Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Brasilian Exclusive Economic Zone'

Orientadores: Antonia Cecília Zacagnini Amaral, Gonzalo Velasco Canziani
Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Biologia
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Resumo: O ambiente marinho apresenta ecossistemas altamente ricos e diversos, entretanto o conhecimento sobre esses ecossistemas e os organismos que neles vivem ainda é muito esparso. Sabe-se que a perda de diversidade nesses sistemas vem crescendo sem ser apropriadamente avaliada. No Brasil, o desnvolvimento de novas fronteiras para a pesca e sua utilização, muitas vezes com pouca regulamentação e/ou fiscalização, tem levado muitos recursos à sobreexplotação. Esta forma de exploração evidencia o uso dos recursos marinhos sem um planejamento adequado. Para que haja tal planejamento, é necessário que se conheçam as vias energéticas e as relações entre os organismos que compõem esse ecossistema. De forma a contribuir para este conhecimento, no presente trabalho foram estudadas a dieta e as relações tróficas de seis espécies de peixes demersais abundantes nas regiões Sudeste e Sul do Brasil: Antigonia capros; Ariomma bondi, Genypterus brasiliensis, Synagrops bellus, Synagrops spinosus e Ventrifossa macropogon. O material provém das coletas do Programa REVIZEE Score-Sul, realizadas entre Cabo Frio (RJ) e Cabo de Santa Marta Grande (SC). Os peixes tiveram a sua dieta analisada por meio do conteúdo estomacal. Além da composição da dieta, foi avaliada a influência da profundidade, do tamanho dos indivíduos, da sazonalidade e do período do dia na obtenção de alimento. Adicionalmente, construiu-se um modelo trófico de balanço de biomassa para avaliar a comunidade demersal da área. Neste estudo foi observado que há um intenso consumo de invertebrados bentônicos, especialmente crustáceos, por todas as espécies, apesar de cada uma apresentar particularidades no comportamento alimentar, como foi constatado nas análises de dieta. Observou-se ainda que as espécies apresentam variações no consumo de alimentos relacionadas à profundidadade, tamanho dos indivíduos e área geográfica onde foram coletadas, e que os fatores que mais causam essas alterações são as variações sazonais. O consumo de invertebrados bentônicos verificado nas análises de dieta e no modelo é maior em espécies de níveis tróficos mais baixos, mas também é significativo em espécies de níveis superiores. Nesta última categoria estão inclusos grandes predadores, como tubarões e atuns, que puderam ser avaliados por meio de dados secundários na construção do modelo. Estes resultados ressaltam a importância da inclusão dos organismos bentônicos nas políticas pesqueiras e planos de manejo, uma vez que se trata de um dos principais pontos de sustentação de todo o ecossistema marinho, sobretudo o demersal
Abstract: The knowledge about marine environments and their rich and diverse ecosystems is improving across the world, but still has gaps, mainly in tropical areas. It is known that the diversity loss is globally increasing without being properly measured. Studies have shown that fisheries are looking for new areas and species aiming to attempt the global fisheries demand. This kind of resource exploitation brings evidence of inadequate fisheries planning. It is necessary the knowledge about the energy pathways and ecosystem relationships to develop appropriate fisheries management for different areas and objectives. Aiming to improve this knowledge and contribute to the appropriate fisheries management, we studied the diet and the trophic relationship of six abundant demersal fishes from Brazilian Southeast and South: Antigonia capros, Ariomma bondi, Genypterus brasiliensis, Synagrops bellus, Synagrops spinosus and Ventrifossa macropogon. The samples were collected during REVIZEE Score-Sul program, between Cabo Frio (RJ) and Cabo de Santa Marta Grande (SC). The fishes were studied based on their gut contents. It was evaluated the diet composition and the influence of depth, season, day time and specimens' size, on food choice. Additionally, we built a trophic model to evaluate the demersal community. We observed intense benthos consumption (especially crustaceans) by all species, despite their specificity. We also observed changes on food consumption according to depth, area and specimen's size, but the main responsible for changes on food consumption are the seasonal variations on the oceanographic dynamics. Benthos consumption is higher in low trophic levels than in high ones, but it is significant in high trophic levels species too, including top predators as sharks and tunas, assessed by secondary data during the model construction. These results show the necessity to include benthos impacts on fisheries management, once they are the main support of the entire marine ecosystem, especially demersal ecosystems
Doutorado
Ecologia
Doutor em Ecologia

The AIMS is Africa’s first comprehensive maritime strategy. Adopted in 2014, the AIMS proposes unique objectives to address the common maritime challenges faced by African States. One of these objectives is the establishment of the Combined Exclusive Maritime Zone of Africa (CEMZA). The AIMS states that CEMZA, “will grant Africa enormous crosscutting geostrategic, economic, and political, security and social benefits, as well as minimize the risks of all transnational threats including organized crime and terrorism in Africa”. This dissertation, consequently, aims to provide an overview of the impact which the successful establishment of the CEMZA would have on the African Maritime Domain (AMD) with a focus on sectors such as intra-African trade, vessel-source marine pollution, maritime security and fisheries. This study, furthermore, aims to determine the advantages of the CEMZA as well as the steps which would have to be taken to ensure the success of the CEMZA from a legal point of view. Established within this dissertation is the view that the CEMZA would have to be accompanied by various intermediate steps and would function as if the borders between African countries were deemed not to exist for administrative purposes. This would, however, not entail that African States sacrifice their sovereignty regarding resources within their jurisdiction by sharing it with all African States. The resources of each State, therefore, would remain its sovereign property, and the pooling of resources within the CEMZA would be absent. This dissertation concludes by stating that the CEMZA is feasible in the long term. Owing to the political and legal challenges, reinforced by a lack of capacity as well as human and fiscal resources, it is, however, not achievable in the short-to-medium term.

