important areas, such as mining, have yet to reach their full potential. These cutters/tools are subjected to high operating temperatures, impact loads and abrasive wear during these operations, which may lead to their sudden failure. An advantage of these materials is that their structure and composition can be engineered to return properties required for specific applications and operations.

Editor’s note: The Geology and Mining series, edited by Dan Wood and Jeffrey Hedenquist, is designed to introduce early-career professionals and students to a variety of topics in mineral exploration, development, and mining, in order to provide insight into the many ways in which geoscientists contribute to the mineral industry. Abstract The diamond drill is the most productive tool available for the earth scientist to explore and map the subsurface. However, the quality of the information obtained for analysis and modeling depends on how well the processes involved are understood so as to eliminate systematic and human error and effectively minimize the variables causing random error. This overview of the quality assurance and quality control (QA/QC) procedures required to manage these errors starts with the planning phase of a drilling program and goes through drill rig setup, borehole depth measurement, core recovery measurement, core depth registration, core orientation, borehole survey, and borehole path reconstruction. An outline follows of the methods used in the logging process to accurately depth reference the data recorded from both core and bore, as well as to ensure that the angles measured for structures are verified and correctly rotated to derive their in situ dip and dip direction or plunge and trend. To conclude, the provisions required for effective audits of the drilling and logging QA/QC processes are discussed: testing for inconsistencies, certifying that standards have been achieved, reporting on weaknesses, and making recommendations for improved performance.

This article explores market reactions to regulations that addressed the link between armed conflict and the diamond industry. The results show that several regulatory actions taken by the United Nations and the United States in the early 2000s corresponded with lower stock returns for diamond mining companies. Such effects are inconsistent with predictions made by some critics of the Kimberley Process Certification Scheme. On the other hand, stock returns for jewelry companies were abnormally negative for events that hurt the reputation of conflict-free production and trade regimes. The expansion of legal diamond markets also coincided with abnormally positive returns for jewelry companies, while new restrictions on market access coincided with abnormally negative returns. The results suggest that i) diamond trade regulations affected businesses in important and measurable ways, and ii) that similar regulations may have broader applicability in related industries.

In the 140-odd years after the first diamond was found in South Africa in 1866, mining catapulted the country from a predominantly agrarian society into a modern industrial nation. For the biggest part of this period, mining drove and human development followed. This ?order of importance? was largely the result of the huge wealth and influence of the mining houses, the (perceived) importance of the sector for the development of the country, and the broader skewed power dynamics of colonial and apartheid rule. Over the last decade, national government enacted new legislation by which it attempted to ensure that mining is made more serviceable to the post-1994 objectives of (1) broad-based societal reconstruction; (2) shared and inclusive growth; and (3) regional and rural development. A key component of this new legislation has been a provision to ensure that mining companies make tangible contributions to regional and rural development and human settlement in ?mining areas?. Recent events, such as widespread strikes, the tragic loss of many lives, and continuing harsh living conditions, have raised, what has been a nagging question since the introduction of the new legislation, i.e.: Has the new legal framework (really) assisted in (1) ensuring that communities in mining areas enjoy a greater of the wealth created by the industry; (2) enhancing regional and rural development in mining areas; and (3) establishing a more symbiotic relationship between mining, regional and rural development planning and human development? In this paper, research in a mining area during the course of 2011 and 2012 is used to explore this question. Use is made of documented evidence and interviews with key role-players in the mining industry, municipal and provincial government, the private sector, traditional leadership structures and communities.

Diamond composite materials are being used increasingly in cutting tools for both the mining and manufacturing industries. Except for the low pressure CVD and SPS methods, most SiC based diamond composites are produced under high pressure and high temperature (HPHT). The dominant binder phase is SiC and these composites are classed as thermally stable and are referred to as TSDC (thermally stable diamond composite). TSDC composites are produced by reactive sintering either within the diamond stability field, ~1500°C and ~5.5 GPa, or in the graphite phase field at ~1550°C and ~2 - 3.5 GPa as originally patented by Ringwood. Unlike the traditional polycrystalline diamond composite (PCD) that use Co as the binder phase and operate under restricted temperature conditions, usually less the 800°C, TSDC is Co-free allowing the operational temperature range for TSDC to be extended substantially. Extensive experimental research has been conducted at the CSIRO (Commonwealth Scientific & Industrial Research Organization) Rock Cutting Laboratory to assess the quality of TSDC products through a series of in-house tests that have been developed (abrasive wear test, compressive and shear testing) to facilitate their use in the mining industry. The focus is to prevent TSDC from premature failures in drilling and cutting operations. Since the wear resistance and performance in general, of TSDC cutting elements are strongly dependent on the phase composition, phase distribution (microstructures) and phase interaction (microstresses), detailed studies of TSDC have been undertaken using optical, SEM (with EDS and CL), Raman microscopy and radiographic imaging of macro defects as well as x-ray and neutron diffraction. Residual stress measurements were made using the neutron diffractometer Kowari at OPAL research reactor in the diamond and SiC phases in two TSDC samples. The microstresses that developed in these phases as a result of quenching from high sintering pressure and temperature and the mismatch of the thermo-mechanical properties of SiC matrix and diamond inclusions were evaluated. The matrix-inclusion concept has also been used to calculate stress partition in the phases of the TSDC products that can be directly comparable with the experimental data and give clearer interpretation of the experimental results.

