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1
Flynn, Lauren, Tess Kreofsky, and Adam Sepulveda. "Introduced American Bullfrog Distribution and Diets in Grand Teton National Park." UW National Parks Service Research Station Annual Reports 38 (January 1, 2015): 17–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.13001/uwnpsrc.2015.4081.
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Introduced American Bullfrogs (Lithobates catesbeianus) have been present in Grand Teton National Park since approximately the 1950s, but little is known about their distribution and potential impacts. In this study, we surveyed the current bullfrog distribution and spatial overlap with sympatric native amphibians in the park, and characterized post-metamorphic bullfrog diets from July â September 2015. Despite surveys in multiple large rivers and floodplain habitats, we only documented bullfrogs in a geothermal pond and 5 km of stream channel immediately downstream of this pond. In these waters, bullfrogs overlapped with native amphibians at the downstream end of their distribution, and we did not document native amphibians in bullfrog stomach contents. Larger bullfrogs (SVL ⥠96 mm) primarily consumed native rodents (especially meadow voles, Microtus pennsylvanicus), while smaller bullfrogs frequently consumed native invertebrates and less frequently consumed non-native invertebrates and fish. Taken together, these data indicate that the distribution and implications of the bullfrog invasion in Grand Teton National Park are currently localized to a small area, so these bullfrogs should therefore be vulnerable to eradication.
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Kamoroff, Colleen, Ninette Daniele, Robert L. Grasso, Rebecca Rising, Travis Espinoza, and Caren S. Goldberg. "Effective removal of the American bullfrog (Lithobates catesbeianus) on a landscape level: long term monitoring and removal efforts in Yosemite Valley, Yosemite National Park." Biological Invasions 22, no. 2 (October 22, 2019): 617–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10530-019-02116-4.
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Abstract Invasive alien species are a major threat to freshwater ecosystems, and American bullfrogs are among the world’s 100 most prominent aquatic invasive species causing negative direct and indirect effect on native aquatic fauna worldwide. Bullfrogs were intentionally introduced into Yosemite Valley, Yosemite National Park in the 1950s where they became well established in the subsequent years. Starting in 2005, the National Park Service (NPS) began bullfrog removal, targeting various life stages using hand, net, and spear techniques. Starting in 2015, the NPS conducted environmental DNA (eDNA) surveys and deployed audio recordings devices to ensure adequate detection of bullfrogs. During the first year of cencerted effort in the Valley in 2005, the NPS removed 86% of all recorded bullfrog. The subsequent decade was spent searching for individuals with lower return on effort. In 2012, the NPS removed the last observed signs of bullfrog breeding, and the last observed bullfrog in 2019. Following removal of the breeding bullfrog population, the NPS began restoration projects for species of special concern. The NPS introduced the federally threatened California red-legged frogs (Rana draytonii) into Yosemite Valley beginning in 2016. This is the first published successful eradication of bullfrogs on a landscape level. National Parks and Monuments often provide refuges for imperiled wildlife and should be managed to remove invasive species. Our work highlights effective bullfrog removal is obtainable and can lead to local recovery of endangered species.
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Boelter, Ruben A., Igor L. Kaefer, Camila Both, and Sonia Cechin. "Invasive bullfrogs as predators in a Neotropical assemblage: What frog species do they eat?" Animal Biology 62, no. 4 (2012): 397–408. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/157075612x634111.
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Anurans are important prey for the American bullfrog Lithobates catesbeianus, but field assessments of its diet in the context of a local prey assemblage are lacking. We aimed to identify the frog species consumed by an invasive bullfrog population in subtropical South America, and to assess their relative importance among other types of prey. Characterization of the frog assemblage in the study area also allowed us to calculate the degree of electivity of the recorded anuran prey, in order to gain insight regarding bullfrog feeding preferences and to test if the bullfrog prey composition differed from a random sample of the assemblage. A total of 32.6% of the bullfrogs had at least one anuran in the stomach contents, and post-metamorphic anurans represented 49.1% of the relative prey importance for adult bullfrogs. Anurans were preyed on by all size classes, and constituted the volumetrically most important prey category in the diet of individuals heavier than 100 g. Cycloramphidae, Hylidae and Leiuperidae were positively selected, and Hypsiboas pulchellus and Physalaemus cuvieri were the species most often taken. We found a low occurrence of cannibalism, despite the high density of bullfrogs at the study site. Our results showed that the degree of electivity differed among bullfrog prey types, suggesting that some frog species may be preyed on in a higher proportion than their relative abundance in the assemblage. Testing the clues provided by this assemblage-level approach may lead to a better assessment of the interactions between bullfrogs and the native frog fauna.
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Sugiura, Shinji, and Tomoki Date. "Bombardier beetles repel invasive bullfrogs." PeerJ 10 (September 15, 2022): e13805. http://dx.doi.org/10.7717/peerj.13805.
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Invasive non-native predators negatively affect native species; however, some native species can survive the predation pressures of invasive species by using pre-existing antipredator strategies or evolving defenses against invasive predators. The American bullfrog Lithobates catesbeianus (Anura: Ranidae) has been intentionally introduced to many countries and regions, and has impacted native animals through direct predation. Bombardier beetles (Coleoptera: Carabidae: Brachininae: Brachinini) discharge chemicals at a temperature of approximately 100 °C from the tip of the abdomen when they are attacked by predators. This “bombing” can successfully repel predators. However, adults of a native bombardier beetle Pheropsophus (Stenaptinus) occipitalis jessoensis have been reportedly found in the gut contents of the introduced bullfrog L. catesbeianus in Japan. These records suggest that the invasive bullfrog L. catesbeianus attacks the native bombardier beetle P. occipitalis jessoensis under field conditions in Japan; however, the effectiveness of the bombing defense against invasive bullfrogs is unclear. To test the effectiveness of the bombing defense against bullfrogs, we investigated the behavioral responses of L. catesbeianus juveniles to P. occipitalis jessoensis adults under laboratory conditions. Contrary to previous gut content results, almost all the bullfrogs (96.3%) rejected bombardier beetles before swallowing them; 88.9% rejected the beetles after being bombed, and 7.4% stopped attacking the beetles before being bombed. Only 3.7% successfully swallowed and digested the beetle. All of the beetles collected from non-bullfrog-invaded sites could deter bullfrogs, suggesting that the pre-existing defenses of bombardier beetles played an essential role in repelling bullfrogs. When treated beetles that were unable to discharge hot chemicals were provided, 77.8% of bullfrogs successfully swallowed and digested the treated beetles. These results indicate that bombing is important for the successful defense of P. occipitalis jessoensis against invasive bullfrogs. Although invasive bullfrogs have reportedly impacted native insect species, P. occipitalis jessoensis has an existing defense mechanism strong enough to repel the invasive predators.
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Courtois, Daniel, Raymond Leclair jr., Sylvain Lacasse, and Pierre Magnan. "Habitats préférentiels d'amphibiens ranidés dans des lacs oligotrophes du Bouclier laurentien, Québec." Canadian Journal of Zoology 73, no. 9 (September 1, 1995): 1744–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/z95-206.
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From a study of riparian habitat structure and a quantitive distribution survey of bullfrog, Rana catesbeiana, mink frog, Rana septentrionalis, and green frog, Rana clamitans melanota, in 31 oligotrophic lakes, we looked for, among 18 physiographic parameters, those that could best explain the spatial organisation of the ranid community. The three species cohabitated in 18 lakes, the mink frog and the green frog in 10 lakes without bullfrog, and the bullfrog alone in 3 lakes. These frogs preferentially occupied (i) habitats with medium or high density of emergent vegetation, (ii) areas with extensive floating aquatic vegetation, (iii) muddy and silty areas, and (iv) especially for the green frog, shrubby habitats with ericaceae. Substrates had a poor explicative value. In lakes devoid of bullfrogs, the mink frogs and green frogs were more frequently abundant and showed a more even distribution in the different habitats than when they were sympatric with bullfrogs. A Spearman's rank correlation analysis confirmed the similarity of habitat preferences between the three species and the poor capacity of the habitat structure to predict the ranid community composition.
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Tasker, Bailey R., Karli N. Honebein, Allie M. Erickson, Julia E. Misslin, Paul Hurst, Sarah Cooney, Skylar Riley, Scott A. Griffith, and Betsy A. Bancroft. "Effects of elevated temperature, reduced hydroperiod, and invasive bullfrog larvae on pacific chorus frog larvae." PLOS ONE 17, no. 3 (March 15, 2022): e0265345. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0265345.