Thesis submitted to the University of Heidelberg and University of Chile in fulfillment of requirements for the academic degree of Master in International Law, Trade, Investments and Arbitration.
On 23rd June, 1947 the Chilean President Gabriel González Videla declared the national sovereignty over the entire continental shelf adjacent to its coast and islands, the soil and subsoil and the superjacent waters to a distance of 200 nautical miles from baselines in order to reserve, protect, preserve and utilize natural resources, giving the starting point of the exclusive economic zone doctrine. Peru and Ecuador, later on, also made statements along the same lines, and, based on these national backgrounds, the three countries signed the Declaration of Santiago on Maritime Zone, on 18th August 1952, by which they proclaimed their sovereignty and exclusive jurisdiction over the sea that bathes the coasts to a minimum distance of 200 nautical miles from the related costs, including soil and subsoil that relate to it in order to prevent irrational exploitation of the natural resources located in it and so important for the development of their peoples. Together with this Declaration, several Agreements were signed and a Regional body was created -The Permanent Commission for the South East Pacific- starting a process of regional cooperation and integration, to which Colombia acceded on 1978, that developed the concept of this new maritime space and spread it around the world. The figure created by these countries was finally recognized in the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea adopted on 1982, whose figure of the exclusive economic zone was inspired in the principles and institutions created by the South East Pacific Countries. However, during the Third United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador and Peru did not share the same view as to the legal nature of the 200 miles zone.. Peru and Ecuador supported a territorial doctrine, which would give an exclusive sovereign position to coastal States over an area of 200 maritime miles, while Chile and Colombia maintained the idea that in this zone, State competences were sovereign but not for all purposes. Even when these different positions never affected the cooperation and friendly relations among these countries, the different approaches with respect to the legal nature of the zone were transferred to the domestic legislation of the States and, until today, can be found in the national legislation of these countries. To us, being the South East Pacific countries the proponents of the 200 miles doctrine, it seems important that they try to maintain harmony in the concept of this maritime zone. Until today, Chile is the only country who had ratified the Convention

This thesis attempts to study, in a comprehensive manner, the EEZ rule in both the LOS Convention and in state practice. Its central aim is to try to establish with exactitude the scope of the rule that has been taken into international custom. In this respect, after giving in chapter one a short exposé on the prevailing rules of the law of the sea that had governed all maritime spaces before UNCLOS III, serving as a background against which a better apprehension of the LOS Convention's EEZ provisions can be attained, an analysis of the rights of both coastal states and third states in the EEZ and their corresponding duties is provided in chapters two and three respectively. It has been asserted that, although a coastal state by claiming an EEZ would only enjoy specific functional rights, viz., the fields of activities they are connected with are explicitly defined, the vagueness often found in the wording of the Convention makes the situation not clear in all respects. While such a phenomenon may widen the functional limitations placed upon the general right of freedom of the high seas, it does not seem, however, to have any bearing on the high seas quality of the principal freedom of overflight, of laying cables and pipelines, and the freedom of navigation. Chapter four is a thorough examination and analysis of state practice as evidenced in EFZ and EEZ claims against the yardstick of LOS Convention. This is followed by a last chapter determining the scope of the rule that has been picked up in the new custom relating to the EEZ. In this connection, it is asserted that state practice gives strong evidence that a general right to claim a jurisdictional maritime zone as defined in Articles 55 and 57 of the LOS Convention, viz., extending seaward up to 200 miles from the baselines, is firmly established in international customary law.

In a circumstance where overlapping claims are made but delimitation of the area of overlapping claims is not made, an obvious need arise to search for rules applicable between neighbouring States pending delimitation of maritime boundaries which might never take place. Articles 74(3) and 83(3) of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (LOS Convention) deal with the legal problems pending delimitations of exclusive economic zone (EEZ)/continental shelf boundaries. They provide, in identical terms, that "pending agreement as provided for in paragraph 1, the States concerned, in a spirit of understanding and co-operation, shall make every effort to enter into provisional arrangements of a practical nature". The provisional arrangements share some important aspects with interim measures ordered by domestic or international courts pending their final judgements on the merits of disputes. Even though no illustrations of provisional arrangements are given in the provisions, there have been actual cases where provisional arrangements were made pending delimitation of boundaries even before the conclusion of the LOS Convention in 1982. For example, joint development zones of the continental shelf, joint fishing zones and provisional maritime boundaries were adopted from time to time by coastal States for provisional measures. Sometimes a zone is established for the purpose of joint exploitation of gas and oil as well as fisheries resources. In North East Asia, the need for provisional arrangements arose in the late 1990s because South Korea and Japan claimed their respective 200 nautical miles(N.M.) EEZs in 1996 and China claimed a 200 N.M. EEZ in 1998. Three bilateral fisheries agreements were concluded between Korea, China and Japan pending delimitation of maritime boundaries between them. All these fisheries agreements established joint fishing zones with various names or without names in the areas where overlapping claims were made. These provisional arrangements, however, have defects for the proper management of fisheries resources in the region because the joint fishing zones of different legal characters established by these arrangements overlap with each other and there is no previous to deal with transboundary fish stocks occurring in the EEZs of the three littoral States in the region. There is also a need for provisional arrangements between the coastal States in the region for co-operation in the exercise of jurisdiction, and for avoidance of jurisdictional conflicts, with regard to the protection of the marine environment and marine scientific research.