AbstractMechanical mining is a widely used method for separating material from mined rock in the mining branch, tunnelling, road and construction industries. Depending on the mechanical properties of rocks, most often defined by uniaxial compressive strength, various machines and tools are applied. Apart from rock strength, the efficiency of the mining process is determined by abrasiveness, which affects the rate of tool abrasive wear. Currently, disc mining by static pressure or rear undercutting are the most developed methods. Undercutting can be supported by high pressure water jet or disk oscillation. Mining with drills also utilizes static pressure. In addition to discs, conical picks are applied; they are mounted on cutterheads. In underground mining and tunnelling, there is an increasing need to cut abrasive rocks with a strength of more than 120 MPa in places where explosive materials cannot be used. In the article, the recently applied and developed methods of cutting abrasive rocks characterized by high strength, such as copper, gold, tungsten or platinum ores and diamond deposits, have been presented. Next, the latest machines and machine systems used for their mining are reviewed. Leaders in the mining machinery industry, such as Joy (Komatsu), Epiroc (Atlas Copco), Sandvik and Aker Wirth are developing proprietary designs of cutting machines based on both well-known and completely new ideas.

Although ethical consumerism has witnessed significant interest in recent years, most studies have focused on low-value, commoditized product categories such as food and beverage and apparel. Despite its significance, the research on ethical consumerism in luxury product segments such as diamonds is relatively scant. This formed the motivation of this study, which examined the ethical buying behavior of consumers and the moderating effects of their income levels in the diamond industry. Four hundred eightteen responses toa structured questionnaire were collected. The framework comprising of four constructs, namely ethically-minded consumer behavior, willingness to pay more, ethical concerns regarding country of origin of diamonds, and ethical buying behavior of diamonds was first validated, and then the hypothesized relationships between the constructs were assessed using structural equation modeling. Overall, ethically minded consumer behavior had a significant positive impact on willingness to pay more, ethical concerns regarding the country of origin of diamonds, and ethical buying of diamonds. Additionally, ethical concerns regarding country of origin positively influenced the ethical buying of diamonds, while the willingness to pay more had no significant impact on ethical diamond purchases. The multi-group moderation test results revealed that the income levels of buyers do affect the relationships between constructs. For instance, for the middle income group, generic ethically-minded consumer behavior did not translate into the ethical buying behavior of diamonds. The findings provide useful insights for practitioners and policy-makers regarding ethical consumerism in the diamond industry and help to highlight the issues facing the industry, such as its poor supply chain transparency, human rights abuses, child labor, money laundering, bribery and corruption, and environmental degradation from mining activities.

AbstractDiamonds have a long global history in which India plays a pivotal though little-known role. Indeed, it was in India that diamonds were first mined, finished, and worn. Diamonds and their finishing techniques reached Europe in the fifteenth century. Subsequently, part of the industry moved from India to Europe, where manufacturing shifted from one city to another, before returning to India in the twentieth century. These shifts, I argue, are determined by changes in one or more segments of the global commodity chain and they reveal the global interconnections between mining, trading, polishing, and consuming. Furthermore, these shifting centres are themselves a sign of the globalized character of diamond production, exchange, and consumption.

Tungsten or wolfram was regarded for many years as an enemy within the tin smelting and mining industry, because it conferred impurity or dirtiness in tin mining. However, later it was considered an amazing metal for its strength and flexibility, together with its diamond like hardness and its melting point which is the highest of any metal. It was first believed to be relatively inert and an only slightly toxic metal. Since early 2000, the risk exerted by tungsten alloys, its dusts and particulates to induce cancer and several other adverse effects in animals as well as humans has been highlighted from in vitro and in vivo experiments. Thus, it becomes necessary to take a careful look at all the most recent data reported in the scientific literature, covering the years 2001-2016. In fact, the findings indicate that much more attention should be devoted to thoroughly investigate the toxic effects of tungsten and the involved mechanisms of tungsten metal or tungsten metal ions.

