Journal articles on the topic 'Caffeine Cigarette smokers'

Cigarette smoking has been associated with delayed sleep onset and diminished sleep duration, primarily on the bases of responses to one-shot questionnaires. This study used a survey format of daily diaries to observe sleep quality. 29 smokers were matched for age, ethnicity, and gender with 29 nonsmokers. Both groups recorded information on cigarette, alcohol, caffeine consumption, daily stress, and sleep quality. While the results showed that smokers were more likely to experience poor sleep than nonsmokers, these data are difficult to interpret because smokers also used significantly greater amounts of alcohol and caffeine.

Simultaneous determination of caffeine, cotinine, and 1N-methyluric acid in urine has numerous applications in determining patterns of use by athletes, according to the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) which includes these substances on the Monitoring List. The method can provide information on the enzyme-inducing activity on CYP1A2 of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from cigarette smoke. Urine samples from 30 people (15 smokers and 15 non-smokers) were sampled 6 hours after having consumed a beverage with a total caffeine content of 200 mg. A HPLC with UV detection method was used which allowed concomitant determination of the three analytes. The results obtained show different values of caffeine urine concentrations (6.47 � 3.63 mM / L in smokers vs 10.09 � 5.68 in non-smokers, p [0.05) and a higher elimination of N1-methyluric acid by over 50% in smokers (identifiable due to the presence of cotinine, the main metabolite of nicotine).

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is common among 30% of American adults. Former and current smokers are at higher risk for NAFLD compared to never smokers. The ratio of urine caffeine metabolites to caffeine intake—namely, urine caffeine metabolite indices—has previously been used as a proxy for CYP1A2 activity, which is one of the main liver metabolizing enzymes. CYP1A2 activity is associated with NAFLD progression. No studies to our knowledge have examined the associations of liver enzymes, smoking intensity, and secondhand smoke (SES) with CYP1A2 activity (using caffeine metabolite indices) across smoking status. We analyzed national representative samples from the 2009–2010 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES). Interestingly, even within a normal range, several liver enzymes were associated with caffeine metabolite indices, and patterns of many of these associations varied by smoking status. For instance, within a normal range, aspartate aminotransferase (AST) in never smokers and bilirubin in current smokers were inversely associated with 1-methyluric acid and 5-acetylamino-6-amino-3-methyluracil (URXAMU). Furthermore, we observed a common pattern: across all smoking statuses, higher AST/alanine aminotransferase (AST/ALT) was associated with 1-methyluric acid and URXAMU. Moreover, in current smokers, increased lifelong smoking intensity was associated with reduced caffeine metabolite indices, but acute cigarette exposure as measured by SES levels was associated with increased caffeine metabolite indices among never smokers. In summary, commonly used liver enzyme tests can reflect the CYP1A2 activity even within a normal range, but the selection of these enzymes depends on the smoking status; the associations between smoking and the CYP1A2 activity not only depend on the intensity but also the duration of tobacco exposure.

Existing US epidemiological data demonstrate that consumption of smokeless tobacco, particularly moist snuff, is less harmful than cigarette smoking. However, the molecular and biochemical changes due to moist snuff consumption relative to smoking remain incompletely understood. We previously reported that smokers (SMK) exhibit elevated oxidative stress and inflammation relative to moist snuff consumers (MSC) and non-tobacco consumers (NTC), based on metabolomic profiling data of saliva, plasma, and urine from MSC, SMK, and NTC. In this study, we investigated the effects of tobacco consumption on additional metabolic pathways using pathway-based analysis tools. To this end, metabolic pathway enrichment analysis and topology analysis were performed through pair-wise comparisons of global metabolomic profiles of SMK, MSC, and NTC. The analyses identified >8 significantly perturbed metabolic pathways in SMK compared with NTC and MSC in all 3 matrices. Among these differentially enriched pathways, perturbations of caffeine metabolism, energy metabolism, and arginine metabolism were mostly observed. In comparison, fewer enriched metabolic pathways were identified in MSC compared with NTC (5 in plasma, none in urine and saliva). This is consistent with our transcriptomics profiling results that show no significant differences in peripheral blood mononuclear cell gene expression between MSC and NTC. These findings, taken together with our previous biochemical, metabolomic, and transcriptomic analysis results, provide a better understanding of the relative changes in healthy tobacco consumers, and demonstrate that chronic cigarette smoking, relative to the use of smokeless tobacco, results in more pronounced biological changes, which could culminate in smoking-related diseases.