Thesis (MSc)--University of Stellenbosch, 2004.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) provides an opportunity for qualifying coastal signatory states to claim extended maritime estate. The opportunity to claim rests on the precept that in certain cases a continental shelf extends beyond the traditionally demarcated two hundred nautical mile (200M) Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) mark. In these cases a successful claim results in states having sovereign rights to the living and non-living resources of the seabed and subsoil, as well as the sedentary species, of the area claimed. Where the continental shelf extends beyond the 200M mark, the Foot of the Continental Slope (FoS) has to be determined as one of the qualifying criteria. Article 76 of UNCLOS de nes the FoS as ". . . the point of maximum change in the gradient at its base." Currently Caris Lots is the most widely used software which incorporates public domain data to determine the FoS as a step towards defining the offshore extent of an extended continental shelf. In this software, existing methods to compute the FoS are often subjective, typically involving an operator choosing the best perceived foot point during consideration of a two dimensional profile of the continental slope. These foot points are then joined by straight lines to form the foot line to be used in the desk top study (feasibility study). The purpose of this thesis is to establish a semi-automated and mathematically based three dimensional method for determination of the FoS using South African data as a case study. Firstly, a general background of UNCLOS is given (with emphasis on Article 76), including a brief discussion of the geological factors that influence the characteristics of a continental shelf and thus factors that could influence the determination of the FoS. Secondly, a mathematical method for determination of the surfaces of extremal curvature (on three dimensional data), originally proposed by Vanicek and Ou in 1994, is detailed and applied to two smooth, hypothetical sample surfaces. A discussion of the bathymetric data to be used for application introduces the factors to be taken into account when using extensive survey data as well as methods to process the raw data for use. The method is then applied to two sets of gridded bathymetric data of differing resolution for four separate regions around the South African coast. The ridges formed on the resulting surfaces of maximum curvature are then traced in order to obtain a foot line definition for each region and each resolution. The results obtained from application of the method are compared with example foot points provided by the subjective two dimensional method of computation within the Caris Lots software suite. A comparison of the results for the different resolutions of data is included to provide insight as to the effectiveness of the method with differing spatial coarseness of data. Finally, an indication of further work is provided in the conclusion to this thesis, in the form of a number of recommendations for possible adaptations of the mathematical and tracing methods, and improvements thereof.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die Verenigde Nasies se Konvensie oor die Wet van die See (UNCLOS) bied 'n geleentheid aan kwalifiserende state wat ondertekenaars van die Konvensie is om aanspraak te maak op uitgebreide maritieme gebied. Die geleentheid om op uitgebreide gebied aanspraak te maak berus op die veronderstelling dat 'n kontinentale tafel in sekere gevalle tot buite die tradisioneel afgebakende 200 seemyl eksklusiewe ekonomiese zone (EEZ) strek. In sulke gevalle het 'n suksesvolle aanspraak die gevolg dat die staat soewereine reg oor die lewende en nie-lewende bronne van die seevloer en ondergrond verkry, sowel as die inwonende spesies van die gebied buite die EEZ waarop aanspraak gemaak word. Die voet van die kontinentale tafel (FoS) moet vasgestel word as een van die bepalende kriteria vir afbakening van die aanspraak waar die kontinentale tafel tot buite die EEZ strek. Artikel 76 van UNCLOS defineer die FoS as ". . . die punt van maksimale verandering in die helling by sy basis." Die mees algemeen gebruikte rekenaar sagteware wat openbare domein data aanwend om die voet van die helling te bepaal, is tans "Caris Lots." Die metodes wat in die program gebruik word om die voet van die helling te bepaal, is dikwels subjektief en berus tipies op 'n operateur se keuse van die beste afgeskatte punt van die voet van die helling uit 'n oorweging van 'n twee dimensionele profiel van die kontinentale tafel. Die berekende voet-punte word dan deur middel van reguit lyne verbind om 'n hellingsvoetlyn te vorm. Hierdie voetlyn kan dan in die Suid-Afrikaanse lessenaarstudie (doenlikheidstudie) oor die bepaling van die voet van die kontinentale tafel gebruik word. Die doel van hierdie verhandeling is om 'n semi-outomatiese en wiskundig gebaseerde drie-dimensionele metode te beskryf vir die vasstelling van die FoS, deur as 'n gevallestudie van Suid-Afrikaanse data gebruik te maak. 'n Algemene agtergrond van UNCLOS, met beklemtoning van Artikel 76, word eerstens gegee. 'n Kort bespreking van die geologiese faktore wat die kontinentale tafel beïnvloed en wat gevolglik 'n invloed kan hê op die vasstelling van die voet van die helling, is ingesluit. Tweedens word 'n wiskundige metode, wat oorspronklik in 1994 deur Vanicek en Ou voorgestel is, vir bepaling van die oppervlaktes van maksimale kromming (gebaseer op drie-dimensionele data) in detail bespreek en 'n voorbeeld van 'n toepassing op twee gladde, denkbeeldige oppervaktes word beskryf. Die faktore wat in ag geneem moet word wanneer omvattende dieptemeting data gebruik word, en die metodes wat gebruik word om die rou data te verwerk, word ingelei deur 'n bespreking van die aard van die dieptemeting data wat gebruik is. Die metode word dan toegepas op twee stelle geruite dieptemeting data van verskillende resolusies vir vier afsonderlike streke om die Suid-Afrikaanse kus. Die riwwe wat op die resulterende oppervlaktes van maksimale kromming gevorm word, word dan nagetrek ten einde 'n lyndefinisie van die voet van die kontinentale tafel vir elke streek teen elke resolusie te bepaal. Die resultate verkry uit toepassings van die metode word vergelyk met hellingsvoetpunte soos bepaal deur die subjektiewe twee dimensionele berekeningsmetode in die "Caris Lots" rekenaar-program. 'n Vergelyking van die resultate vir die verskillende data resolusies word ingesluit om die doeltreffendheid van die metode met betrekking tot die hantering van verskillende ruimtelike data resolusies te ondersoek. 'n Aanduiding van verdere werk, bestaande uit 'n aantal aanbevelings vir moontlike aanpassings en verbeterings van die wiskundige en natrek metodes, word ten slotte in die gevolgtrekking van die verhandeling verskaf.