Innovative processes of deep and complex processing of technogenic raw materials in the context of sustainable development of the mining industry and the economic challenges facing the mining industry should ensure the transition to a circular economy and the maximum use of natural resources. The article reflects the priority scientific and technological research on the involvement of technogenic mineral resources in efficient processing. Presented, developed at ICEMR RAS, including jointly with universities, research and production organizations and enterprises, modern innovative processes of deep and environmentally friendly processing of refractory mineral raw materials of complex material composition (tailings of enrichment of non-ferrous and noble metal ores, poor off-balance ores, slags ferrous and nonferrous metallurgy, sludge of metallurgical production) and hydro-mineral technogenic resources (acidic mineralized bottom-dump waters of mining enterprises of the copper-zinc complex of the Urals, saponite-containing circulating waters of diamond processing factories). Among other things, new directions in the field of selective disintegration of finely dispersed mineral raw materials based on energy effects and deep processing of slags are outlined; increasing the selectivity of enrichment processes; combined processing of technogenic raw materials; resource-saving processing of technogenic and hydro-mineral resources, obtaining secondary products from processing waste. It is shown that in the face of new economic challenges, Russia has sufficient scientific and technological potential in the field of deep and environmentally safe processing of technogenic raw materials in the form of developed and, to varying degrees, tested innovative resource-saving technologies that correspond to the world level, and in a number of technologies are superior to it.

In the Sakha (Yakutia) Republic, hereinafter SR, the Arctic zones are the original habitat of indigenous peoples, who can conduct economic activities only in undisturbed or lightly disturbed lands. From this point of view, the problem of compensation for losses of indigenous peoples as a result of industrial development of territories is of particular relevance. At the same time, it is necessary to identify the main problems of indemnification of losses of the indigenous small-numbered peoples of the North (ISNPN) during the industrial development of the traditional natural resource management territories (TNRMT). The study was conducted using historical, geographical, analytical, synthetic, and statistical methods. In the Arctic zone, the diamond mining, gold mining, and coal mining industrial facilities are located inside TNRM areas. In the near future, it is planned to revive the tin industry, develop oil and gas fields on the continental Arctic shelf, and develop the Tomtor Complex Rare-Earth Deposit. In 2010, a law of the SR was passed: “On Ethnological Expertise in the Places of Traditional Residence and Traditional Economic Activities of the Peoples of the SR”. To date, in the ethnological examination of SR, we have investigated 13 investment business projects. In the course of the investigation, it turned out that most of the comments from both experts and tribal communities concern the section of compensation for damages. The official methodology developed on materials from the polar regions of the western part of Russia cannot be extrapolated to the entire territory of the North, Siberia, and the Far East. It is necessary to develop regional methods for calculating losses of indigenous peoples, which regulate the interaction of subsoil users with the authorities and representatives of the clan communities engaged in traditional crafts.

In the world of construction, cement plays a vital role, but despite its reputation and affordable prices, the cement industry faces multiple challenges due to pollution and sustainability concerns. This study aimed to assess the possibility of utilizing carbonated kimberlite tailings, a waste product from diamond mining, as a partial cement substitute in the preparation of concrete bricks. This is a unique opportunity to help close the gap between fundamental research in mineral carbonation and its industrial implementation to generate commercial products. Kimberlite was subjected to a mild thin-film carbonation process in a CO2 incubator at varying levels of CO2 concentration (10 vol% and 20 vol% at ambient pressure), kimberlite paste moisture content (10 wt% to 20 wt%), and chamber temperature (35 and 50 °C). The formation of magnesium carbonates, in the form of nesquehonite and lansfordite, was verified by X-ray diffraction analysis, and total CO2 uptake was quantified by thermal decomposition in furnace testing. Carbonated kimberlite tailings were then used to cast bricks. Replacement of cement between 10% and 20% were tested, with a constant water-to-binder ratio of 0.6:1, and a cementitious material-to-sand ratio of 1:3. Initial water absorption and 7- and 28-days compressive strength tests were carried out. The results obtained confirm the possibility of using carbonated kimberlite to replace cement partially, and highlight the benefits of carbonating the kimberlite for such application, and recommendations for future research are suggested. This study demonstrates the potential use of mining tailings to prototype the sequestration of CO2 into sustainable building materials to positively impact the increasing demand for cement-based products.