BACKGROUND: A relationship between smoking and development of pain syndromes has been suggested in the literature. The present study examined associations between smoke exposure and other related variables, and pain response to suprathreshold electrical stimulation.METHODS: Subjects were prospectively recruited from a population referred to an electrodiagnostic clinic. Information about age, smoke exposure, caffeine and alcohol consumption was obtained, as well as documented objective signs of stress through physical assessment. One investigator applied two standardized 0.1 ms electrical stimulations (50 mA followed by 100 mA) to asymptomatic extremities at the beginning of each electrodiagnostic session, using consistent technique. Subjects used a visual analogue scale to indicate the level of pain felt after each stimulation.RESULTS: Two hundred fifteen women were included. Current smokers and those currently exposed to second-hand smoke had significantly higher pain ratings (P=0.003 for 50 mA, P=0.005 for 100 mA) than those not currently exposed to smoke. Time since exposure was negatively associated with pain ratings. Those with objective signs of stress reported higher levels of pain, which was significant for the 100 mA stimulation (P=0.046). Linear regression modelling indicated that current smoke exposure and alcohol use were associated with higher pain ratings at both 50 mA and 100 mA, while stress was associated with higher pain ratings and older age was associated with lower pain ratings at 100 mA only.INTERPRETATION: Exposure to cigarette smoke is significantly related to higher reported levels of pain experienced in response to electrical stimulation in this study population. Exposure to smoke can add 10 points to the 100-point visual analogue scale compared with subjects without exposure, with alcohol use adding another eight points. Reported pain decreases as length of time since previous exposure to smoke increases.

Little is known about environmental risk factors for hypodontia. The objective of this study was to investigate the association between hypodontia and common environmental risk factors, such as maternal smoking and alcohol and caffeine consumption during pregnancy. Eighty-nine hypodontia cases with 1 or more missing permanent lateral incisors and/or 1 or more missing premolars were enrolled in this clinic-based case-control study. Some 253 controls with no missing teeth were frequency matched to cases by age and sex. Hypodontia was diagnosed using panoramic radiographs. Sociodemographic data were collected from both the participants and their mothers, with maternal self-reported active and passive smoking, as well as alcohol and caffeine consumption during pregnancy, assessed by a questionnaire. Odds ratios (ORs) and their 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated with logistic regression to assess the strength of association between risk factors and hypodontia. OR estimates were then adjusted for possible confounders, such as maternal age at delivery, sex and gestational age of the child, and household socioeconomic background. Significant associations were found between hypodontia and maternal cigarette use during pregnancy, as well as the number of cigarettes smoked per day. The consumption of 10 or more cigarettes per day during pregnancy was associated with greater odds of having a child with hypodontia (adjusted OR, 4.18; 95% CI, 1.48–11.80; P = 0.007). Observed associations between hypodontia, second-hand smoke, and alcohol and caffeine consumption were not statistically significant. Maternal smoking during pregnancy is associated with hypodontia. Larger samples and prospective observational study designs, however, are needed to investigate this association further.

Caffeine–a methylxanthine analogue of the purine bases adenine and guanine–is by far the most consumed neuro-stimulant, being the active principle of widely consumed beverages such as coffee, tea, hot chocolate, and cola. While the best-known action of caffeine is to prevent sleepiness by blocking the adenosine receptors, caffeine exerts a pleiotropic effect on cells, which lead to the activation or inhibition of various cell integrity pathways. The aim of this review is to present the main studies set to investigate the effects of caffeine on cells using the model eukaryotic microorganism Saccharomyces cerevisiae, highlighting the caffeine synergy with external cell stressors, such as irradiation or exposure to various chemical hazards, including cigarette smoke or chemical carcinogens. The review also focuses on the importance of caffeine-related yeast phenotypes used to resolve molecular mechanisms involved in cell signaling through conserved pathways, such as target of rapamycin (TOR) signaling, Pkc1-Mpk1 mitogen activated protein kinase (MAPK) cascade, or Ras/cAMP protein kinase A (PKA) pathway.