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Climate change and invasive species threaten many ecosystems, including surface freshwater systems. Increasing temperatures and reduced hydroperiod due to climate change may promote the persistence of invasive species and facilitate new invasions due to potentially higher tolerance to environmental stress in successful invaders. Amphibians demonstrate high levels of plasticity in life history characteristics, particularly those species which inhabit both ephemeral and permanent water bodies. We tested the influence of two projected effects of climate change (increased temperature and reduced hydroperiod) on Pacific chorus frog (Pseudacris regilla) tadpoles alone and in combination with the presence of tadpoles of a wide-spread invasive amphibian, the American bullfrog (Lithobates catesbeianus). Specifically, we explored the effects of projected climate change and invasion on survival, growth, mass at stage 42, and development rate of Pacific chorus frogs. Direct and indirect interactions between the invasive tadpole and the native tadpole were controlled via a cage treatment and were included to account for differences in presence of the bullfrog compared to competition for food resources and other direct effects. Overall, bullfrogs had larger negative effects on Pacific chorus frogs than climate conditions. Under future climate conditions, Pacific chorus frogs developed faster and emerged heavier. Pacific chorus frog tadpoles developing in the presence of American bullfrogs, regardless of cage treatment, emerged lighter. When future climate conditions and presence of invasive American bullfrog tadpoles were combined, tadpoles grew less. However, no interaction was detected between climate conditions and bullfrog presence for mass, suggesting that tadpoles allocated energy towards mass rather than length under the combined stress treatment. The maintenance of overall body condition (smaller but heavier metamorphs) when future climate conditions overlap with bullfrog presence suggests that Pacific chorus frogs may be partially compensating for the negative effects of bullfrogs via increased allocation of energy towards mass. Strong plasticity, as demonstrated by Pacific chorus frog larvae in our study, may allow species to match the demands of new environments, including under future climate change.
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Li, Yiming, Zhunwei Ke, Yihua Wang, and Tim M. Blackburn. "Frog community responses to recent American bullfrog invasions." Current Zoology 57, no. 1 (February 1, 2011): 83–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/czoolo/57.1.83.
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Abstract Native species may decline quickly when confronted with an exotic species to which they are not adapted. The extent of decline may depend on the abundance of an invader and the length of time since it first arrived in the community (residence time), and the interaction between these two variables. We tested these effects using data on the effects of American bullfrog Lithobates catesbeianus invasion on native frog communities in 65 permanent lentic waters on islands in the Zhoushan Archipelago, China. We examined variation in native frog abundance and species richness in relation to features of the American bullfrog invasion, habitat disturbance, characteristics of the water body and fish communities and the presence of red swamp crayfish. Bullfrog invaded sites had lower native frog density and species richness, higher submerged vegetation cover and greater frequency of repairs to the water body than did non-invaded sites. The minimum adequate general linear mixed models showed that both native frog density and species richness were negatively related to post-metamorphosis bullfrog density, and that native frog species richness was also positively related to the vegetation cover. There was no effect on either native frog density or species richness of residence time or its interaction with bullfrog density, or of the abundance of bullfrog tadpoles. The results suggested that post-metamorphosis bullfrogs had impacts on native frog communities in the islands, and that the extents of these impacts are proportional to post-metamorphosis bullfrog density.
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MEDEIROS, CAMILA I., CAMILA BOTH, IGOR L. KAEFER, and SONIA Z. CECHIN. "Reproductive phenology of the American Bullfrog in subtropical Brazil: photoperiod as a main determinant of seasonal activity." Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciências 88, no. 3 suppl (July 11, 2016): 1909–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/0001-3765201620150694.
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ABSTRACT The North American bullfrog Lithobates catesbeianus continues to invade ecosystems worldwide, potentially causing population declines and even extinctions. Within its native distribution, bullfrogs show prolonged reproductive seasons and high fertility. However, data on breeding biology of bullfrogs ex-situ in invaded localities mainly comes from anecdotal reports. Understanding how invasive species are adjusting their life histories to new colonized environments is important for conservation purposes. Here we describe temporal and spatial abundance, calling activity, spawning and tadpole distribution of bullfrogs in southern Brazil. Eighteen samplings occurred during one year. The abundance of individuals was positively related to longer photoperiods and higher temperatures. Reproductive activity was also positively associated with longer photoperiods. Calling sites, spawning and tadpoles were associated with microhabitats presenting hydrophytes, which may provide shelter and thermal stability to bullfrogs. The reproductive seasonal activity of bullfrogs can be highly variable across its growing geographical range, but in subtropical Brazil it is associated with photoperiod, a highly predictable abiotic determinant. In our study area, bullfrogs presented a breeding season twice as long as that observed in some native localities. We suggest that management strategies directed to bullfrog populations must consider the habitat structures and seasonal regimes determined by each invaded environment.
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Li, Fulong, Baipeng Chen, Ming Xu, Yang Feng, Yongqiang Deng, Xiaoli Huang, Yi Geng, Ping Ouyang, and Defang Chen. "Immune Activation and Inflammatory Response Mediated by the NOD/Toll-like Receptor Signaling Pathway—The Potential Mechanism of Bullfrog (Lithobates catesbeiana) Meningitis Caused by Elizabethkingia miricola." International Journal of Molecular Sciences 24, no. 19 (September 26, 2023): 14554. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms241914554.
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Elizabethkingia miricola is an emerging opportunistic pathogen that is highly pathogenic in both immunocompromised humans and animals. Once the disease occurs, treatment can be very difficult. Therefore, a deep understanding of the pathological mechanism of Elizabethkingia miricola is the key to the prevention and control of the disease. In this study, we isolated the pathogenic bacteria from bullfrogs with dark skin color, weak limbs, wryneck, and cataracts. Via subsequent morphological observations and a 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis, the pathogen was identified as Elizabethkingia miricola. The histopathological and transmission electron microscopy analysis revealed that the brain was the main target organ. Therefore, brain samples from diseased and healthy bullfrogs were used for the RNA-Seq analysis. The comparative transcriptome analysis revealed that the diseased bullfrog brain was characterized by the immune activation and inflammatory response, which were mediated by the “NOD-like receptor signaling pathway” and the “Toll-like receptor signaling pathway”. We also performed qRT-PCR to examine the expression profile of inflammation-related genes, which further verified the reliability of our transcriptome data. Based on the above results, it was concluded that the NOD/Toll-like receptor-related networks that dominate the immune activation and inflammatory response were activated in the brain of Elizabethkingia miricola-infected bullfrogs. This study contributes to the search for therapeutic targets for bullfrog meningitis and provides basic information for establishing effective measures to prevent and control bullfrog meningitis.
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Takahashi, N., S. Kikuyama, K. Gen, O. Maruyama, and Y. Kato. "Cloning of a bullfrog growth hormone cDNA: expression of growth hormone mRNA in larval and adult bullfrog pituitaries." Journal of Molecular Endocrinology 9, no. 3 (December 1992): 283–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1677/jme.0.0090283.
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ABSTRACT A GH cDNA was specifically amplified from cDNAs constructed from total RNA of bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana) adenohypophyses employing the DNA polymerase chain reaction. Sequencing analysis revealed that the cDNA clone thus obtained was 654 bp in length, and included an open reading frame encoding the entire sequence of mature GH, with its signal peptide. Slight discrepancies were noted between the deduced amino acid sequence and that determined by direct protein sequencing of purified bullfrog GH or that deduced from the nucleotide sequence reported previously. The length of the bullfrog GH mRNA was estimated to be about 1·2 kb by Northern blot analysis. Homologies of nucleotide and amino acid sequences between GH and prolactin of bullfrog origin were 48% and 26% respectively. Using the cDNA as a probe, the content of GH mRNA in the pituitary of larval and adult bullfrogs was measured. GH mRNA levels were relatively low at the preclimax stage, and rose markedly during climax. In juvenile frogs, GH mRNA levels in the pituitary were extremely high and declined towards adulthood. This finding suggests that the increase in plasma and pituitary GH levels reported previously accompanies the increase in GH synthesis.
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Yaoi, Yuichi, Masakazu Suzuki, Hideaki Tomura, Yuichi Sasayama, Sakae Kikuyama, and Shigeyasu Tanaka. "Molecular Cloning of Otoconin-22 Complementary Deoxyribonucleic Acid in the Bullfrog Endolymphatic Sac: Effect of Calcitonin on Otoconin-22 Messenger Ribonucleic Acid Levels." Endocrinology 144, no. 8 (August 1, 2003): 3287–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/en.2002-0181.
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Abstract Anuran amphibians have a special organ called the endolymphatic sac (ELS), containing many calcium carbonate crystals, which is believed to have a calcium storage function. The major protein of aragonitic otoconia, otoconin-22, which is considered to be involved in the formation of calcium carbonate crystals, has been purified from the saccule of the Xenopus inner ear. In this study, we cloned a cDNA encoding otoconin-22 from the cDNA library constructed for the paravertebral lime sac (PVLS) of the bullfrog, Rana catesbeiana, and sequenced it. The bullfrog otoconin-22 encoded a protein consisting of 147 amino acids, including a signal peptide of 20 amino acids. The protein had cysteine residues identical in a number and position to those conserved among the secretory phospholipase A2 family. The mRNA of bullfrog otoconin-22 was expressed in the ELS, including the PVLS and inner ear. This study also revealed the presence of calcitonin receptor-like protein in the ELS, with the putative seven-transmembrane domains of the G protein-coupled receptors. The ultimobranchialectomy induced a prominent decrease in the otoconin-22 mRNA levels of the bullfrog PVLS. Supplementation of the ultimobranchialectomized bullfrogs with synthetic salmon calcitonin elicited a significant increase in the mRNA levels of the sac. These findings suggest that calcitonin secreted from the ultimobranchial gland, regulates expression of bullfrog otoconin-22 mRNA via calcitonin receptor-like protein on the ELS, thereby stimulating the formation of calcium carbonate crystals in the lumen of the ELS.