Socio-economic indicators of the Irkutsk region, Buryatia and the Far East, dynamics of their development in 2016-2017, and problems and prospects are considered in this paper. Today, the priority for the regions of Siberia and the Far East, which possess unique natural resources and a vast territory, is the complex task of increasing the living standard of the population and launching a new economic strategy. The Irkutsk region is one of the largest industrial regions of Russia. The city of Irkutsk was formed as an administrative, commercial and cultural-educational center. Currently, it is home to more than 50% of the urban population of the Irkutsk region. Some enterprises of the city have a machine-building profile. The production of food (more than 45% of the total volume), the construction material, and wood processing also play an important role. External migration has a significant impact on the demographic situation in the region. Most of the migration processes with the crossing of the boundaries of the region take place within Russia. According to statistical data, external migration can be divided as the three main flows of foreign citizens entering the territory of the Irkutsk region: the Central Asian direction (Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, and Kazakhstan 44.3%); the East Asian direction (China, Mongolia, DPRK, Japan, and Vietnam 30.8%); and the Western direction (Germany, France, and Poland). It should be also noted that 13.9% of all migrants are migrants from Ukraine, Armenia, Belarus, and Moldova, these are mainly young people of working age. The Baikal region is famous in Russia for its natural landscapes: there are more than 1,500 objects of excursion and cognitive significance (natural, architectural, cultural and historical monuments) in the region. The region has a great industrial potential that is of national importance. Several basic complexes and industries compile a modern industrial structure. There are opportunities for further development of the industrial production in the oil and gas industries, diamond mining industry, the production of composite materials, fibers and mineral fertilizers. On the Far East, priority is given today to the raw material economy and the related infrastructure facilities, including the modernization of the Trans-Siberian Railway and the Baikal-Amur Mainline.

Introduction. Modern technological processes that generate ultra- and infrasound, electromagnetic, vibration-noise radiation significantly exceed the background effects and inevitably create an unfavorable technogenic load on the human body. A special place is occupied by vibration, primarily associated with such professional groups as mining enterprises, gold and diamond processing plants, aircraft plants, thermal power plants and hydroelectric power plants, and aluminum industry enterprises. Vibration exposure leads to a number of biochemical disorders in the homeostasis system. Mitochondrial dysfunctions are among the leading elements in the hierarchy of pathogenesis of many pathological syndromes and diseases. The aim of the study was an experimental analysis of tissue-specific features of the myocardium, kidneys, liver energy production system activity as well as the enzyme status of rat lymphocytes in relation to the activity of succinate dehydrogenase (SDH) on the background of 7 episodes of local vibration with a frequency of 27-30 Hz for 90 minutes daily before and after protection with succinate-containing antihypoxant "Yantar-cardio" at a dose of 100 mg/kg/day. Materials and methods. The study of the energy-dependent reactions of the native mitochondria of the organs was carried out by the polarographic method using a closed Clark-type membrane electrode. The activity of SDH of rat blood lymphocytes was studied by a modified method of quantitative cytochemical analysis. Results. Functional rearrangement in the respiratory chain (RC) of the mitochondria confirmed the NAD-dependent site's inhibition and activation of the oxidation system of endogenous succinic acid, most pronounced in the myocardial tissue. On the vibration background, the specific SDH activity of lymphocytes (Q) significantly increased by 52%, and the variability (V) - by three times. The use of "Yantar-cardio" limited the growth rate of endogenous respiration of the most significant in the heart (70%, p<0.05), restored oxidative and conjugating activity NAD-dependent link of RC, improve the structure and condition of the cell population of lymphocytes based on their energy status and warned the mismatch of the leading parameters of the population variability of the cellular pool of blood lymphocytes in experimental animals. Conclusions. The intensity of vibration-mediated bioenergetic hypoxia in the form of inhibition of the NAD-dependent link of the respiratory chain and activation of the endogenous succinic acid oxidation system is tissue-specific and is most pronounced in the myocardial tissue. The succinic acid oxidation system is highly sensitive to vibration effects and a pharmacological drug that supports the function of RC under conditions of the stress of the homeostatic functions of tissues involved in the pathological process.

This article seeks to interrogate the advantages and disadvantages of beneficiation law for Botswana’s mining industry and its implications for foreign investment protection. Furthermore, it argues that the enactment of beneficiation law could stimulate economic growth and development in Botswana. On a proper analysis of the potential of beneficiation law it seems plain that it may facilitate the integration, of among others, the cutting and polishing segments through the backward and forward linkages in the entire diamond value chain to move Botswana diamond industry a step further as a new and emerging jewellery manufacturing and retail center in order to derive maximum returns from the rough diamond production. Quite clearly, cutting and polishing of diamonds in Botswana is bound to promote employment which in turn will promote demand for goods and services that would have a positive impact on economic growth in Botswana. The paper concludes that on a balance, the opportunities accruable from the enactment of this law far outweigh the downsides and will not in any way scare investors away as some have perceived it.

This 2019 Article IV Consultation focuses on Botswana near- and medium-term challenges and policy priorities and was prepared before COVID-19 became a global pandemic and resulted in unprecedented strains in global trade, commodity, and financial markets. Gross domestic product growth is forecasted to pick up to 4.4 percent in 2020 and 5.6 percent in 2021 as the diamond industry recovers somewhat, and a new copper mine comes on stream. Growth will ease back to around 4 percent over the medium term. Risks to the outlook include faster-than-anticipated slowdown in key trading partners, shifts in consumer preferences to synthetic diamonds, and climate shocks. The size and pace of the planned adjustment are consistent with Botswana’s fiscal space, but the composition of the adjustment should protect efficient capital and social spending. Furthermore, given that buffers are being eroded, it is critical that consolidation starts as envisaged in FY2020, as it would help start addressing external imbalances and contribute to a gradual rebuilding of buffers over the medium term. In order to strengthen the monetary transmission mechanism and deepen the domestic financial market, there is a need to develop the secondary market for government securities, leverage Fintech, facilitate the attachment of collateral, and improve credit information.