Maurolicus é um gênero representado por peixes mesopelágicos, com elevada biomassa na Zona Econômica Exclusiva sudeste sul brasileira. O material deste estudo provém de arrastos com rede de meia água efetuados com o N/Oc. Atlântico Sul, entre as isóbatas de 100 e 1500 m e entre as latitudes 22° e 35° S, realizados no inverno de 1996; outono de 1997 e primavera de 1997. A análise das características merísticas e morfológicas de 120 exemplares, coletados em 4 pontos distintos, indicou que na região ocorre M. stehmanni Parin & Kobyliansky, 1993. Através da análise da distribuição vertical e horizontal das capturas, verificou-se que a espécie está associada à região de quebra de plataforma continental, permanecendo em profundidades maiores que 200 metros durante o dia, migrando para camadas superiores a noite, com a diminuição da intensidade luminosa. Pela distribuição de freqüência de comprimento e proporção entre jovens e adultos constatou-se que ocorreu recrutamento em todos os períodos estudados. A partir da análise da proporção entre peixes jovens e adultos por comprimento estimou-se o L50médio em 32 mm. As análises da relação gonadossomática, da freqüência dos estádios de maturidade gonadal e do ∆K (diferença entre o fator de condição total e somático) indicaram que a espécie apresentou atividade reprodutiva em todas as áreas e épocas analisadas. A relação entre o raio do otólito e o tamanho dos indivíduos é linear, porém não foi possível identificar a periodicidade de formação dos anéis, impossibilitando estimativas adequadas dos parâmetros de crescimento. Aplicando-se a rotina ELEFAN I, do pacote computacional FISAT, aos dados de freqüência de comprimento foi estimado o L∞ em 53 mm e k em 0,9 ano-1, indicando que a espécie atinge o tamanho médio da 1 a maturação gonadal em torno do 1º ano de vida.
Maurolicus is a genus of mesopelagic fish very abundant in the south-eastern and south Brazilian Economic Exclusive Zone. The material of this study was sampled by mid water trawl during cruises of R/V Atlântico Sul in winter of 1996, autumn of 1997 and spring of 1997, between 100 and 1500 meters depth, from latitudes of 22° to 35° S. The meristic and morphological analysis of 120 specimens collected in 4 distinctive points, has indicated the occurrence of M. stehmanni Parin & Kobyliansky, 1993 in the area. Through the vertical and horizontal distribution of the catches it was verified that this species is associated with the shelf break, staying in depths higher than 200 m during the day, migrating to lower depths at night as the luminous intensity falls. The length frequency and the proportion between youngs and adults showed that the recruitment occured during the periods surveyed. By means of young-adult proportion by length a value of L50 about 32 mm was estimated. The study of gonadossomatic relationship, gonadal maturity frequency and ∆K (difference between total and somatic condition factor) indicated that M. stehmanni presented reproductive activity in the area during all the sampled seasons. There is a linear relationship between the standard length and the otolith radius, however the periodicity of the zone formation was not identified, which did not permit appropriate estimates of the growth parameters. The L∞ of 53 mm and k of 0,9 year–1 were estimated using ELEFAN I routine (FISAT) based on length frequency data, indicating that M. stehmanni attains maturity around its first year of life.

Darbe nagrinėjamas Lietuvos Respublikos jūros erdvių delimitavimas po nepriklausomybės atkūrimo. Pirmiausia pateikiamos jūros erdvių sąvokos, jų delimitavimo principai, nustatyti atitinkamose konvencijose ir Tarptautinio Teisingumo Teismo praktikoje. Po to yra analizuojamos Lietuvos derybos dėl jūros erdvių delimitavimo su kaimyninėmis valstybėmis – aptariama derybų eiga, pateikiamos pozicijos atitinkamais klausimais, jų pagrindimas, derybų rezultatai. Derybų pozicijos bei rezultatai yra vertinami pagal konvencijas, nustatančias jūros erdvių delimitavimą, ir pagal teismų praktiką.
The object of this work is the analysis of maritime delimitation of the Republic of Lithuania after the independence reestablishment. Firstly it is presented maritime definitions, principles of the maritime delimitation established in the conventions and in the case of law. Latter in the work it is analyzed Lithuanian negotiations with the neighbourhood states on the maritime delimitation. It is discussed the processes of the negotiations, presented the positions on the respective questions, the substantiation of the mentioned positions, the results of the negotiations. The positions and outcomes of the negotiations are estimated according to the conventions on the maritime delimitations and according to the case of law.

碩士
國立成功大學
法律學系
100
Since the UNCLOS in 1982 passed officially, every state has started to claim legality of 200 nautical miles EEZ. However, supposed the maritime space less than 400 nautical miles when the states delimit the EEZ boundary, the EEZ will form superimposed zones, and it may bring out the a conflict of fishing in fact. Taiwan proclaims the Law of Republic of China on the Exclusive Economic Zone and the Continental Shelf on January 21, 1981, regard as merit to exercise the right to sovereignty and jurisdiction to the international community. As a result of Taiwan has opposite or adjacent s coasts with neighbouring states that the distance between them less than 400 nautical miles, China, Japan, Philippines and the states strewed over the South China Sea, bring the problem of EEZ on top of another with Taiwan seriously. Presently, the conflict in fisheries in the area of East China Sea and South China Sea is the most serious. Because of Taiwan and neighboring states can’t reach agreement on delimitations or provisional arrangements, conflicts continue between these two areas lastingly. For this reason, when Taiwan is in the position of fishing entity to delimit the EEZ boundary, how to make use of international dispute settlements to solve the problem of delimitation and the conflict of fishing, and how to take the provisional arrangements to reduce the disputes, this thsis attempt to discuss obove issues and research the solution of the dispute settlements of the exclusive economic zone delimitation in Taiwan.

碩士
國立臺灣海洋大學
海洋法律研究所
103
Since the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea came into force on Nov. 16, 1994, the legal regime of the EEZ has been established. Coastal States have declared the 200 miles EEZ. As an ocean country, Taiwan of course has maritime area overlapping issues with neighboring countries, which may cause serious conflicts from competition for fishery resources in the overlapping waters. The EEZ fishery conflicts between Taiwan and Japan in the East China Sea have existed for a long time, after Taiwan and Japan signed “Taiwan-Japan Fisheries Agreement” on April 10, 2013, the conflicts had been temporary solved. On the other hand, Taiwan and the Philippines have the same problems in the overlapping waters, but due to the two countries neither even achieve the agreement of maritime boundary delimitation nor temporary agreement, the two countries still facing high tension situation on scrambling for fishery resources. First of all, the writer would like to try to describe the claim of EEZ of Taiwan and the Philippines, and then will discuss the development of the legal regime of the EEZ and the methods used for solve EEZ disputes. The EEZ dispute settlements between Taiwan and the Philippines are the core of this thesis, the writer will find out the answer via the phase of law researching. And also would like to figure out the position of Taiwan in the global society by International Law perspective, for finding out a proper way to solve the overlapping waters disputes in the EEZ with the Philippines in an equal position status. In the end, the writer will take the relevant country practices and “Taiwan-Japan Fisheries Agreement” as references, to see if Taiwan and the Philippines can find out a better way to solve the fishery disputes in the overlapping waters or make provisional arrangements to reduce the disputes before Taiwan and the Philippines reaching an agreement to make the final delimitation.