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Garner, Trenton W. J., Matthew W. Perkins, Purnima Govindarajulu, Daniele Seglie, Susan Walker, Andrew A. Cunningham, and Matthew C. Fisher. "The emerging amphibian pathogen Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis globally infects introduced populations of the North American bullfrog, Rana catesbeiana." Biology Letters 2, no. 3 (May 24, 2006): 455–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2006.0494.
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Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis is the chytridiomycete fungus which has been implicated in global amphibian declines and numerous species extinctions. Here, we show that introduced North American bullfrogs ( Rana catesbeiana ) consistently carry this emerging pathogenic fungus. We detected infections by this fungus on introduced bullfrogs from seven of eight countries using both PCR and microscopic techniques. Only native bullfrogs from eastern Canada and introduced bullfrogs from Japan showed no sign of infection. The bullfrog is the most commonly farmed amphibian, and escapes and subsequent establishment of feral populations regularly occur. These factors taken together with our study suggest that the global threat of B. dendrobatidis disease transmission posed by bullfrogs is significant.
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Lacio, Callyan L., David S. Steinberg, Andrea M. Simmons, and Laura Kloepper. "Using acoustic energy of vocalizations to monitor population size and phenology of anurans." Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 155, no. 3_Supplement (March 1, 2024): A182. http://dx.doi.org/10.1121/10.0027242.
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As a species that lives at the land/water interface, the American bullfrog (Rana catesbeianus) serve as a bioindicator in many habitats, yet also invasive in many locations. Due to challenges with traditional monitoring approaches, there is a lack of fine-scale population and phenological data for bullfrogs. Passive acoustic monitoring (PAM) can provide a low-cost alternative with high-resolution data for monitoring vocal animals. Sexually mature male bullfrogs attract mates by calling from exclusive territories. These vocalizations can be used to explore bullfrog behavior, population size, and phenology. We describe the analysis framework and initial results from an project monitoring the vocal behavior of frogs in 25 ponds in southeastern New Hampshire during the reproductive season using acoustic arrays. By using an acoustic energy index (RMS amplitude), we can estimate numbers of frogs in ponds, determine timing of reproduction, and even document anthropogenic disturbance. Our results can lead to future uses of PAM to monitor population size and phenology and develop reliable long-term management and conservation strategies.
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Atobe, Takashi, Yutaka Osada, Hayato Takeda, Misako Kuroe, and Tadashi Miyashita. "Habitat connectivity and resident shared predators determine the impact of invasive bullfrogs on native frogs in farm ponds." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 281, no. 1786 (July 7, 2014): 20132621. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2013.2621.
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Habitat connectivity is considered to have an important role on the persistence of populations in the face of habitat fragmentation, in particular, for species with conservation concern. However, it can also impose indirect negative effects on native species through the spread of invasive species. Here, we investigated direct and indirect effects of habitat connectivity on populations of invasive bullfrogs and native wrinkled frogs and how these effects are modified by the presence of common carp, a resident shared predator, in a farm pond system in Japan. The distribution pattern analysis using a hierarchical Bayesian modelling indicated that bullfrogs had negative effects on wrinkled frogs, and that these negative effects were enhanced with increasing habitat connectivity owing to the metapopulation structure of bullfrogs. The analysis also suggested that common carp mitigated these impacts, presumably owing to a top-down trophic cascade through preferential predation on bullfrog tadpoles. These presumed interspecific interactions were supported by evidence from laboratory experiments, i.e. predation by carp was more intense on bullfrog tadpoles than on wrinkled frog tadpoles owing to the difference in refuge use. Our results indicate that metacommunity perspectives could provide useful insights for establishing effective management strategies of invasive species living in patchy habitats.
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Braga, Luís Gustavo Tavares, Maria Goreti de Almeida Oliveira, William Cardoso Lima, and Ricardo Frederico Euclydes. "Enzymatic activity of lipase in post-metamorphic phase bullfrogs." Scientia Agricola 63, no. 5 (October 2006): 439–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/s0103-90162006000500004.
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The knowledge of the digestive system of bullfrogs is an important step for the determination of their nutritional requirements throughout growth phases. With the objective of evaluating the enzymatic activity of lipase in the intestinal content of bullfrogs (Rana catesbeiana Shaw, 1802), 100 animals with median weight of 3.6 g were distributed in stalls under controlled temperature and photoperiod. The frogs, selected at the post-metamorphic phase, received commercial extruded diet ad libitum throughout the 87-day experiment. The collections of the intestinal content were performed by the desensitization of the frogs in ice and water at 0ºC and subsequent isolation of the small intestine. Determination of lipase activity was performed with a commercial enzymatic kit (Lipase-Bioclin, MG, Brazil), first measured in samples taken at day three (3.46 UI). During the initial phase the bullfrog possesses low lipase hydrolysis capacity was found, having a specific activity of 217 UI mg-1. In the subsequent period both lipase activity and specific lipase activity continuously increased. Lipase activity as a function of bullfrog weight fell after day twenty and reached 0.33 UI g-1, for frogs of medium weight (179 g). Feed for bullfrogs at the post-metamorphic phase weighing more than 10 g can have larger amounts of ingredients containg lipids, due to the increased digestive capacity of these frogs.
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Louette, Gerald. "Use of a native predator for the control of an invasive amphibian." Wildlife Research 39, no. 3 (2012): 271. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/wr11125.
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Context The control of invasive alien species is essential for securing native biodiversity. As for the American bullfrog, Lithobates catesbeianus (Shaw 1802), suspected to cause ecological damage around large parts of the globe, comprehensive management techniques are currently absent. Aims To fill this gap, opportunities arising from biomanipulation of permanent water bodies inhabited by fish were explored. Methods A multi-annual experiment was performed in small and shallow ponds, and effects of complete drawdown (with amphibian and fish removal) and predation (introduction of originally occurring native northern pike, Esox lucius) on non-indigenous bullfrogs were investigated. Key results The presence of pike lead to a strong decline in bullfrog tadpole numbers, whereas no effect of drawdown was observed. Also, communities receiving pike harboured substantially less small and mostly planktivorous fish species (e.g. pumpkinseed, Lepomis gibbosus, and topmouth gudgeon, Pseudorasbora parva). Conclusions The reduction in bullfrog tadpoles may be assigned to both direct and indirect effects induced by pike. First, direct pike predation on tadpoles was observed. Second, as the occurrence of macroinvertebrate-feeding pumpkinseed was low in the presence of pike, the indirect effect of predation by macroinvertebrates on tadpoles may significantly increase, leading to tadpole decline. Implications Biomanipulation of permanent water bodies inhabited by fish can thus be regarded as a candidate for effective and sustainable control of invasive bullfrog. Piscivorous fish introduction may be applied in the specific type of water body, but requires careful consideration of the indigenous status of the introduced species, angling purposes, or specific nature values.
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Zhang, Jiaqi, Chunxia Xu, Supen Wang, Siqi Wang, and Yiming Li. "Variations in Genetic Diversity of Invasive Species Lithobates catesbeianus in China." Animals 14, no. 9 (April 25, 2024): 1287. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ani14091287.
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The introduction and subsequent range expansion of the American bullfrog (Lithobates catesbeianus) is part of a rising trend of troublesome biological invasions happening in China. This detrimental amphibious invasive species has strong adaptability. After its introduction and spread, it established its own ecological niche in many provinces of China, and its range has continued to expand to more areas. Previous studies recorded the introduction time of bullfrogs and calculated the changes in their genetic diversity in China using mitochondria, but the specific introduction route in China is still unknown. Expanding upon previous research, we employed whole-genome scans (utilizing 2b-RAD genomic sequencing) to examine single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and microsatellites within Lithobates catesbeianus to screen the genomes of these invasive amphibian species from eight Chinese provinces and two U.S. states, including Kansas, where bullfrogs originate. A total of 1,336,475 single nucleotide polymorphic loci and 17 microsatellite loci were used to calculate the genetic diversity of bullfrogs and their migration pathways. Our results suggest that the population in Hunan was the first to be introduced and to spread, and there may have been multiple introductions of subpopulations. Additionally, the genetic diversity of both the SNP and microsatellite loci in the Chinese bullfrog population was lower than that of the US population due to bottleneck effects, but the bullfrogs can adapt and spread rapidly. This study will offer crucial insights for preventing and controlling future introductions into the natural habitats in China. Additionally, it will assist in devising more precise strategies to manage the existing populations and curtail their continued expansion, as well as aim to improve clarity and originality while mitigating plagiarism risk.
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Snow, Nathan P., and GAry W. Witmer. "A field evaluation of a trap for invasive American bullfrogs." Pacific Conservation Biology 17, no. 3 (2011): 285. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/pc110285.
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Native to the eastern United States, American bullfrogs (Rana catesbeiana [Lithobates catesbeianus]) have been introduced in many countries throughout the world. There have been relatively few effective and efficient control methods developed to manage bullfrogs. Particularly in the Hawaiian Islands, Pacific coast of North America, and Japan, finding effective methods for controlling invasive bullfrogs is needed with special emphasis on low impacts for sensitive native species. We conducted a field study to examine the efficacy of a newly designed live trap for capturing invasive bullfrogs. We found that our trap was successful at capturing bullfrogs because we captured up to seven in a single trap overnight. Fishing lures, live crickets, and lights were used as attractants and all capture bullfrogs, however more research is needed for finding effective attractants. We captured one known non-target frog that was released. Our findings suggest that the multiple capture traps could effectively be used as part of an integrated pest management strategy for controlling invasive bullfrog populations.