Diamond occurs in the Espinhaço range both in alluvials and in Midproterozoic metaconglomerates.In the alluvials they are recovered by large bucket wheel dredges as well as by more artisanal hydraulicgravel-pump mining. The “Sopa” metaconglomerates were mined out in the past wherever they wereheavily weathered into very soft material amenable to artisanal hydraulic gravel pump mining.This short paper describes the main geologic features which should be considered in the study of amining project on deposits of one of these two types.An attempt is also made at giving an insight into the future of the region’s diamond mining activityconsidering that its alluvials will be exhausted in the next decade. The discovery of new deposits of thesoft metaconglomerate type - and for this sake of their kimberlitic sources - depends largely on whichgeologic model is adopted. Various models have been proposed by different authors including the riftmodel, put forward by the present author. each model will justify the adoption of a different explorationapproach.Finally, the possibility of reactivating the diamond mining industry in the region through the designof an appropriate treatment process for the recovery of the gem from the metaconglomerates of the hardsilicified facies, known as “massa gelada”, is also envisaged.

There is growing urgency for CO2 removal strategies to slow the increase of, and potentially lower, atmospheric CO2 concentrations. Enhanced weathering, whereby the natural reactions between CO2 and silicate minerals that produce dissolved bicarbonate ions are accelerated, has the potential to remove substantial CO2 on decadal to centennial timescales. The global mining industry produces huge volumes of fine wastes that could be utilised as feedstock for enhanced weathering. We have compiled a global database of the enhanced weathering potential of mined metal and diamond commodity tailings from silicate-hosted deposits. Our data indicate that all deposit types, notably mafic and ultramafic rock-hosted operations and high tonnage Cu-hosting deposits, have the potential to capture ~1.1–4.5 Gt CO2 annually, between 31 and 125% of the industry's primary emissions. However, current knowledge suggests that dissolution rates of many minerals are relatively slow, such that only a fraction (~3–21%) of this potential may be realised on timescales of &lt;50 years. Field trials in mine settings are urgently needed and, if this prediction is confirmed, then methodologies for accelerating weathering reactions will need to be developed.

AbstractEnergetic materials are of significant interest for scientific and practical reasons in the extraction (mining) industry, space propulsion, and ordnance. The nature of the fracture process of such materials under high acceleration is of particular interest, especially in ordnance. This paper describes new experimental and analysis techniques that allow us to characterize quantitatively and to compare the fracture surfaces of different energetic materials, and to deduce the specific fracture mechanisms. The techniques are widely applicable to other composite systems. In the materials discussed herein, topographical profiles spaced 1.0 mm apart across the fracture surfaces of two types of Octol have been obtained with a diamond stylus profilometer. Spatial power spectra (wavelengths of 1.0 μm 1.0 cm) have been calculated using a prolate spheroidal data window in the horizontal space domain prior to using a fast Fourier transform algorithm. The spatial power density of the fracture surface profiles is found in general to decrease with increasing spatial frequency over the region of interest, ≈ 1 mm-1 to ≈ 1 cm-1. Quasi-periodic peaks corresponding to HMX particle sizes are observed in the Octol spatial power spectra. These peaks indicate the inhomogeneous HMX grain size distribution in the Octol fracture surfaces. Peaks in the Octol spectra indicate that intergranular fracture often occurs between the TNT and HMX grains. Fractal analysis of the Octol power spectral slopes indicates the regions of deterministic, intergranular failure and the regions of the nondeterministic, trans-granular failure through TNT or HMX grains. This non-deterministic (fractal) failure is chaotic and may indicate the origin of failure in the sample.

Pollutant regulations are not a matter of concern only for engine manufacturers but they also require policy implementation, commitment and a dedicated effort by industry. In particular, some in the mining industries are expanding their efforts to provide environmentally friendly working procedures and conditions. Use of fuel enhancershas been suggested. The Letšeng Diamond Mine, in Lesotho has taken the lead and commissioned a study on three different fuel additives. For all three fuel additives, three prominent variables were measured, namely diesel fuel consumption, diesel exhaust gases and smoke emission levels. All instruments used were EPA certified andcalibrated or verified according to the specification of the manufacturer and or international best practice to ensure accurate readings. This paper discusses the results obtained on site over a thirteen month study period involving different classes of machinery and under different weather conditions. Product C improved fuel consumption by 9.9% and reduced black smoke by 32%. Pitfalls have been identified with product A and product B that can help to avoid costly trials on other sites, such as rusted and blown injectors, engine failure and corroded seals, valves and cylinders. Further research is required however to determine if these additives will become major role players toreduce emissions and improve efficiency. In conclusion, we cannot ignore the use of fuel additives when talking about diesel pollution and the fact that the additives cou ld assist in reducing harmful emissions even if only one additive appears to be performing positively in terms of consumption and emissions, such as product C. Three strategies have been identified for reducing emissions on diesel earth moving equipment currently in use: engine modifications, exhaust gas treatment and fuel composition modifications. Engine modifications and exhaust gas treatment are considered costly alternatives to achieve reduced exhaust emissions plus these strategies are proven to have little or no positive impact on fuel economy performance. The study has shown one factor clearly – we cannot ignore the effects of additives both with regard to emissions and combustion efficiency.