博士
國立臺灣海洋大學
海洋法律研究所
105
A U.S. Navy EP-3 Aries II spy plane which was on a surveillance mission collided with a Chinese J-8 interceptor in the airspace on April 1, 2001. The incident occurred about 50 miles southeast of China's Hainan Island, and led to some legal disputes. Does the U.S. have right under international law to conduct military activities along the Chinese coast within its EEZ or over the area? According to China’s point of view, it is illegal for EP-3 to enter its territorial space without prior approval. There has been a series of troubling incidents in so-called “international waters”or “international airspace” bodering the People’s Republic of China (PRC). Several maritime conflicts between PRC and the United States of America (USA) have occurred successively in the sea areas around China, including, the USNS Bowditch encounter, the USNS Impeccable incident, China Seizes US UUV, etc.. Legally, these conflicts were caused by the different interpretation and application between the two countries of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). PRC stated that USA warships, naval auxiliaries or aircrafts cannot appeare to be actively engaged in a signals intelligence operation inside what the Chinese consider their Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) without permission. Actually, their presence in the area was unauthorized and broke international law and Chinese laws and regulations. But, the USA government insisted on the freedom of military activities in the EEZ and refused to recognize excessive maritime claims put forth by foreign governments. USA made the statement on the phrase “other internationally lawful uses in the Article 58(1) of UNCLOS was intended to preserve in the EEZ the freedom to use the high seas for military purposes. Hainan Island, with numerous airfield and submarine bases, remains an area of interest for USA, per international law, military activities may be conducted “as an exercise of the freedoms of navigation and overflight.” Therefore, USA stated that it’s ship was engaged in lawful military activities in China’s claimed EEZ, and blamed PRC for the common element of most of the conflicts between the two sides is China’s perception of its national security and international responsibilities. As several USA officials declared that USA military vessels and aircraft “will continue to sail, fly, and operate anyehere that international law allows.”, and thus tension rises, this kind of incidents will happen again and again with the USA carrying out the FONOPs. Is intelligence data-gathering by USA governments within China’s EEZ llegal or illegal? It seems these questions between the countries are open to debate. The purpose of this thesis is to discuss the related issues mentioned above.

碩士
淡江大學
亞洲研究所碩士班
98
Japan is an island surrounded by the sea. Japan’s international norms and domestic norms have a certain degree of development. Until the system of exclusive economic zone has formulated, the territorial sea and the high sea continued for a long time. But the emergence of exclusive economic zone changed delimitation of the maritime boundary. Compete with the territorial sea , continental shelf , the high seas , exclusive economic zone is a completely new system in law of the sea. Islands is an important subject in the delimitation of the maritime boundary. Although the size of islands is small, and provided just in one article by United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, Islands can affect a country''s territorial and maritime interests. That is why Japan and South Korea are still dispute over Takeshima even it is such a small place . All of the norm about exclusive economic zone、delimitation of the maritime boundary and the regime of islands are provided in United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. This thes started on the relevant norms of exclusive economic zone , and based on Japan’s the system of exclusive economic zone. Through this research to assist Taiwan also an island surrounded by the sea in establishing the system of exclusive economic zone.

This study focuses specifically on the laws and regulations relating to commercial fishing within the Exclusive Economic Zone of South Africa and the impact of illegal fishing (IUU). The goal is to determine how overfishing can be stopped or minimised and ultimately for South Africa to harvest the illegally caught fish in such a way that it becomes part of the South African economy and generates revenue. The study will analyse the international legal instruments applicable and their impact on the development of the South African maritime laws. An in depth look at the relevant South African maritime laws will be vital as to determine if these laws are adequate to protect the fish resources from illegal exploitation and official mismanagement. To see if South Africa’s maritime laws are lacking with other countries a comparison must be done, particularly with a country like Australia that has one of the highest success rates when it comes to combating IUU fishing. It will be found that the international legal instruments and agreements on the use of the sea have afforded rights and powers to coastal states to protect their sea zones, but it will remains the responsibility of each coastal state to determine how it will use these rights and powers to protect its own sea zones. Further it will be shown that South Africa has the necessary legislative measures in place to protect its fish resources, but the problem lies with the implementation of those measures Australia does not only rely on its legislation to stop IUU fishing, but it also uses external methods, that South Africa will have to consider.
LLM (Import and export Law), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

As a highly targeted species, red snapper have been overfished since the 1970’s. Inadequate monitoring and reporting of discard rates impedes regulatory measures which are in place to allow red snapper populations to reach a healthy, sustainable level. This study documented the relationship between morphometric measurements and otolith analysis of red snapper caught from a recreational headboat fishing exclusively in the GOM’s EEZ of the upper Texas coast. The collected data of this research show that of the 594 red snapper caught within the sample group, 76% of the fish were discarded; analysis of the lengths of these discarded fish show that 15.5% were of regulation size (16 inches) or larger, clear evidence that high-grading is occurring. The effort for the total amount of red snapper caught by each individual angler within the sample group was measured to determine on average, approximately two red snapper were caught per person, per hour. The size distribution ranged from 16 to 32 inches with a mean total length of 21.32 inches for retained fish while discarded fish ranged from 5.5 to 22.5 inches with a mean of 14.23. Weight distribution ranged from 1.5 to 18.5 pounds with a mean of 5.81 pounds for retained fish and 0.20 to 6 pounds with a mean of 1.57 pounds for discarded fish. Age distribution ranged from 3 to 14 years of age; red snapper can live over 50 years, however relatively none (2.42%) older than 10 years were present in the sample, demonstrating a highly truncated population. Because fecundancy increases with age in females, longevity extends reproduction potential for red snapper. Management of reef fishes, and red snapper in particular, are difficult due to variances in growth rates and habitat use, complex population structure, and increasing reproduction levels with maturity. Recommendations for management include implementing an educational outreach program, reducing effort and discard rates, lowing rates of exploitation, and creating a marine reserve. Future research should address the entire Texas coast population of for-hire vessels (charter and headboats) to obtain data on discard rates and age distribution of red snapper.