It was aimed to investigate the histopathological and biochemical changes in kidney tissues of rats exposed to cigarette smoke and possible protective effects of caffeic acid phenethyl ester (CAPE) on these changes. Twenty one male Wistar albino rats were divided into three equal groups. Animals in group I were used as control. Rats in group II were exposed to cigarette smoke and rats in group III were exposed to cigarette smoke and daily administration of CAPE. At the end of the 60-day experimental period, all the animals were sacrificed by decapitation. The serum samples obtained from the animals were studied for uric acid, creatinine and blood urine nitrogen (BUN) levels. Following routine histological procedures, kidney tissue specimens were examined under a light microscope. In addition, dismutase (SOD) and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) enzyme activities and malondialdehyde (MDA) and nitric oxide (NO) contents were determined spectrophotometrically in tissue samples. It was found that serum uric acid and BUN levels of the rats exposed to cigarette smoke alone were elevated, although serum creatinine levels did not significantly change. Furthermore, renal SOD, GSH-Px, NO and MDA levels were significantly increased. These increases in serum BUN, and renal SOD, GSH-Px, NO and MDA levels were significantly inhibited by CAPE treatment. In light microscopic observations of tissues from rats exposed to smoke, mesangial cell proliferation in the renal corpuscles, dilatation and congestion in the peritubular capillaries and degenerative alterations in the proximal tubules were noted. There were also atrophic renal corpuscles. However, these histopathological changes were partially disappeared in the rats exposed to cigarette smoke plus CAPE. The present findings indicate that cigarette smoke causes impairment in renal structure and function, which can be prevented by CAPE administration.

Caffeinated beverages are a part of daily life. Caffeinated beverages such as coffee, tea, energy drinks, and soft drinks are easy to purchase and are frequently consumed by young college students. Moreover, smoking influences the consumption of caffeinated beverages. The concentration of caffeine in these products is an attractive factor for individuals that desire the effects of caffeine; however, abusing such products may lead to poor sleep quality. The motivations that drive caffeinated beverage consumption were investigated in this study through a survey. Self-reported questionnaires were distributed on campus to students enrolled at a university in Korea. The motivations of the students for consuming each caffeinated beverage and their sleep quality were investigated. The results of exploratory factor analysis showed the motivations for caffeinated beverage consumption were alertness, taste, mood, socialization, health benefits, and habit. The motivations for consuming each caffeinated beverage product were different. For instance, coffee consumption was motivated by a desire for alertness (B = 0.107, SE = 0.049, t = 2.181, p < 0.05) and by habit (B = 0.345, SE = 0.046, t = 7.428, p < 0.001), whereas tea consumption was influenced by socialization (B = 0.142, SE = 0.060, t = 2.357, p < 0.05). Energy drink consumption was motivated by a desire for alertness (B = 0.100, SE = 0.034, t = 2.966, p < 0.01) and health benefits (B = 0.120, SE = 0.051, t = 2.345, p < 0.05), while the consumption of soft drinks was not motivated by any specific factors. Caffeinated beverage consumption did not show a significant relationship with sleep quality, although the general sleep quality of the respondents was poor. Smoking status showed significant differences in coffee and tea consumption as well as sleep quality. Smokers had a higher intake of coffee and a lower intake of tea than non-smokers. No interaction effect between smoking and coffee on sleep quality was found. Labeling detailing the amount of caffeine in products is necessary and a cautionary statement informing consumers that smoking cigarettes enhances the effects of caffeine should be included.

The vascular endothelium is a favorite early target of cardiovascular risk factors, including cigarette smoking. Here, we investigated the synergistic effects of Sanghuang–Danshen (SD) bioactives on vascular stiffness in a controlled clinical trial of healthy chronic smokers (n = 72). Relative to placebo, 4-week SD consumption at 900 mg/day improves pulse wave velocity (p = 0.0497), reduces systolic blood pressure (peripheral, p = 0.0008; brachial, p = 0.0046; and ankle, p = 0.0066), and increases endothelial nitric oxide synthase activation (p < 0.0001). We then mapped all differential markers obtained from the clinical data, Affymetrix microarray, and 1H NMR metabolomics, together with 12 SD bioactives, onto the network platform termed the context-oriented directed associations. The resulting vascular subnetwork demonstrates that ellagic acid, caffeic acid, protocatechuic acid, cryptotanshinone, tanshinone I, and tanshinone IIA are linked to NOS3, ARG2, and EDN1 for vascular dilation, implicated with arginine/proline metabolism. They are also linked to SUCLG1, CYP1A1, and succinate related to the mitochondrial metabolism and detoxification, implicated with various metabolic pathways. These results could explain the synergistic action mechanisms of SD bioactives in the regulation of vascular endothelial dilation and metabolism, confirming the potential of SD in improving vascular stiffness and blood pressure in healthy smokers.