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Najiah, L. "Antibiogram and heavy metal tolerance of bullfrog bacteria in Malaysia." Open Veterinary Journal 5, no. 2 (2011): 39. http://dx.doi.org/10.5455/ovj.2011.v1.i0.p39.
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Bacterial isolates from 30 farmed bullfrogs (Lithobates catesbeianus) weighing 500-600 g at Johore, Malaysia with external clinical signs of ulcer, red leg and torticollis were tested for their antibiograms and heavy metal tolerance patterns. A total of 17 bacterial species with 77 strains were successfully isolated and assigned to 21 antibiotics and 4 types of heavy metal (Hg2+, Cr6+, Cd2+, Cu2+). Results revealed that bacteria were resistant against lincomycin (92%), oleandomycin (72.7%) and furazolidone (71.4%) while being susceptible to chloramphenicol and florfenicol at 97.4%. The multiple antibiotic resistance (MAR) index for C. freundii, E. coli and M. morganii was high with the value up to 0.71. Bacterial strains were found to exhibit 100 % resistance to chromium and mercury. High correlation of resistance against both antibiotics and heavy metals was found (71.4 to 100%) between bullfrog bacteria isolates, except bacteria that were resistant to kanamycin showed only 25% resistance against Cu2+. Based on the results in this study, bacterial pathogens of bullfrog culture in Johore, Malaysia, were highly resistant to both antibiotics and heavy metals.
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Xu, Feng, Jun Li, and Weikang Yang. "Invasive American Bullfrogs Age, Body Size, and Sexual Size Dimorphism Geographical Variation in Northwestern China." Diversity 14, no. 11 (November 6, 2022): 953. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/d14110953.
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Invasive species impact both the local biota and human economies and are a very serious threat to biodiversity. The American bullfrog was initially introduced into northwestern China and many other sites for aquacultural purposes. Then, the frogs escaped and established feral populations. Here, we investigated the variations in age, body size, and sexual size dimorphism of two breeding populations inhabiting the southern (warm and dry) and northern (cold and wet) regions of Xinjiang province in northwestern China. Both populations originated from a single source that was introduced into Xinjiang 54 years ago. In both populations, males were significantly smaller than females, indicating significant sexual size dimorphism. The mean age and body size of both sexes in the population in the colder region were lower than those of the population in the warmer region. Bullfrogs in the southern population had a higher degree of sexual size dimorphism. These results increase our understanding of the American bullfrog, which could help in the development of strategies to control this invasive species.
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Sugiura, Shinji, and Masakazu Hayashi. "Defenses of whirligig beetles against native and invasive frogs." PeerJ 12 (April 16, 2024): e17214. http://dx.doi.org/10.7717/peerj.17214.
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Many native insects have evolved defenses against native predators. However, their defenses may not protect them from non-native predators due to a limited shared history. The American bullfrog, Aquarana catesbeiana (Anura: Ranidae), which has been intentionally introduced to many countries, is believed to impact native aquatic animals through direct predation. Adults of whirligig beetles (Coleoptera: Gyrinidae), known for swimming and foraging on the water surface of ponds and streams, reportedly possess chemical defenses against aquatic predators, such as fish. Although whirligig beetles potentially encounter both bullfrogs and other frogs in ponds and lakes, the effectiveness of their defenses against frogs has been rarely studied. To assess whether whirligig beetles can defend against native and non-native frogs, we observed the behavioral responses of the native pond frog, Pelophylax nigromaculatus (Anura: Ranidae), and the invasive non-native bullfrog, A. catesbeiana, to native whirligig beetles, Gyrinus japonicus and Dineutus orientalis, in Japan. Adults of whirligig beetles were provided to frogs under laboratory conditions. Forty percent of G. japonicus and D.orientalis were rejected by P. nigromaculatus, while all whirligig beetles were easily consumed by A. catesbeiana. Chemical and other secondary defenses of G. japonicus and D. orientalis were effective for some individuals of P. nigromaculatus but not for any individuals of A. catesbeiana. These results suggest that native whirligig beetles suffer predation by invasive non-native bullfrogs in local ponds and lakes in Japan.
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Kline, L. W., M. L. Zhang, and P. K. Pang. "Cyclic AMP induces a relaxation response in the bullfrog Rana catesbeiana, but nitric oxide does not." Journal of Experimental Biology 200, no. 20 (October 1, 1997): 2669–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/jeb.200.20.2669.
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Cholecystokinin octapeptide (CCK), acetylcholine (ACh) and ceruletide have been shown to produce contraction in bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana) gallbladder strips. Agents capable of relaxing the bullfrog gallbladder are less numerous. Calcitonin gene-related peptide reduced the amount of both CCK- and ACh-induced tension in bullfrog gallbladder strips. The purpose of this study was to determine whether vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP), nitric oxide (NO) and the second messengers cyclic GMP or cyclic AMP had any effect on gallbladder motility in the bullfrog. In vitro tension studies using l-NG-nitro-arginine methyl ester, Methylene Blue, sodium nitroprusside and N2,2'-O-dibutyryl guanosine 3',5'-cyclic monophosphate suggested that nitric oxide did not modulate gallbladder motility in the bullfrog gallbladder. Histochemical staining for NADPH diaphorase (nitric oxide synthase) failed to demonstrate nerve fibers containing nitric oxide synthase in the bullfrog gallbladder. In vitro studies demonstrated that VIP had no effect on CCK-induced tension. However, in vitro studies using either 8-bromoadenosine 3',5'-cyclic monophosphate or forskolin demonstrated that both agents relaxed strips precontracted with CCK. The results of this study suggested that, while neither NO nor VIP had a role in modulating bullfrog gallbladder motility, cyclic AMP was capable of modulating bullfrog gallbladder motility.
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Alexander, Jo. "The Bullfrog." English Journal 87, no. 4 (April 1998): 41. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/821471.
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Koo, Kyo Soung, and Minjee Choe. "Distribution Change of Invasive American Bullfrogs (Lithobates catesbeianus) by Future Climate Threaten Endangered Suweon Treefrog (Hyla suweonensis) in South Korea." Animals 11, no. 10 (September 30, 2021): 2865. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ani11102865.
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The American Bullfrog (Lithobates catesbeianus) has been imported into South Korea in earnest for food since the 1970s and introduced into nature due to release and escape. Accordingly, the influx and spread of American Bullfrogs are expected to have a direct impact on native species, but few related studies have been conducted on this. We predicted changes in the potential distribution and future distribution based on climate change scenarios to analyze how those changes affect critically endangered Suwon treefrogs. Suwon treefrog sites (63.9%, 78/122) overlapped with the distribution of Bullfrogs. According to the prediction of the future distribution of Bullfrogs, the overlapping of American Bullfrogs and Suwon treefrog will remain similar to the current level in the Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP) 4.5 scenario. On the other hand, in the RCP 8.5 scenario, the number of overlapping sites will increase to 72.1% (88/122) due to the spreading of the American Bullfrogs. The results show that climate change directly affects the distribution expansion of the American Bullfrogs but also indirectly can lead to an increased threat to Suwon treefrogs. In conclusion, our results strongly suggest why climate change should be actively addressed in terms of the spread of invasive species and the protection of endangered species.
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Ruibal, Mariana, and Gabriel Laufer. "Bullfrog Lithobates catesbeianus (Amphibia: Ranidae) tadpole diet: description and analysis for three invasive populations in Uruguay." Amphibia-Reptilia 33, no. 3-4 (2012): 355–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15685381-00002838.
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The North American bullfrog, Lithobates catesbeianus is a dangerous invasive species that has been introduced worldwide for commercial and ornamental purposes. Although studies of the bullfrog’s effects on invaded communities have been carried out, they have focused mostly on post-metamorphic stages. However, considering the experimental evidence and its ecological attributes, the L. catesbeianus tadpole could also have significant impact on invaded communities. The aim of this study was to perform a detailed qualitative and quantitative exploration of the L. catesbeianus larval diet. Gut content was studied and compared for three invaded locations in Uruguay (Departments of Canelones, Soriano and Cerro Largo). Although microscopic algae (Spirogyra spp., Euglena spp., Closterium spp., Volvox spp. and Scenedesmus spp.) were the most frequent prey, the diet was also made up of small invertebrates (especially rotifers) and eggs. Statistically significant differences in diet richness and prey identity were found among the three study sites, probably due to local conditions. One common feature among the three locations was the ingestion of prey with high protein levels, filamentous algae and animal prey. The high frequency of high-protein prey could explain the substantial growth rate of these larvae. Native tadpoles appear to have a much poorer diet than bullfrogs. We can thus assume that the L. catesbeianus larvae will be a major competitor and a potential predator for native communities. We propose that L. catesbeianus tadpoles may have significant effects on invaded communities, and should be considered in future research and managements plans.
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Kirbiš, Nino, Matjaž Bedjanič, Jana Kus Veenvliet, Paul Veenvliet, David Stanković, Gregor Lipovšek, and Katja Poboljšaj. "First records of the American bullfrog Lithobates catesbeianus (Shaw, 1802) in Slovenia." Natura Sloveniae 18, no. 1 (June 30, 2016): 23–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.14720/ns.18.1.23-27.