碩士
國立中山大學
海洋事務研究所
96
Since the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) became effective in 1994, many coastal countries have claimed the area within 200 nautical miles as their exclusive economic maritime space in succession. Taiwan promulgated the “Convention for the Territorial Sea and the Contiguous Zone” and “Exclusive Economic Zone and Continental Shelf Law” on January 21, 1998, and claimed the sea area within 200 nautical miles as the exclusive economic zone. However, this has overlapped with countries such as Japan, Philippines, and China, In addition to the rigorous cross-strait situation that leads to impossibility of negotiating the boundary, and the diplomatic predicament for Taiwan to deal with Japan and Philippines under the pressure from China. These have made Taiwan for not being able to negotiate the delimitation line according to the codes as stated in Article 74 of the UNCLOS,and stranded in sovereign rights to claim and maintain the exclusive economic zone. Thus, Taiwan has not been able to announce the delimitation line of its exclusive economic zone. 　　The northern area of Taiwan to the East Sea and the Diaoyutai Archipelago of the northeast Taiwan have involved the disputes of overlapping maritime space, and the controversy in the territorial sovereignty. As a result of there disputes, the problem is worsen and complicated further along with the problems of fishing rights between Taiwan and Japan. The incidence of fishing boats of Taiwan expelled by Japan vessels in Diaoyutai had made the fishermen in furious about the situation and condemnation of their government for not protecting the rights of the fisher. However, the overlapping exclusive economic zone and inability to negotiate the delimitation line, Taiwan is unable to maintain its fishing rights as a nation. 　　To solve this problem, the government had established the first “temporary enforcement line” for the exclusive economic zone based on “equitable principle” on November 7, 2003. This is to provide a safe fishing ground for Taiwanese fishermen and to gain a jurisdiction on maritime authorities. Japan also delimited the “middle line” in the overlapping sea area of Daioyutai based on the “equidistance principle”. The delimitation by Japan and Taiwan was not yet verified by both countries. These are only claimed under our own stands. The announcement of the “temporary enforcement line” has solved some problems, although disputes still exist. In dispites of this, there were occurrences of confrontation between both parties. Fortunately there are no major conflicts as a result of self-control manner. This study present that there are practical problems which need to be solved even after the establishment of the “temporary enforcement line”, although these should be dealt with according to the UNCLOS and faces stringent diplomatic predicament. It is very difficult to negotiate and solve the delimitation problem at present time. However, given more time with clear objectives and endless efforts, there would be hopes in resolving the problem of maritime rights in the future.

碩士
國立政治大學
國家安全與大陸研究碩士在職專班
107
In order to respond to territorial sovereignty and conflicts of sea rights from the outside and internal security issues such as armed conflict and terrorism, the Republic of the Philippines actively seeks maritime cooperation with the United States, Japan, China, Russia and South Korea and acquires equipment such as boats, aircraft, weapons and ammunition by purchasing or lending from those countries so that the Republic of the Philippines can enhance its maritime and air cruise energy and strengthen maritime law enforcement and national defense security effectiveness. Because the Republic of China is geographically close to the Republic of the Philippines, the exclusive economic zone advocated by the two sides overlaps; this leads to continual disputes over sea rights and affects the rights of fishermen in the Republic of China. In order to establish its claim, the Philippines further adopted the Archipelago Baseline Act. and officially put the Karajan Islands into national jurisdiction which conflicts with the Republic of China South China Sea claims. The sovereignty dispute in the Spratly Islands arises. The move that the Republic of the Philippines revises domestic law and enhances national defense security capability has caused protests from China, China, Vietnam, Malaysia, Brunei and other neighboring countries. Sovereignty, fishing rights and regional security also arises.

Territorial Disputes in South China Sea Abstract This diploma thesis deals with territorial disputes in the South China Sea and its participants. The aim of the thesis is to describe legal titles of all participants of the dispute and analyse their claims for areas in the South China Sea. The reason of the territorial dispute is based on the proximity of countries and the fact that the South China Sea contains a number of features that are claimed by surrounding countries whose claims exclude. Moreover, one of the participants - China, claims nearly 90% of the whole area. The thesis also describes provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea that are significant for the territorial dispute, as well as, means of the conflict solutions of the dispute provided in the Convention. The Philippines as one of the participants of the dispute decided to initiate arbitrary trial in order to find amicable settlement. The arbitrary tribunal ruled in favour of the Philippines in that matter, however as final chapter provides, China decided to ignore the arbitrary award and continues to supress other countries. Thus, an amicable solution of the dispute seems very unlikely in the near future. Key words South China Sea, exclusive economic zone, territorial dispute

碩士
長榮大學
高階管理碩士在職專班(EMBA)
96
Taiwan, surrounded by sea, adjoins the waters of neighboring countries with great overlaps in Exclusive Economic Zone. Since it’s failed to negotiate with other countries to define the line, disputes on sea then occurred unceasingly. Taiwan’s fishing vessels operate in the Exclusive Economic Zone claimed by Japan frequently suffer monitoring, expelling, or detaining. With discontentedness accumulated for a long time, fishermen petition the government for fishing protection to guarantee their fishing rights in Taiwan-Japan overlapping waters. This study attempts to collect project-stakeholders’ opinions from their viewpoints to formulate fishing protection policy and therefore promote fishing protection efficiency. As for problems concerning politics, sovereignty, geography, economy, and fishery resource are not within the research scope herein. Therefore, this study intends to: (1) promote fishing protection efficiency through drafting fishing protection action countermeasures based on the analysis of project-stakeholders’ viewpoints, and (2) establish the model of fishing protection countermeasures formulation for associated units to follow and institute fishing protection countermeasures applied in different economic waters to indeed achieve the efficiency of fishing protection. “Fishing Protection Action Countermeasures Formulation Model (Exhibit 3-1 & Schedule 3-1)” established herein has been successfully organized and arranged to “Conclusions of Important Fishing Protection Action Countermeasures (as Schedule 5-1),” and therefore the usability of this model is verified. With the operation of Fishing Protection Action Countermeasures Formulation Model (Exhibit 3-1 & Schedule 3-1), fishing protection units can afterwards refer to the “Fishing Protection Action Countermeasures Formulation Model” of significant value while formulating and planning fishing protection action countermeasures implemented in any other waters. In conclusion, “Fishing Protection Action Countermeasures Formulation Model (Exhibit 3-1 & Schedule 3-1)” established herein is only the initial outcome. In the light of the complete of entire fishing protection action countermeasures and planning model, circulation model of continuous improvement as shown in Exhibit 5-1 is hereby suggested as the direction to improve fishing protection action countermeasures formulation model in the next phase.