Caffeic acid is a natural antioxidant, largely distributed in plant tissues and food sources, possessing anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and anticarcinogenic properties. The object of this investigation was the development of a formulation for caffeic acid cutaneous administration. To this aim, caffeic acid has been loaded in solid lipid nanoparticles by hot homogenization and ultrasonication, obtaining aqueous dispersions with high drug encapsulation efficiency and 200 nm mean dimension, as assessed by photon correlation spectroscopy. With the aim to improve the consistence of the aqueous nanodispersions, different types of polymers have been considered. Particularly, poloxamer 407 and hyaluronic acid gels containing caffeic acid have been produced and characterized by X-ray and rheological analyses. A Franz cell study enabled to select poloxamer 407, being able to better control caffeic acid diffusion. Thus, a nanoparticulate gel has been produced by addition of poloxamer 407 to nanoparticle dispersions. Notably, caffeic acid diffusion from nanoparticulate gel was eight-fold slower with respect to the aqueous solution. In addition, the spreadability of nanoparticulate gel was suitable for cutaneous administration. Finally, the antioxidant effect of caffeic acid loaded in nanoparticulate gel has been demonstrated by ex-vivo evaluation on human skin explants exposed to cigarette smoke, suggesting a protective role exerted by the nanoparticles.

On the evening of Saturday 31 August 1901, the celebrated French novelist Marcel Proust wrote to his mother with characteristic intimacy, recounting his struggle to quell a severe attack of asthma the previous day. Having suffered from periodic attacks of asthma since the age of nine, Proust was familiar with the range of contemporary treatments for the condition: over the years, he had been prescribed opium, caffeine, iodine, and morphine (which had once been injected by his father, Dr Adrien Proust), his nose had been cauterized numerous times, he had adopted a milk diet, and he had occasionally attempted to relieve both his asthma and his hay fever by visiting health resorts, such as Evian-les-Bains, on the shores of Lake Geneva. However, as his note to his mother suggests, Proust's favoured remedy involved the inhalation of smoke from anti-asthma cigarettes or powders:

Background: Menstruation is a natural phenomenon which is an indicator of women’s health that occurs throughout the reproductive years of every female. This phenomenon is unique to the females and governed by the girl’s general health condition, genetic, socioeconomic, and nutritional factors. Although it is a normal physiological process, most females experience some degree of pain and discomfort in their menstruation period. Even though there are limited studies so far reported about the issue in some other parts of the country, there is no scientific evidence in the present study area. Objective: To assess menstrual-associated discomfort and associated factors among undergraduate students in Ambo University, Central Ethiopia, 2018. Methods: Institution-based cross-sectional study was conducted at Ambo University from 30 March to 30 April 2018. Stratified sampling technique was used and 748 study participants were randomly selected from faculties using a multi-stage sampling procedure. Only data from 713 study participants were entered into EpiData 3.1 and analyzed using SPSS version 20.0 software. Logistic regression was used to associate factors with menstrual-associated discomfort. All statistical tests were considered as significant at a p-value of < 0.05. Result: The prevalence of menstrual-associated discomfort was found to be 68.6%. The variables age (Being younger) (adjusted odds ratio = 3.9 (95% confidence interval: 1.28, 11.78)), Tigire ethnicity (adjusted odds ratio = 2.4 (95% confidence interval: 1.02, 5.75)), unmarried (adjusted odds ratio = 2.1 (95% confidence interval: 1.21, 3.76)), smokers (adjusted odds ratio = 2.2 (95% confidence interval: 1.12, 4.29)), drinking caffeine (adjusted odds ratio = 1.8 (95% confidence interval: 1.17, 2.74)), amount of flow (adjusted odds ratio = 2.4 (95% confidence interval: 1.28, 4.62)), and duration of pain (adjusted odds ratio = 4.2 (95% confidence interval: 1.93, 9.29)) were significantly associated with menstrual-associated discomfort. Conclusion: This study revealed that majority of the participants was experienced with menstrual-associated discomfort. As the tendency of smoking cigarettes, drinking caffeine, and amount of flow is increased, menstrual associated discomfort is increased. Therefore, specific plan of action and support is urgently needed in order to enlighten and treat menstrual-associated discomfort.