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The American bullfrog Lithobates catesbeianus is one of the 100 worst alien species in the world. It has been introduced to several European countries. During our field search activities in May 2014 and June 2015, a male bullfrog advertisement call was heard at Fiesa Lakes in Slovenia. On September 2015, a male specimen of the American bullfrog was caught in a funnel trap at the same location. These are the first records of the occurrence of this invasive species in Slovenia. Further studies should be conducted to evaluate if an actual population is present in the area. Eradication measures should commence immediately as chances for the establishment of naturalized bullfrog populations here are high.
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Takahashi, N., K. Yoshihama, S. Kikuyama, K. Yamamoto, K. Wakabayashi, and Y. Kato. "Molecular cloning and nucleotide sequence analysis of complementary DNA for bullfrog prolactin." Journal of Molecular Endocrinology 5, no. 3 (December 1990): 281–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1677/jme.0.0050281.
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ABSTRACT A prolactin cDNA was cloned from a cDNA expression library constructed from total RNA of bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana) adenohypophyses by immunoscreening with antiserum against bullfrog prolactin. The cDNA clone thus obtained contained a 249 bp insert. Using this clone as a probe, plaque hybridizations were performed and two additional clones obtained. These clones had a polyadenylation site different from that of the first obtained clone, suggesting that the 3′-untranslated sequence was heterogeneous in length. The longest clone contained 830 bp, which encoded part of the signal peptide and the entire sequence of mature prolactin. The deduced amino acid sequence was in good accord with that determined by direct protein sequencing of purified bullfrog prolactin. The length of the bullfrog prolactin mRNA was estimated by Northern blot analysis to be about 1·0 kb. Homologies of prolactin nucleotide and amino acid sequences between bullfrog and other vertebrates were 64 and 65% for man, 66 and 68% for pig, 61 and 52% for rat, 69 and 74% for chicken, and 50 and 35% for salmon respectively. Highly conserved regions reported for mammalian prolactins also existed in bullfrog prolactin. Homologies of nucleotide and amino acid sequences between prolactin and GH of bullfrog origin were 49 and 25% respectively. Using the cDNA, the content of prolactin mRNA in the pituitary glands of metamorphosing tadpoles was measured. Prolactin mRNA levels rose at the mid-climax stage, suggesting that the increase in plasma and pituitary prolactin levels known to occur at the climax stage accompanies the increase in prolactin synthesis.
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McAlpine, Donald F. "Helminth communities in bullfrogs (Rana catesbeiana), green frogs (Rana clamitans), and leopard frogs (Rana pipiens) from New Brunswick, Canada." Canadian Journal of Zoology 75, no. 11 (November 1, 1997): 1883–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/z97-818.
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Twenty-three helminth species were identified from bullfrogs, Rana catesbeiana, green frogs, R. clamitans, and leopard frogs, R. pipiens, in New Brunswick. Digeneans dominated adult helminth communities in the aquatic bullfrog and semi-aquatic green frog; nematodes were dominant in the more terrestrial leopard frog. In green frogs and leopard frogs, richness and abundance were greatest in adults; in bullfrogs, juveniles showed the greatest richness and abundance. An increase in vertebrates in the diet of adult bullfrogs influences helminth communities in bullfrogs. Where Glypthelmins quieta and nematodes, which infect the host by skin penetration, predominate in green frogs and leopard frogs, respectively, the increase in epidermal area with age probably influences helminth abundance. Adult female leopard frogs are larger than males and harbour greater numbers of helminths. Within the most heavily sampled component communities only larval digeneans, and less frequently nematodes with direct life cycles, were common (i.e., in > 50% of hosts); other taxa were generally present at prevalences of < 20% and intensities of < 10 helminths per frog. Although wetland characteristics and helminth transmission dynamics play a role in producing variation in helminth communities among sites, ontogenetic shifts in diet and sexual size dimorphism within these anuran species are important in shaping helminth communities in individual frog hosts.
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Pang, P. K., T. Kaneko, and S. Harvey. "Immunocytochemical distribution of PTH immunoreactivity in vertebrate brains." American Journal of Physiology-Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology 255, no. 4 (October 1, 1988): R643—R647. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/ajpregu.1988.255.4.r643.
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Immunoreactive (IR) cell bodies, reacting with an antiserum specific for the 48-64 region of bovine parathyroid hormone (PTH), were detected in the brains of primitive vertebrates (hagfish), bullfrogs, and higher vertebrates (mice). In each species the IR perikarya were located in the preoptic region, although the precise location and abundance of IR perikarya differed among species. Fiber tracts from these IR perikarya were traced to the neurohypophysis in the hagfish but only to the median eminence in the bullfrog and mouse, where the axonal terminals were in close proximity to hypophyseal portal blood vessels. These results suggest that a novel PTH-like peptidergic system, similar to those secreting hypophysiotropic-releasing factors, is present in the vertebrate brain.
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Sanz, Nuria, Nati Franch, Rosa-Maria Araguas, Jordi Viñas, and Oriol Vidal. "Environmental DNA Assay for the Detection of the American Bullfrog (Lithobates catesbeianus) in the Early Stages of the Invasion in the Ebre Delta." Animals 13, no. 4 (February 15, 2023): 683. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ani13040683.
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The American bullfrog (Lithobates catesbeianus) is considered to be one of the most harmful invasive species. In the Iberian Peninsula, this species had been cited occasionally until the year 2018, when L. catesbeianus appeared in the Ebre Delta, and, for the first time, it started breeding in a territory of the Peninsula. Using environmental DNA (eDNA) analysis and visual surveys, the American bullfrog invasion in the Ebre Delta was monitored across two consecutive years (2019–2020). No specimens were observed in 2019, and results for the eDNA survey also failed to detect this species in the Delta. In 2020, two individuals were captured and, under the most conservative criteria to constrain the number of positive detections, eDNA analyses detected the presence of the American bullfrog in at least five locations. Performing an eDNA assay yielded a higher sensitivity with a lower sampling effort than traditional methods. Although the American bullfrog does not appear to still be well-established in the Ebre Delta, only a few bullfrog individuals could be enough for their establishment in suitable habitats. In this context, eDNA assays are essential tools to facilitate the detection, control, and eradication of this species in the first stage of the invasion process.
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Rourke, Ian J., Jens F. Rehfeld, Morten Møller, and Anders H. Johnsen. "Characterization of the Cholecystokinin and Gastrin Genes from the Bullfrog, Rana catesbeiana: Evolutionary Conservation of Primary and Secondary Sites of Gene Expression." Endocrinology 138, no. 4 (April 1, 1997): 1719–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/endo.138.4.5084.
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Abstract The gastrin and cholecystokinin (CCK) genes, and the complementary DNAs they encode, have been isolated and sequenced from the bullfrog, Rana catesbeiana. The CCK gene promoter region possess the same four well characterized transcriptional control elements as the human CCK gene, namely an E-box, AP-1 binding site, Sp1 site, and TATA box. In contrast, no obvious regulatory motifs are conserved in the gastrin gene. Alignment of the bullfrog preprohormone sequences with other members of the CCK/gastrin peptide family showed that preproCCK has been conserved to a greater degree during evolution than preprogastrin. In mammalian species, gastrin gene expression is typically associated with the antrum, and CCK with the small intestine and brain. However numerous secondary sites of CCK/gastrin gene expression have also been found. RT-PCR showed a high degree of conservation of both primary and secondary sites of CCK/gastrin production between mammals and the bullfrog, with gastrin messenger RNA being detected in the antrum, duodenum, colon, pancreas, brain, and testes, whereas CCK mRNA was observed in the brain, lung, testes, and throughout the length of the small intestine. In situ hybridization using radiolabeled gene specific antisense oligonucleotides uncovered CCK and gastrin messenger RNA in distinct areas of the bullfrog central nervous system and pituitary gland. Notably, the gastrin gene was expressed in the pituitary gland and hypothalamus of the bullfrog, as previously seen in mammals. This highly preserved tissue expression pattern suggests that gastrin plays specific roles in the hypothalamus and pituitary gland that are distinct from those of CCK. Our findings show that in spite of the structural resemblance, bullfrog CCK and gastrin constitute independent neuroendocrine peptide systems.
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Robleto, Daniel O., Sheila T. Reitmeyer, and Ceil A. Herman. "Cardiac inotropic effects of leukotriene C4 and prostaglandin I2 in the unanesthetized American bullfrog, Rana catesbeiana." Canadian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology 66, no. 2 (February 1, 1988): 233–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/y88-039.
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The cardiovascular effects of leukotriene (LT) C4 and prostaglandin (PG) I2 were compared in the unanesthetized American bullfrog, Rana catesbeiana. Bullfrogs were instrumented to measure mean arterial pressure, peak ventricular pressure, its derivative (VP + dP/dt), and heart rate. Two hours after recovery from anesthesia, intravenous injections of LTC4 or PGI2 were tested over a dose range from 0.003 to 3 μg/kg body weight (bw). Both eicosanoids decreased mean arterial pressure, systolic ventricular pressure, and its derivative (VP + dP/dt). The effects of LTC4 and PGI2 on all parameters were similar at doses below 3 μg/kg bw. However, at 3 μg/kg bw, LTC4 had more potent negative inotropic effects than PGI2. Both compounds increased heart rate at 0.3 μg/kg bw, but at 3 μg/kg bw PGI2 caused greater increases than LTC4. The hypotensive and negative inotropic effects of LTC4 were blunted in animals pretreated with indomethacin (4 mg/kg bw) to prevent endogenous prostaglandin and thromboxane synthesis, whereas the cardiovascular effects of PGI2 were unaffected by the blockade. The data show that both eicosanoids have similar qualitative effects on blood pressure and cardiac performance. However, the effects of LTC4 may be partially mediated by release of endogenous cyclooxygenase products, possibly PGI2. These results suggest that the bullfrog, an animal with no coronary arteries, is a useful model for comparative studies of cardiac actions of eicosanoids which are independent of effects mediated by changes in coronary vascular resistance.