A presente dissertação de Mestrado, intitulada “Forçamento atmosférico de larga escala do clima de agitação marítima na Zona Económica Exclusiva portuguesa”, pretende estudar a relação entre o clima de agitação marítima na Zona Económica Exclusiva portuguesa (ZEE) e a circulação atmosférica de larga escala. Com recurso aos dados de observações de agitação marítima de boias ondógrafo, disponibilizados pelo Instituto Hidrográfico da Marinha, para período de 1990 a 2012, é efetuada uma primeira análise do clima de agitação marítima junto à costa de Portugal Continental (ao largo de Leixões, Sines e Faro), e a sua relação com o forçamento atmosférico de larga escala, representado pelo índice da oscilação do Altântico Norte (North Atlantic Oscillation – NAO). Posteriormente, é estudado o clima de ondas em toda a ZEE Portuguesa, com utilização de dados de reanálise de ondas (ERA-Interim), no período de 1979 a 2010. É demonstrado que, na ZEE portuguesa, o clima de agitação marítima é influenciado pela circulação atmosférica de larga escala, e que que a NAO exerce mais influência no clima de agitação marítima nos meses de inverno do que nos meses de verão. Os resultados obtidos a partir dos dados das boias permitem concluir que os valores médios dos parâmetros mais representativos da agitação marítima (altura significativa, período médio, período de pico e direcção média de propagação) no regime NAO positivo são, de um modo geral, superiores e de setores mais de Norte relativamente aos encontrados no regime NAO negativo. No inverno, estes valores são mais elevados nos períodos de regime NAO positivo, e mais baixos nos períodos de regime NAO negativo. Por outro lado, no verão, são mais elevados nos períodos de regime NAO negativo, e mais baixos nos períodos de regime NAO positivo. Relativamente à variabilidade dos parâmetros, verifica-se que é mais elevada nos meses de Outono e Inverno, e é tanto maior quanto maior for a latitude. Os valores extremos dos parâmetros são mais elevados à medida que a latitude vai aumentando, atingindo o seu máximo nos meses de inverno. Por outro lado, quando a latitude é mais baixa, os valores extremos deixam de estar associados a regime NAO positivo, passando a estar associados a regime NAO negativo. Os dados da reanálise permitem concluir que, a NAO exerce mais influência no clima de agitação marítima no inverno do que no verão. No inverno, os valores dos parâmetros são em média superiores em períodos de regime NAO positivo, e inferiores em regime NAO negativo. Nos meses de verão, a influência da NAO não é tão perceptível.
This thesis, entitled “Large scale atmospheric forcing of the wave climate at the Portuguese Exclusive Economic Zone” studies the relationship between the wave climate at the Portuguese Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), and the large scale atmospheric circulation. Using data from buoy observations, available at the portuguese Navy’s Hidrographic Institute, from 1990 to 2012, a first analysis of the wave climate near the continental Portuguese coast (offshore Leixões, Sines and Faro) and its relationship with the large scale atmospheric forcing, represented by the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) index, is carried on. Then, the wave climate is studied in the all Portuguese EEZ, with the use of wave reanalysis data (ERA-Interim), from 1979 to 2010. It is shown that, in the Portuguese EEZ, the wave climate is affected by the large scale atmospheric circulation, and that NAO is more influent in the wave climate during the winter months, rather than in the summer. The results from buoys allow us to conclude that mean values, from the most representative wave parameters (significant wave height, mean period, peak period and mean wave direction), at a positive NAO phase, are generally higher and from northern sectors, comparatively to the ones found at a negative NAO phase. In the winter, these values are higher at the positive NAO phase and lower during the negative NAO phase. In the summer, they are usually higher during the negative NAO phase and lower during positive NAO phase. In what respects to wave parameters variability, it is shown that it is greater during autumn and winter, and increases when the latitude is superior. Regarding extreme values these are higher when the latitude increases and peak in the winter. On the other hand, when at low latitude, the extreme values are no longer associated to a positive NAO phase, being associated to a negative NAO phase. The results from reanalysis data allowed us to conclude that NAO is more influent during winter months, rather than during the summer. Still, in the winter, parameters values are, on average, higher during positive NAO phase, and lower during negative NAO phase. In the summer, NAO influence is not so much perceptible.

Dissertação apresentada como requisito parcial para obtenção do grau de Mestre em Ciência e Sistemas de Informação Geográfica
A exploração dos recursos vivos e não vivos no mar tem vindo a aumentar de ano para ano, não só devido às tecnologias emergentes, como também ao crescente interesse por parte das sociedades pelo litoral. Na verdade, são cerca de 140 milhões de milhas náuticas quadradas de mar que cobrem o Planeta Terra, o que corresponde a mais de 70% da sua superfície disponível para exploração. Assim, se justifica o grande interesse internacional em criar regras universais de conduta no mar, originando a Lei Internacional do Mar. Após ter passado por várias fases de desenvolvimento, a actual lei incide sobre os direitos e deveres do cada Estado em relação aos mares e oceanos. O principal objectivo deste projecto é identificar os países e quantificar as áreas incluídas nos seus limites marítimos, obtendo-se assim, com o auxílio de Sistemas de Informação Geográfica, uma estimativa de valores e um ranking das áreas do Mar Territorial e da Zona Económica Exclusiva para cada um dos países. De acordo com os dados obtidos, Portugal (incluindo as ilhas) apresenta uma área de Mar Territorial de 44.531km2 encontrando-se na 42ª posição. Em relação à ZEE nacional, esta conta com 1.680.339km2 ficando Portugal na 19ª posição.

The purpose of this dissertation is to demonstrate a new empirical and systemic geopolitical approach to the study of the ongoing territorial dispute in the Arctic resulting from the desire of two nation states, Denmark and Russia, to extend their own northernmost limits of the Exclusive Economic Zone to the central part of the Arctic Ocean. This approach combines geographic, legal and political analytical perspectives with quantitative research design to produce an inter-disciplinary study. Empirical evidence on the long-term socio-geographic development in the region (1993-2013) is provided together with information on particular territorial gains and losses for all decision-makers that arise in a number of potential scenarios (options). Variation in each decision-maker's aggregate national socio-geographic resource, as implied by particular territorial modifications in the central part of the Arctic Ocean, serves as a basis for derivation of nontrivial payoffs on each option in the dispute. These payoffs are introduced into a three-player graph model for conflict resolution (Denmark, Russia, and the World) and stable dispute solutions are suggested on the basis of different combinations of decision-makers' strategies, whose optimality is evaluated as well. Finally, alternative scenarios of...