Unconventional energy sources have become increasingly important to the global energy mix. These include coal seam gas, shale gas and shale oil. The unconventional gas industry was pioneered in the United States and embraced following the first oil shock in 1973 (Rogers). As has been the case with many global resources (Hiscock), many of the same companies that worked in the USA carried their experience in this industry to early Australian explorations. Recently the USA has secured significant energy security with the development of unconventional energy deposits such as the Marcellus shale gas and the Bakken shale oil (Dobb; McGraw). But this has not come without environmental impact, including contamination to underground water supply (Osborn, Vengosh, Warner, Jackson) and potential greenhouse gas contributions (Howarth, Santoro, Ingraffea; McKenna). The environmental impact of unconventional gas extraction has raised serious public concern about the introduction and growth of the industry in Australia. In coal rich Australia coal seam gas is currently the major source of unconventional gas. Large gas deposits have been found in prime agricultural land along eastern Australia, such as the Liverpool Plains in New South Wales and the Darling Downs in Queensland. Competing land-uses and a series of environmental incidents from the coal seam gas industry have warranted major protest from a coalition of environmentalists and farmers (Berry; McLeish). Conflict between energy companies wanting development and environmentalists warning precaution is an easy script to cast for frontline media coverage. But historical perspectives are often missing in these contemporary debates. While coal mining and natural gas have often received “boosting” historical coverage (Diamond; Wilkinson), and although historical themes of “development” and “rushes” remain predominant when observing the span of the industry (AGA; Blainey), the history of unconventional gas, particularly the history of its environmental impact, has been little studied. Few people are aware, for example, that the first shale gas exploratory well was completed in late 2010 in the Cooper Basin in Central Australia (Molan) and is considered as a “new” frontier in Australian unconventional gas. Moreover many people are unaware that the first coal seam gas wells were completed in 1976 in Queensland. The first four wells offer an important moment for reflection in light of the industry’s recent move into Central Australia. By locating and analysing the first four coal seam gas wells, this essay identifies the roots of the unconventional gas industry in Australia and explores the early environmental impact of these wells. By analysing exploration reports that have been placed online by the Queensland Department of Natural Resources and Mines through the lens of environmental history, the dominant developmental narrative of this industry can also be scrutinised. These narratives often place more significance on economic and national benefits while displacing the environmental and social impacts of the industry (Connor, Higginbotham, Freeman, Albrecht; Duus; McEachern; Trigger). This essay therefore seeks to bring an environmental insight into early unconventional gas mining in Australia. As the author, I am concerned that nearly four decades on and it seems that no one has heeded the warning gleaned from these early wells and early exploration reports, as gas exploration in Australia continues under little scrutiny. Arrival The first four unconventional gas wells in Australia appear at the beginning of the industry world-wide (Schraufnagel, McBane, and Kuuskraa; McClanahan). The wells were explored by Houston Oils and Minerals—a company that entered the Australian mining scene by sharing a mining prospect with International Australian Energy Company (Wiltshire). The International Australian Energy Company was owned by Black Giant Oil Company in the US, which in turn was owned by International Royalty and Oil Company also based in the US. The Texan oilman Robert Kanton held a sixteen percent share in the latter. Kanton had an idea that the Mimosa Syncline in the south-eastern Bowen Basin was a gas trap waiting to be exploited. To test the theory he needed capital. Kanton presented the idea to Houston Oil and Minerals which had the financial backing to take the risk. Shotover No. 1 was drilled by Houston Oil and Minerals thirty miles south-east of the coal mining town of Blackwater. By late August 1975 it was drilled to 2,717 metres, discovered to have little gas, spudded, and, after a spend of $610,000, abandoned. The data from the Shotover well showed that the porosity of the rocks in the area was not a trap, and the Mimosa Syncline was therefore downgraded as a possible hydrocarbon location. There was, however, a small amount of gas found in the coal seams (Benbow 16). The well had passed through the huge coal seams of both the Bowen and Surat basins—important basins for the future of both the coal and gas industries. Mining Concepts In 1975, while Houston Oil and Minerals was drilling the Shotover well, US Steel and the US Bureau of Mines used hydraulic fracture, a technique already used in the petroleum industry, to drill vertical surface wells to drain gas from a coal seam (Methane Drainage Taskforce 102). They were able to remove gas from the coal seam before it was mined and sold enough to make a profit. With the well data from the Shotover well in Australia compiled, Houston returned to the US to research the possibility of harvesting methane in Australia. As the company saw it, methane drainage was “a novel exploitation