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Pereira, Marcelo Maia, Cleber Fernando Menegasso Mansano, Edney Pereira da Silva, and Marta Verardino De Stéfani. "Growth in weight and of some tissues in the bullfrog: fitting nonlinear models during the fattening phase." Ciência e Agrotecnologia 38, no. 6 (December 2014): 598–606. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/s1413-70542014000600009.
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Knowledge of the growth of animals is important so that zootechnical activity can be more accurate and sustainable. The objective of this study was to describe the live weight, development of liver tissue and fat body, leg growth, and cumulative food intake of bullfrogs during the fattening phase using nonlinear models. A total of 2,375 bullfrog froglets with an initial weight of 7.03 ± 0.16 g were housed in five fattening pens (12 m²). Ten samplings were performed at intervals of 14 days to obtain the variables studied. These data were used to estimate the parameters of Gompertz and logistic models as a function of time. The estimated values of weight (Wm) and food intake (FIm) at maturity and time when the growth rate is maximum (t*) were closer to expected values when the logistic model was used. The Wm values for live weight and liver, adipose and leg weights and the FIm value for food intake were 343.7, 15.7, 19.6, 96.03 and 369.3 g, respectively, with t* at 109, 98, 105, 109 and 107 days. Therefore, the logistic model was the best model to estimate the growth and food intake of bullfrogs during the fattening phase.
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Rubin, B. K., O. Ramirez, and M. King. "Mucus-depleted frog palate as a model for the study of mucociliary clearance." Journal of Applied Physiology 69, no. 2 (August 1, 1990): 424–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/jappl.1990.69.2.424.
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To better understand the frog palate model of mucociliary transport, we measured the transport rate of mucus (MTR) from the leopard frog, Rana pipiens, and from the bullfrog, R. catesbeiana, recorded the stability of the MTR over a period of hours and days and over the course of 1 yr, and measured the viscoelasticity, percent solid composition, and spinnability (filance) of mucus from both species. Bullfrog mucus was less rigid than leopard frog mucus (log G* at 1 rad/s 2.09 vs. 2.61; P less than 0.01) and had a higher viscosity-to-elasticity ratio (tan delta at 1 rad/s 0.36 vs. 0.26; P less than 0.05). It also had a lower solids content (8.71 vs. 13.72%; P = 0.02), and there was a trend to lower spinnability for bullfrog mucus (filance 26.7 vs. 33.5 mm). These data suggest that bullfrog mucus has viscoelastic properties similar to normal mammalian respiratory mucus and leopard frog mucus has viscoelasticity similar to sputum samples. MTR was significantly slower in the winter than in the summer months (17 vs. 30 mm/min; P less than 0.0001). Although the leopard frog palate could be used for at least 7 consecutive days without exhaustion, bullfrog palates could be used for only 5 days. Palates of either species could generally be tested for 6 h/day without a significant decrease in MTR. These data clarify some of the sources of variability in the use of this system and suggest methods of standardization.
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Toloza, E. M., and J. M. Diamond. "Ontogenetic development of transporter regulation in bullfrog intestine." American Journal of Physiology-Gastrointestinal and Liver Physiology 258, no. 5 (May 1, 1990): G770—G773. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/ajpgi.1990.258.5.g770.
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Intestinal nutrient transporter activity is adapted to dietary substrate levels on three time scales: reversibly, within an adult individual, to rapid dietary changes; developmentally, to normal ontogenetic changes in diet; and evolutionarily, among carnivores, omnivores, and herbivores, to a species' natural diet. Does the capacity for rapid reversible adaptation itself vary adaptively during development? Substrate-dependent regulation would make functional sense in herbivorous/omnivorous tadpoles in which dietary substrate levels fluctuate unpredictably, but would serve no purpose in strictly carnivorous adult bullfrogs in which dietary protein is always high and carbohydrate is low. Hence, we fed premetamorphosis bullfrog tadpoles either boiled lettuce (high in carbohydrate, low in protein) or ground beef (high in protein, low in carbohydrate). Gut weight relative to body weight was higher in lettuce-fed tadpoles. Glucose uptake was greater and proline uptake slightly less in lettuce-fed than in beef-fed tadpoles. The resultant ratio of glucose uptake capacity to proline uptake capacity was nearly twice as high in lettuce-fed as in beef-fed tadpoles, corresponding to a much higher ratio of dietary carbohydrate to protein. Adult frogs have been shown to lack such regulation. Therefore, the regulatory capacity seen in tadpoles must become lost during amphibian metamorphosis.
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ALA-LAURILA, PETRI, RAULI-JAN ALBERT, PIA SAARINEN, ARI KOSKELAINEN, and KRISTIAN DONNER. "The thermal contribution to photoactivation in A2 visual pigments studied by temperature effects on spectral properties." Visual Neuroscience 20, no. 4 (July 2003): 411–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0952523803204065.
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Effects of temperature on the spectral properties of visual pigments were measured in the physiological range (5–28°C) in photoreceptor cells of bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana) and crucian carp (Carassius carassius). Absorbance spectra recorded by microspectrophotometry (MSP) in single cells and sensitivity spectra recorded by electroretinography (ERG) across the isolated retina were combined to yield accurate composite spectra fromca. 400 nm to 800 nm. The four photoreceptor types selected for study allowed three comparisons illuminating the properties of pigments using the dehydroretinal (A2) chromophore: (1) the two members of an A1/A2 pigment pair with the same opsin (porphyropsinvs.rhodopsin in bullfrog “red” rods); (2) two A2 pigments with similar spectra (porphyropsin rods of bullfrog and crucian carp); and (3) two A2 pigments with different spectra (rodsvs.long-wavelength-sensitive (L-) cones of crucian carp). Qualitatively, the temperature effects on A2 pigments were similar to those described previously for the A1 pigment of toad “red” rods. Warming caused an increase in relative sensitivities at very long wavelengths but additionally a small shift of λmaxtoward shorter wavelengths. The former effect was used for estimating the minimum energy required for photoactivation (Ea) of the pigment. Bullfrog rod opsin with A2 chromophore hadEa= 44.2 ± 0.9 kcal/mol, significantly lower (one-tailedP< 0.05) than the valueEa= 46.5 ± 0.8 kcal/mol for the same opsin coupled to A1. The A2 rod pigment of crucian carp hadEa= 42.3 ± 0.6 kcal/mol, which is significantly higher (one-tailedP< 0.01) than that of the L-cones in the same retina (Ea= 38.3 ± 0.4 kcal/mol), whereas the difference compared with the bullfrog A2 rod pigment is not statistically significant (two-tailedP= 0.13). No strict connection between λmaxandEaappears to exist among A2 pigments any more than among A1 pigments. Still, the A1 → A2 chromophore substitution in bullfrog opsin causes three changes correlated as originally hypothesized by Barlow (1957): a red-shift of λmax, a decrease inEa, and an increase in thermal noise.
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Davim, André Luiz Silva, Tereza Neuma de Castro Dantas, Diego Filgueira Albuquerque, Márcia Rodrigues Pereira, Laíse Beatriz Trindade da Silva Queiroz, and Leandro Moura de Freitas. "Anti-inflammatory potential of microemulsion and pure bullfrog oil in muscle injury." Revista Brasileira de Medicina do Esporte 23, no. 3 (May 2017): 237–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/1517-869220172303159519.
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ABSTRACT Introduction: Every day science seeks new ways to treat various diseases through drugs that are efficient and viable. Thus, therapeutic alternatives that meet such demand are targets of study. Microemulsions are one of these new alternatives due to their peculiar pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic characteristics. Objective: The aim of this study was to analyze the anti-inflammatory potential of microemulsion and pure bullfrog oil using an experimental model of muscle injury. Methods: Male Swiss mice were divided into three groups: control, microemulsion and pure bullfrog oil. After the pre-treatment, a muscle injury was induced in the animals’ leg and subsequently evaluations were carried out in the horizontal extent of edema and compared between the groups at predetermined times. Following evaluation of muscle injury, dissection of the right gastrocnemius muscles was performed for histological analysis. Results: The microemulsion and pure bullfrog oil showed good anti-inflammatory activity, acting similarly in reducing edema during the first two hours, but without statistical significance from the 3rd to the 24th hour after induction. The histological analysis revealed that the muscle tissue of the animals treated with the microemulsion presented mild cellular infiltrate and little wear of muscle fibers when compared with the muscular tissue of animals treated with the pure bullfrog oil. The histological analysis of the hepatic tissue showed signs of injury in the liver lobes of the pure bullfrog oil group, not observed in the microemulsion group. Conclusion: The microemulsion sho-wed good anti-inflammatory potential in the acute phase of the inflammatory response, reducing the formation of edema and preserving muscle tissue against the occurrence of lesions and without inducing injury in hepatic tissue.