Nowadays, Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) is still high in Indonesia, it is about 32 per 1.000 livebirths, and low birth weight infants accounted for 34% as the major cause (SDKI, 2012). InDr.M.Yunus hospital at Bengkulu city, cases of LBW has increased from the preceding year,approximately 391 infants (14.4%) of 2713 childbirths. The purpose of this research is known thefactors which affect average of birth weight infants in C1 Midwifery room at Dr.M.Yunus Bengkulu in2013. The study design was observational descriptive with cross-sectional method which the populationare women who delivered in the maternity room at Dr.M.Yunus hospital, and also with accidentalsampling technique which samples are 48 respondents, data were processed using univariate andbivariate. The results of statistical tests showed there are influences of those factors to affect average ofbirth weight infant in Dr.M.Yunus hospital in 2013 and long-standing is the most dominant factor. It isexpected that health workers can be provide counseling to pregnant women in order to know the risks ifthe women have a bad lifestyle (exposure to cigarette smoke, caffeine consumption, and prolongedstanding) and also set the age for pregnancy planning.

Abstract Cotinine is a sensitive and specific biochemical marker of exposure to cigarette smoke. We describe a simple solid-phase extraction of cotinine from plasma before quantification by HPLC. Extraction recovery was 97.9% +/- 11.0% for plasma concentrations of 5-400 micrograms/L. Baseline separation of cotinine and caffeine was achieved within 11 min of injection onto a C18 reversed-phase column. The mobile phase was citric acid/dibasic potassium phosphate (30 mmol/L each, pH 6.0) containing 100 mL of acetonitrile per liter. Within-day and day-to-day precision (CV) were 4.7% and 8.4%, respectively. We also describe a modification of the Nicotine Metabolite RIA kit (Diagnostic Products Corp.) for quantifying cotinine in plasma. Recovery of cotinine from supplemented plasma was within 10% of the expected value with this RIA kit. Interassay precision averaged 8.1% for samples in the range 50-400 micrograms/L; intra-assay precision averaged 3.6% at 230 micrograms/L and 8.7% at 53 micrograms/L. Correlation between the two methods was RIA = 1.13 HPLC + 14.8 (n = 128, r = 0.957, P less than 0.001). Both methods are technically simple to perform.

Nowadays, Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) is still high in Indonesia, it is about 32 per 1.000 livebirths, and low birth weight infants accounted for 34% as the major cause (SDKI, 2012). InDr.M.Yunus hospital at Bengkulu city, cases of LBW has increased from the preceding year,approximately 391 infants (14.4%) of 2713 childbirths. The purpose of this research is known thefactors which affect average of birth weight infants in C1 Midwifery room at Dr.M.Yunus Bengkulu in2013. The study design was observational descriptive with cross-sectional method which the populationare women who delivered in the maternity room at Dr.M.Yunus hospital, and also with accidentalsampling technique which samples are 48 respondents, data were processed using univariate andbivariate. The results of statistical tests showed there are influences of those factors to affect average ofbirth weight infant in Dr.M.Yunus hospital in 2013 and long-standing is the most dominant factor. It isexpected that health workers can be provide counseling to pregnant women in order to know the risks ifthe women have a bad lifestyle (exposure to cigarette smoke, caffeine consumption, and prolongedstanding) and also set the age for pregnancy planning.