concept” and the methane in the Bowen Basin was an “enormous hydrocarbon resource” (Wiltshire 7). The Shotover well passed through a section of the German Creek Coal measures and this became their next target. In September 1976 the Shotover well was re-opened and plugged at 1499 meters to become Australia’s first exploratory unconventional gas well. By the end of the month the rig was released and gas production tested. At one point an employee on the drilling operation observed a gas flame “the size of a 44 gal drum” (HOMA, “Shotover # 1” 9). But apart from the brief show, no gas flowed. And yet, Houston Oil and Minerals was not deterred, as they had already taken out other leases for further prospecting (Wiltshire 4). Only a week after the Shotover well had failed, Houston moved the methane search south-east to an area five miles north of the Moura township. Houston Oil and Minerals had researched the coal exploration seismic surveys of the area that were conducted in 1969, 1972, and 1973 to choose the location. Over the next two months in late 1976, two new wells—Kinma No.1 and Carra No.1—were drilled within a mile from each other and completed as gas wells. Houston Oil and Minerals also purchased the old oil exploration well Moura No. 1 from the Queensland Government and completed it as a suspended gas well. The company must have mined the Department of Mines archive to find Moura No.1, as the previous exploration report from 1969 noted methane given off from the coal seams (Sell). By December 1976 Houston Oil and Minerals had three gas wells in the vicinity of each other and by early 1977 testing had occurred. The results were disappointing with minimal gas flow at Kinma and Carra, but Moura showed a little more promise. Here, the drillers were able to convert their Fairbanks-Morse engine driving the pump from an engine run on LPG to one run on methane produced from the well (Porter, “Moura # 1”). Drink This? Although there was not much gas to find in the test production phase, there was a lot of water. The exploration reports produced by the company are incomplete (indeed no report was available for the Shotover well), but the information available shows that a large amount of water was extracted before gas started to flow (Porter, “Carra # 1”; Porter, “Moura # 1”; Porter, “Kinma # 1”). As Porter’s reports outline, prior to gas flowing, the water produced at Carra, Kinma and Moura totalled 37,600 litres, 11,900 and 2,900 respectively. It should be noted that the method used to test the amount of water was not continuous and these amounts were not the full amount of water produced; also, upon gas coming to the surface some of the wells continued to produce water. In short, before any gas flowed at the first unconventional gas wells in Australia at least 50,000 litres of water were taken from underground. Results show that the water was not ready to drink (Mathers, “Moura # 1”; Mathers, “Appendix 1”; HOMA, “Miscellaneous Pages” 21-24). The water had total dissolved solids (minerals) well over the average set by the authorities (WHO; Apps Laboratories; NHMRC; QDAFF). The well at Kinma recorded the highest levels, almost two and a half times the unacceptable standard. On average the water from the Moura well was of reasonable standard, possibly because some water was extracted from the well when it was originally sunk in 1969; but the water from Kinma and Carra was very poor quality, not good enough for crops, stock or to be let run into creeks. The biggest issue was the sodium concentration; all wells had very high salt levels. Kinma and Carra were four and two times the maximum standard respectively. In short, there was a substantial amount of poor quality water produced from drilling and testing the three wells. Fracking Australia Hydraulic fracturing is an artificial process that can encourage more gas to flow to the surface (McGraw; Fischetti; Senate). Prior to the testing phase at the Moura field, well data was sent to the Chemical Research and Development Department at Halliburton in Oklahoma, to examine the ability to fracture the coal and shale in the Australian wells. Halliburton was the founding father of hydraulic fracture. In Oklahoma on 17 March 1949, operating under an exclusive license from Standard Oil, this company conducted the first ever hydraulic fracture of an oil well (Montgomery and Smith). To come up with a program of hydraulic fracturing for the Australian field, Halliburton went back to the laboratory. They bonded together small slabs of coal and shale similar to Australian samples, drilled one-inch holes into the sample, then pressurised the holes and completed a “hydro-frac” in miniature. “These samples were difficult to prepare,” they wrote in their report to Houston Oil and Minerals (HOMA, “Miscellaneous Pages” 10). Their program for fracturing was informed by a field of science that had been evolving since the first hydraulic fracture but had rapidly progressed since the first oil shock. Halliburton’s laboratory test had confirmed that the model of Perkins and Kern developed for widths of hydraulic fracture—in an article that defined the field—should also apply to Australian coals (Perkins and Kern). By late January 1977 Halliburton had issued Houston Oil and Minerals with a program of hydraulic fracture to use on the central Queensland wells. On the final page of their report they warned: “There are many unknowns in a vertical fracture design procedure” (HOMA, “Miscellaneous Pages” 17). In July 1977, Moura No. 1 became the first coal seam gas well hydraulically fractured in Australia. The exploration report states: “During July 1977 the well