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Xiang, Hao, Jason Han, William E. Ridley, and Lloyd J. Ridley. "Bullfrog swallow: Bilateral pharyngocoeles." Journal of Medical Imaging and Radiation Oncology 62 (October 2018): 59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1754-9485.07_12784.
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Chen, Xiao-lin, Hai-jun Liu, and Liu Fang. "Three-dimensional ecological breeding mode and key technology of fish-frog symbiosis." International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Growth Evaluation 5, no. 4 (2024): 146–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.54660/.ijmrge.2024.5.4.146-154.
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This paper introduces the mode and key technology of fish-frog symbiosis. Pond fish-frog aquaculture technology is on the basis of conventional pond fish, through the pond, the implementation of bullfrog without land farming, pond fish-frog symbiotic system, realize the pond fish-frog stereo culture, the method has covers an area of less, low cost, enemy, breeding density, bullfrog, fast growth, easy to manage, high comprehensive benefit advantages.
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Zhang, Weibo, Chong Chen, Ziyu Huang, and Pengjie Wang. "Characterizations of Gelatin from the Skin of American Bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana) as Affected by Extraction Temperature." Sustainability 13, no. 8 (April 15, 2021): 4390. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su13084390.
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We investigated the effect of extraction temperature on the gel properties of gelatin from the skin of the American bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana) and the mechanisms. The textural and rheological properties of bullfrog gelatin extracted at 45 °C (G45), 55 °C (G55), and 65 °C (G65) were measured. The molecular weight distributions, microstructures, and amino acid compositions of the bullfrog gelatins were also determined. G45, G55, and G65 had gel strengths of 272.1, 225.6, and 205.8 g and hardness values of 28.1, 24.0, and 22.5 N, respectively. The gelling temperatures ranged from 19.3 to 23.9 °C, and the melting temperatures ranged from 28.9 to 31.5 °C. All the results were compared with those of commercial porcine gelatin. We propose that the higher gel strength of G45 with a higher band intensity of α2-chains compared with G55 and G65 was more likely to form ordered and strong cross-links. The gelatin extracted at a lower temperature (G45) had a finer gel structure, suggesting that it would be more difficult to disrupt by applied force. Gelatin extracted at a lower temperature demonstrated better properties with α2-chains and a fine gel structure. These results provide basic information on the extraction of American bullfrog skin gelatin for industrial applications.
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Carlos, Jaqueline, and Sérgio Luis Pinto da Matta. "Microscopic morphology and testis morphometry of captivity-bred Adult bullfrogs (Lithobates catesbeianus Shaw, 1802)." Brazilian Archives of Biology and Technology 52, no. 6 (December 2009): 1461–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/s1516-89132009000600018.
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The aim of this work was to study the testicular morphometry of captivity-bred adult bullfrogs. Fifteen young adult male were studied, in the rainy season and a lengthy photoperiod. The GSI was established at 0.15%. The nuclear diameter of germinative and Leydig cells, the nucleolus diameter of Sertoli cells and the area of cysts and tubules were determined and the mean number of ISPC, IISPC and SPT per cyst and the mean number of cysts per tubule was estimated. The nucleoplasmatic proportion of the nucleus of the Leydig cell was 76.22%, indicating less cytoplasmic activity. Eight generations of spermatogonia were found. The spermatogenesis efficiency in meiosis and in mitosis was 63 and 49%, respectively. The spermatogenesis of bullfrog fited in the pattern of other captivity Anurans, with differences as the morphology of Sertoli and Leydig cells nuclei.
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Rutckeviski, Renata, Francisco Humberto Xavier, Andreza Rochelle Do Vale Morais, Lucas Amaral-Machado, Everton Do Nascimento Alencar, Julieta Genre, Adriano Antunes De Souza Araujo, and Eryvaldo Socrates Tabosa Do Egito. "Therapeutic bullfrog oil-based nanoemulsion for oral application: Development, characterization and stability." Acta Pharmaceutica 69, no. 1 (March 1, 2019): 33–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/acph-2019-0001.
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Abstract The aim of this study was to develop, optimize, and characterize a stable therapeutic bullfrog oil based nanoemulsion for oral application using a rational experimental design approach. The optimized oral nanoemulsion contained 0.2 % sodium benzoate and 0.02 % propyl-paraben as preservatives; 0.1 % sucralose and 0.4 % acesulfam K as sweeteners and 0.1 % tutti-frutti as flavoring to mask the unpleasant organoleptic characteristics of bullfrog oil. The oral O/W-nanoemulsion showed the droplet size, PDI, zeta potential, and pH of 410 ± 8 nm, 0.20 ± 0.02, –38 ± 2.5 mV, and 6.43 ± 0.05, respectively. The optimized oral nanoemulsion showed a milky single-phase and optimal physical stability at 25 °C for 90 days. Indeed, higher oxidation induction time and lower formation of peroxides in the oral nanoemulsion were responsible for improving its stability. A therapeutic delivery system containing bullfrog oil for oral application was successfully developed and optimized with ideal thermo-oxidative stability.
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Mundriyanto, Honorius, Lies Emmawati Hadie, and Wartono Hadie. "EVALUASI PERTUMBUHAN KATAK BENGGALA ( Rana catesbeiana Shaw) HASIL PEMIJAHAN DARI STOK BALI, KLATEN, DAN SLEMAN." Jurnal Riset Akuakultur 2, no. 1 (November 15, 2016): 15. http://dx.doi.org/10.15578/jra.2.1.2007.15-18.
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Evaluasi karakter pertumbuhan katak benggala stok Bali, Klaten, dan Sleman dilakukan untuk mencari kandidat populasi dasar. Pemijahan induk-induk katak benggala dilaksanakan secara fullsibs dari masing-masing stok dan percil yang diperoleh dipelihara selama 22 minggu. Pemeliharaan percil menggunakan bak beton berukuran 1x1x1 m3 dengan kepadatan 75 ekor/ bak. Pakan berupa pelet terapung diberikan sebanyak 1,5%—3% per hari. Hasil pengamatan selama 22 minggu menunjukkan bahwa katak benggala stok Sleman merupakan kandidat untuk dimanfaatkan sebagai populasi dasar. Karakter fenotip spesifik katak benggala stok Sleman memiliki pertumbuhan bobot yang lebih cepat dibanding turunan Bali dan Klaten (P<0,05). Model populasi dalam karakter bobot relatif homogen, hal ini akan berdampak positif dalam menghasilkan individu katak benggala yang relatif seragam.Growth character of bullfrog spawns from Bali, Klaten, and Sleman were evaluated in order to select basic population candidate. Bullfrog of broodstocks was spawned by full sibs method on each stock was reared for 22 weeks. Concrete tank were used for rearing with 1x1x1 m3 in size and density was 75 individual/tank. Floating pellet was used for rearing period, and feeding rate is 1.5%—3.0%/day. The result showed that bullfrog broodstock of Sleman had change as candidate of basic population. Specific character off spring of Sleman is having faster growth than Bali and Klaten. Population model in weight character is relatively homogenous, thus had advantage impact on bullfrog individually.
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Huang, Jianwei, Yumei Zhu, Huixin Wen, Jiafeng Zhang, Shijie Huang, Jianjun Niu, and Qingge Li. "Quadruplex Real-Time PCR Assay for Detection and Identification of Vibrio cholerae O1 and O139 Strains and Determination of Their Toxigenic Potential." Applied and Environmental Microbiology 75, no. 22 (September 18, 2009): 6981–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/aem.00517-09.
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ABSTRACT Vibrio cholerae is a natural inhabitant of the aquatic environment. However, its toxigenic strains can cause potentially life-threatening diarrhea. A quadruplex real-time PCR assay targeting four genes, the cholera toxin gene (ctxA), the hemolysin gene (hlyA), O1-specific rfb, and O139-specific rfb, was developed for detection and differentiation of O1, O139, and non-O1, non-O139 strains and for prediction of their toxigenic potential. The specificity of the assay was 100% when tested against 70 strains of V. cholerae and 31 strains of non-V. cholerae organisms. The analytical sensitivity for detection of toxigenic V. cholerae O1 and O139 was 2 CFU per reaction with cells from pure culture. When the assay was tested with inoculated water from bullfrog feeding ponds, 10 CFU/ml could reliably be detected after culture for 3 h. The assay was more sensitive than the immunochromatographic assay and culture method when tested against 89 bullfrog samples and 68 water samples from bullfrog feeding ponds. The applicability of this assay was confirmed in a case study involving 15 bullfrog samples, from which two mixtures of nontoxigenic O1 and toxigenic non-O1/non-O139 strains were detected and differentiated. These data indicate that the quadruplex real-time PCR assay can both rapidly and accurately detect/identify V. cholerae and reliably predict the toxigenic potential of strains detected.
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Hollis, DM, FW Goetz, SB Roberts, and SK Boyd. "Acute neurosteroid modulation and subunit isolation of the gamma-aminobutyric acidA receptor in the bullfrog, Rana catesbeiana." Journal of Molecular Endocrinology 32, no. 3 (June 1, 2004): 921–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1677/jme.0.0320921.