Este projecto de dissertação de doutoramento em Políticas Públicas tem como título ― A importância das ilhas no quadro das políticas e do direito do mar – o caso das Selvagens‖ e está assim dedicado ao estudo das políticas públicas e do enquadramento jurídico aplicável a esta temática, numa dupla perspectiva: por um lado, comprender e explicar o nascimento e a evolução de um regime próprio das ilhas em geral na política e no direito internacional, através da distinção do seu regime com o de outros espaços marítimos; por outro, sendo que este é o principal foco de investigação, examinar a situação política e jurídico-geográfica das ―Ilhas Selvagens‖ portuguesas, tanto no âmbito das políticas públicas, como no do Direito português e do Direito Internacional em geral, essencialmente no que diz respeito às relações diplomáticas bilaterais entre Portugal e Espanha. As ilhas Selvagens, ou o arquipélago das Selvagens, conforme a opção que façamos relativamente à sua designação, encontram-se localizadas no Oceano Atlântico, entre a ilha da Madeira e as Canárias, sendo que, de um ponto de vista geográfico, estão fisicamente mais próximas do arquipélago das Canárias. Esse facto, isto é, a maior proximidade geográfica entre as Selvagens e a ilha espanhola de Tenerife, nas Ilhas Canárias, tem vindo a suscitar, pelo menos desde o início do último século XX, por parte de Espanha, dúvidas sobre a titularidade da soberania sobre o referido arquipélago. Ainda que a Comissão de Direito Marítimo Internacional (CDMI), em documento oficial datado de 1938, tenha rejeitado a importância da proximidade geográfica para fins de atribuição da soberania sobre as referidas ilhas, é, todavia, uma realidade que, desde há vários anos, têm ocorrido vários incidentes diplomáticos entre os dois países ibéricos - Portugal e Espanha-, em virtude da existência de violações de águas territoriais portuguesas por parte de barcos de pesca espanhóis ou mesmo de aviões da Força Aérea de Espanha. A pretensão territorial de Espanha relativamente às ilhas Selvagens é oficialmente datada de 1911, ano em que foi enviada uma nota diplomática espanhola a Portugal precisamente nesse sentido. Espanha, na mesma, considera que as Selvagens fazem parte do arquipélago das Canárias. Portugal, refutando tal tese, e também em documento oficial, informou a Espanha da sua soberania sobre as ilhas. A importância das Ilhas Selvagens é grande para os dois países ibéricos em sede de qualificação jurídica internacional do arquipélago, da delimitação dos espaços marinhos de soberania económica, particularmente a questão da actual Zona Económica Exclusiva de 200 milhas e das riquezas existentes nas referidas águas. Mas, também, ao longo da história, em questões de defesa militar, dos compromissos da NATO, entre outros. Esta é uma matéria relativamente à qual não foi encontrada, até ao momento, uma solução uma vez que, por causa das Selvagens, persistem problemas de harmonização de Direito Internacional relativamente à Zona Económica Exclusiva de Portugal e a ZEE de Espanha.
This draft of a doctoral dissertation in Public Policies holds the following title: "The importance of the islands under the international policy context and the international law of the sea - the case of the ―Ilhas Selvagens‖" and thus it is focused on the study of public policy and also on the legal framework applicable to this subject, and this in a dual perspective: on one hand, in order to understand and to explain the birth and evolution of a separate regime of islands in general in politics and under the international law, through the peculiarity of its regime regarding to the general regime of others maritime areas; and in the other hand to discern the political, legal and geographic situation of the Portuguese islands (Ilhas Selvagens) under the Portuguese Legal Framework and the international law in general, particularly on the diplomatic relationships set between Portugal and Spain. This is the main goal on the present work. The ―Ilhas Selvagens‖, or the Selvagens archipelago, according our choice of naming them, are located on the Atlantic Ocean, among the Portuguese Island of Madeira and the Spanish islands Canarias, regarding to whom they are physically nearer. This fact, I mean the closest distance between Selvagens and the Spanish island of Tenerife, brought, since the early years of the last century, by Spain, doubts as to ownership and sovereignty of that archipelago. Even though the Committee of Maritime International law (CDMI) denied in a document from 1938, the importance of the geographic nearby between islands as a criteria to set the sovereignty over the mentioned islands, it is indeed a reality that some diplomatic incidents have had place between the two countries – Portugal and Spain- caused by the breaches to the Portuguese territorial waters by Spanish fishing ships and also by the Spanish Air Force planes. The territorial claims of Spain on the Ilhas Selvagens is officially dated 1911, the year it was sent a Spanish diplomatic message to this purpose. Still, Spain understands that Selvagens remain as part of the Spanish archipelago, the Canarias. By the contrary, Portugal, refuting this thesis, and also in an official document, informed Spain of its sovereignty over the islands. Ilhas Selvagens holds a great importance to both Iberian countries concerning its legal international qualification as an archipelago, the delimitation of maritime zones‘ and in particular the issue of the current exclusive economic zone of the 200 miles and the riches that exist in those waters. But also, regarding history, in matters of military defense, in NATO commitments, among others, it‘s great the importance of Ilhas Selvagens. This is a subject which solution has not been found so far once, because of the Selvagens, some problems on international legal harmonization still persist regarding the Exclusive Economic Zone (E.E.Z.) of Portugal and Spain.

Energy security is an important phenomenon of the contemporary world. A significant number of oil and gas reserves are located on the seabed. Expansion of oil and gas drilling to deeper and from shore more remote locations can again raise the question of ownership of these deposits. On one hand, there are regions of the world where these disputes over borders of maritime territories escalate into a series of clashes and incidents. On the other hand, there are other areas where states can settle their disputes and cooperate on drilling. The goal of this study is to determine which factors lead to the fact that particularly in the South China Sea disagreement about the boundaries of maritime territories results in the escalation of disputes in comparison with the regions of the North Sea and the Caribbean Sea, where disputes are solved or minimized. These factors are represented by six variables, which are based on three theories: a realist, idealist and constructivist theory of international relations. The first part of this study describes the historical development of current international maritime law with regard to the territorial division of the world's oceans. It is followed by a description of three case areas. The second part deals with the theoretical foundations of the examined factors. In...