was killed with 1% KCL solution and the tubing and packer were pulled from the well … and pumping commenced” (Porter 2-3). The use of the word “kill” is interesting—potassium chloride (KCl) is the third and final drug administered in the lethal injection of humans on death row in the USA. Potassium chloride was used to minimise the effect on parts of the coal seam that were water-sensitive and was the recommended solution prior to adding other chemicals (Montgomery and Smith 28); but a word such as “kill” also implies that the well and the larger environment were alive before fracking commenced (Giblett; Trigger). Pumping recommenced after the fracturing fluid was unloaded. Initially gas supply was very good. It increased from an average estimate of 7,000 cubic feet per day to 30,000, but this only lasted two days before coal and sand started flowing back up to the surface. In effect, the cleats were propped open but the coal did not close and hold onto them which meant coal particles and sand flowed back up the pipe with diminishing amounts of gas (Walters 12). Although there were some interesting results, the program was considered a failure. In April 1978, Houston Oil and Minerals finally abandoned the methane concept. Following the failure, they reflected on the possibilities for a coal seam gas industry given the gas prices in Queensland: “Methane drainage wells appear to offer no economic potential” (Wooldridge 2). At the wells they let the tubing drop into the hole, put a fifteen foot cement plug at the top of the hole, covered it with a steel plate and by their own description restored the area to its “original state” (Wiltshire 8). Houston Oil and Minerals now turned to “conventional targets” which included coal exploration (Wiltshire 7). A Thousand Memories The first four wells show some of the critical environmental issues that were present from the outset of the industry in Australia. The process of hydraulic fracture was not just a failure, but conducted on a science that had never been tested in Australia, was ponderous at best, and by Halliburton’s own admission had “many unknowns”. There was also the role of large multinationals providing “experience” (Briody; Hiscock) and conducting these tests while having limited knowledge of the Australian landscape. Before any gas came to the surface, a large amount of water was produced that was loaded with a mixture of salt and other heavy minerals. The source of water for both the mud drilling of Carra and Kinma, as well as the hydraulic fracture job on Moura, was extracted from Kianga Creek three miles from the site (HOMA, “Carra # 1” 5; HOMA, “Kinma # 1” 5; Porter, “Moura # 1”). No location was listed for the disposal of the water from the wells, including the hydraulic fracture liquid. Considering the poor quality of water, if the water was disposed on site or let drain into a creek, this would have had significant environmental impact. Nobody has yet answered the question of where all this water went. The environmental issues of water extraction, saline water and hydraulic fracture were present at the first four wells. At the first four wells environmental concern was not a priority. The complexity of inter-company relations, as witnessed at the Shotover well, shows there was little time. The re-use of old wells, such as the Moura well, also shows that economic priorities were more important. Even if environmental information was considered important at the time, no one would have had access to it because, as handwritten notes on some of the reports show, many of the reports were “confidential” (Sell). Even though coal mines commenced filing Environmental Impact Statements in the early 1970s, there is no such documentation for gas exploration conducted by Houston Oil and Minerals. A lack of broader awareness for the surrounding environment, from floral and faunal health to the impact on habitat quality, can be gleaned when reading across all the exploration reports. Nearly four decades on and we now have thousands of wells throughout the world. Yet, the challenges of unconventional gas still persist. The implications of the environmental history of the first four wells in Australia for contemporary unconventional gas exploration and development in this country and beyond are significant. Many environmental issues were present from the beginning of the coal seam gas industry in Australia. Owning up to this history would place policy makers and regulators in a position to strengthen current regulation. The industry continues to face the same challenges today as it did at the start of development—including water extraction, hydraulic fracturing and problems associated with drilling through underground aquifers. Looking more broadly at the unconventional gas industry, shale gas has appeared as the next target for energy resources in Australia. Reflecting on the first exploratory shale gas wells drilled in Central Australia, the chief executive of the company responsible for the shale gas wells noted their deliberate decision to locate their activities in semi-desert country away from “an area of prime agricultural land” and conflict with environmentalists (quoted in Molan). Moreover, the journalist Paul Cleary recently complained about the coal seam gas industry polluting Australia’s food-bowl but concluded that the “next frontier” should be in “remote” Central Australia with shale gas (Cleary 195). It appears that preference is to move the industry to the arid centre of Australia, to the ecologically and culturally unique Lake Eyre Basin region (Robin and Smith). 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