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The inhibitory neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) has multiple receptors. In mammals, the GABA(A) receptor subtype is modulated by neurosteroids. However, whether steroid interaction with the GABA(A) receptor is unique to mammals or a conserved feature in vertebrates is unknown. Thus, neurosteroid modulation of the GABA(A) receptor was investigated in the brain of the bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana) using the mammalian GABA(A) receptor agonist [(3)H]muscimol. Two neurosteroids, allopregnanolone and pregnenolone sulfate, affected [(3)H]muscimol specific binding in bullfrog brain membrane preparations. Allopregnanolone significantly increased [(3)H]muscimol specific binding in a dose- and time-dependent manner. The pattern of allopregnanolone modulation supports the hypothesis that the bullfrog brain possesses both high-affinity and low-affinity [(3)H]muscimol binding sites. Unlike allopregnanolone, pregnenolone sulfate showed biphasic modulation with increased [(3)H]muscimol specific binding at low nanomolar concentrations and decreased specific binding at micromolar concentrations. Additionally, three cDNA fragments with significant homology to mammalian GABA(A) receptor subunits were isolated from the bullfrog brain. These fragments belong to the alpha1, beta1, and gamma2 subunit families. In mammals, GABA(A) receptors composed of these specific subunit isoforms are effectively modulated by neurosteroids, including allopregnanolone. Neurosteroid modulation of the amphibian brain GABA(A) receptor is therefore supported by both [(3)H]muscimol binding studies and subunit sequences. Allopregnanolone and pregnenolone sulfate modulation of this receptor may thus represent a significant mechanism for steroid influence on amphibian brain and behavior.
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Nicholson, E. Griffin, Stephanie Manzo, Zachary Devereux, Thomas Paul Morgan, Robert N. Fisher, Christopher Brown, Rosi Dagit, Peter A. Scott, and H. Bradley Shaffer. "Historical museum collections and contemporary population studies implicate roads and introduced predatory bullfrogs in the decline of western pond turtles." PeerJ 8 (June 12, 2020): e9248. http://dx.doi.org/10.7717/peerj.9248.
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The western pond turtle (WPT), recently separated into two paripatrically distributed species (Emys pallida and Emys marmorata), is experiencing significant reductions in its range and population size. In addition to habitat loss, two potential causes of decline are female-biased road mortality and high juvenile mortality from non-native predatory bullfrogs (Rana catesbeiana). However, quantitative analyses of these threats have never been conducted for either species of WPT. We used a combination of historical museum samples and published and unpublished field studies shared with us through personal communications with WPT field researchers (B. Shaffer, P. Scott, R. Fisher, C. Brown, R. Dagit, L. Patterson, T. Engstrom, 2019, personal communications) to quantify the effect of roads and bullfrogs on WPT populations along the west coast of the United States. Both species of WPT shift toward increasingly male biased museum collections over the last century, a trend consistent with increasing, female-biased road mortality. Recent WPT population studies revealed that road density and proximity were significantly associated with increasingly male-biased sex ratios, further suggesting female-biased road mortality. The mean body size of museum collections of E. marmorata, but not E. pallida, has increased over the last 100 years, consistent with reduced recruitment and aging populations that could be driven by invasive predators. Contemporary WPT population sites that co-occur with bullfrogs had significantly greater average body sizes than population sites without bullfrogs, suggesting strong bullfrog predation on small WPT hatchlings and juveniles. Overall, our findings indicate that both species of WPT face demographic challenges which would have been difficult to document without the use of both historical data from natural history collections and contemporary demographic field data. Although correlational, our analyses suggest that female-biased road mortality and predation on small turtles by non-native bullfrogs are occurring, and that conservation strategies reducing both may be important for WPT recovery.
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Maia, Arléia Medeiros, José Luiz Leonardo de Araujo Pimenta, José Teixeira Seixas Filho, Silvia da Conceição Reis Pereira Mello, Giselle Eler Amorim Dias, Elaine da Conceição Pinto, Matheus Pereira dos Santos, and Marcelo Maia Pereira. "Feeds formulated with alternative ingredients for bullfrog tadpoles (Lithobates catesbeianus)." Research, Society and Development 11, no. 11 (August 21, 2022): e218111133514. http://dx.doi.org/10.33448/rsd-v11i11.33514.
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Several foods are available for the formulation of rations in Brazil; however, the effectiveness of a few of these foods has been evaluated in diets for bullfrog tadpoles (Lithobates catesbeianus). This study aimed to evaluate alternative foods (worm meal, peeled banana, peeled pumpkin, and peeled avocado) with different levels of crude protein and ether extract for the nutrition of bullfrog tadpoles to obtain the best animal performance and water quality. In a 60 days long experiment, a total of 480 bullfrog tadpoles (stage 25 of the Gosner table, 1960) with an average weight of 0.107 ± 0.004 g, were used. The experimental design was completely randomized (DIC) in a factorial scheme (2x2) with four treatments [rations with 320 g/kg crude protein (CP) and 90 g/kg ether extract (EE); 380 g/kg CP and 90 g/kg EE; T3:320 g/kg CP and 110 g/kg EE; 380 g/kg CP and 110 g/kg EE] each consisting of four replicates. To verify the normality of the data, the results of zootechnical performance, water quality, and proximate composition were subjected to the Shapiro-Wilk and Bartlett tests. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was then performed, and the means were compared using Duncan's test at 5% of probability. The verified results of animal performance, water quality, and proximate composition were not influenced by the suggested diets. The best diet formulated based on easily acquired alternative ingredients can offer 320 g/kg CP and 90 g/kg EE to the tadpoles of bullfrog.
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Davim, André, Tereza Dantas, and Márcia Pereira. "Analysis of the Anti-Inflammatory Potential of Pure and Microemulsified Bullfrog Oil in Acute Lung Injury." Journal of Morphological Sciences 35, no. 02 (June 2018): 102–5. http://dx.doi.org/10.1055/s-0038-1669933.
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AbstractInfectious diseases account for more than a third of all hospital admissions, and are highly prevalent in intensive care units. Currently, sepsis is one of the diseases with the highest morbidity and mortality rates worldwide, with death rates reaching up to 60% among intensive care patients, according to statistics from low-income countries. The prominence of multi-resistant microorganisms is rising, while the possibilities of development of new target drugs are being exhausted. Thus, the objective of the present study was to evaluate the anti-inflammatory potential of bullfrog oil in its pure state and in a microemulsion system in an experimental model of sepsis. Mice were separated into three groups and treated with bullfrog oil in its pure state, in a microemulsion, and with saline solution, and subsequently submitted to induction of sepsis. Bronchoalveolar lavages were performed for cell counts, as well as analyses of lung tissue samples. When the washings were analyzed, no statistically significant difference was observed in cell migration between the experimental groups, but a difference was observed between these groups and the saline solution group. When the lung tissue samples were analyzed, intense tissue wear was observed in the bullfrog oil groups, with the presence of cellular infiltrate and rupture of respiratory bronchioles and alveoli. However, in the microemulsion group, no major tissue wear was observed, and the pulmonary parenchyma was more preserved. Thus, we concluded that bullfrog oil in pure form and in a microemulsion system are good modulators of the inflammatory response, with the microemulsion system being more efficient in protecting lung tissue.
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Stéfani, Marta Verardino De, Marcelo Maia Pereira, Marcio Roberto Reche, and Cleber Fernando Menegasso Mansano. "Fecal collection methods for the determination of protein digestibility in bullfrogs." Ciência Rural 45, no. 8 (August 2015): 1492–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/0103-8478cr20141369.
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Adequate methods for the determination of protein digestibility in bullfrogs are important for the understanding of nutrient utilization. Therefore, this study evaluated two methods of feces collection: intestinal dissection and fecal decantation, using cylindric-conical tanks. Frogs were fed with a commercial diet (45% crude protein) which was ground and supplemented with 0.5% chromium oxide III. The frogs were fasted 48h before force-feeding (5% of the animal's live weight). For the decantation method, the animals were sacrificed 36 h after force-feeding and feces were collected directly from the large intestine. For the sedimentation method, feces were collected when they appeared in the tubes attached to the front end of the cylindric tanks. No significant difference (P>0.05) in the apparent digestibility coefficients of crude protein for dietary was observed between the methods tested (74.0% and 76.4% for the dissection and decantation methods, respectively). In conclusion, both methods can be used for the determination of protein digestibility of bullfrog feeds
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Yu, Tong Lei, Michael Busam, and David A. Pike. "A tradeoff between mate-quality recognition and species recognition in male Bufo gargarizans that co-occur with Rana catesbeiana." Animal Biology 64, no. 1 (2014): 49–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15707563-00002429.
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Typically, anuran amphibians favor larger females as mates because larger females lay more eggs; thus, males in amplexus can increase the number of eggs fertilized, and fitness. However, males may also prefer those females that were closest to the norm for their population in overlapping populations, and these individuals do not receive the benefits of enhanced fertilization success. In this study, we test how male Bufo gargarizans choose mates in the presence and absence of an invasive species, bullfrogs (Rana catesbeiana). When given a simultaneous choice between a small male and a large female toad, males discriminated between the sexes and attempted to clasp a large female. However, when one male toad was presented with a large female bullfrog and a small female toad, the males chose both with equal frequency. Therefore, male B. gargarizans appears to trade-off between species and mate-quality recognition, such that those toads co-occurring with heterospecifics do not blindly prefer mate-quality to ensure conspecific matings.