Abstract Introduction: Patients with birth defects have a higher incidence of cancer; however, an association of amniotic band syndrome (vascular disruption syndrome) with congenital leukemia has never been reported. We characterized a case of MLL-rearranged leukemia in a neonate affected with this birth defect. Methods: The MLL translocation was characterized in peripheral AML blasts by karyotype analysis, multicolor FISH, Southern blot analysis and genomic and cDNA panhandle PCR. NQO1 genotype was determined by real-time PCR. Clinical history and results: The infant was born at 38 weeks gestation by C-section for suboccipital encephalocele to a 21 year-old gravida 3 para 2 mother with a history of cigarette, marijuana, cocaine and opiate use, and antidepressant, antipsychotic, barbiturate, caffeine and proton pump inhibitor treatment during pregnancy. Drug screen at delivery was positive for opioids and barbiturates. In addition to the encephalocele, a circular constriction of the right arm, consistent with amniotic band syndrome, and blueberry muffin lesions were noted at delivery. The CBC showed mild thrombocytopenia that resolved the next day. Congenital infection was excluded. The encephalocele was repaired. At 19–20 days of age the infant became septic and hepatosplenomegaly and hyperleukocytosis were observed. The peripheral smear and flow cytomery revealed acute myeloid leukemia with monocytic differentiation (CD45+ population positive for CD4, CD14, CD33, CD38, HLA-DR). Karyotype analysis showed a complex structural abnormality disrupting chromosomes 4, 11 and 19 involving MLL. M-FISH showed insertion of chromosome 11 material into a chromosome 19 and translocation between chromosomes 11q and 4q. The infant received cytosine arabinoside and daunomycin but succumbed to AML, sepsis and multi-organ failure within 4 days. Autopsy showed marrow, viscera, brain and skin infiltration with AML and Chiari type III brain malformation. Southern blot analysis detected two MLL bcr rearrangements. Panhandle PCR demonstrated fusion of MLL intron 6 and intron 1 of ELL from band 19p13.1. Short sequence homologies at the breakpoint junction suggested DNA damage resolution by NHEJ repair. The corresponding transcript joined MLL exon 6 to ELL exon 2. The infant was wild-type at NQO1 C609T. Conclusions: This is the first association of amniotic band syndrome and congenital AML, both of which are rare conditions. Although the cause(s) are unknown, both conditions originate in utero and maternal exposures during pregnancy may be relevant. There was a history of maternal fetal loss, which is a risk factor for leukemia in infants. The NQO1 substrate p-benzoquinone in cigarette smoke is a topoisomerase II poison, but the infant did not harbor the NQO1 variant that predisposes to leukemia. Cocaine is an in utero exposure implicated in amniotic band syndrome. The occurrence of amniotic band syndrome and congenital AML in this infant raises questions about potential host predisposition or gene-environment interactions common to both conditions. Alternatively, both rare conditions may have occurred by chance alone in the setting of the many in utero exposures.

Abstract: Coffee contains caffeine which acts to increase cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) production in order to stimulate the motility of spermatozoa. Smoking affects the process of spermatogenesis, semen quality, and testosterone level. This study aimed to determine the effect of coffee on sperm quality of wistar rats exposed to cigarette smoke. This was a descriptive observational study. Samples were 6 wistar rats divided into 3 groups, each of 2 rats. The control group (P0) was exposed to cigarette smoke of 2 cigarettes/day. The P1 group was exposed to cigarette smoke (2 cigarettes/day) and was given 40 mg coffee solution; and the P2 group was exposed to cigarette smoke (2 cigarettes/day) and was given 80 mg coffee solution. The results showed that rats in P2 group showed increases and improvement in the spermatozoa concentration 70.9x106/ml, motility of spermatozoa category A by 55%, and morphologically normal spermatozoa by 55.5%. Conclusion: Coffee can improve the sperm quality of wistar rats Rattus norvegicus exposed to cigarette smoke.Keywords: cigarette, coffee, sperm qualityAbstrak: Kopi mengandung kafein yang berfungsi meningkatkan produksi siklik adenosin monofosfat (cAMP) yang merangsang gerakan spermatozoa. Rokok memengaruhi proses spermatogenesis, kualitas semen, dan kadar hormon testosteron. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui pengaruh kopi terhadap kualitas spermatozoa tikus wistar jantan yang diberi paparan asap rokok. Penelitian ini bersifat observasional deskriptif. Sampel sebanyak 6 ekor tikus wistar jantan: 2 ekor tikus wistar jantan sebagai kontrol (P0) yang hanya diberi paparan asap rokok 2 batang/hari; 2 ekor tikus wistar jantan diberi paparan asap rokok 2 batang/hari dan 40 mg larutan kopi (P1); dan 2 ekor tikus wistar jantan diberi paparan asap rokok 2 batang/hari dan 80 mg larutan kopi (P2). Hasil penelitian memperlihatkan pada kelompok P2 terjadi peningkatan konsentrasi spermatozoa sebesar 70,9x106/ml, peningkatan motilitas spermatozoa kategori A sebesar 55% dan morfologi normal spermatozoa sebesar 55,5%. Simpulan: Kopi dapat meningkatkan kualitas spermatozoa tikus wistar jantan Rattus norvegicus yang diberi paparan asap rokok.Kata kunci: rokok, kopi, kualitas spermatozoa

Introduction: Headache is pain or discomfort in all areas of the head. Based on the causes, headache can be classified as primary headaches and secondary headaches. Headache can be caused by several factors such as hormones, nutrition, weather, stress, pressure, emotional, sensory problems (cigarette smoke, perfume, etc.), lack of sleep, excessive sleep, fatigue and physical activity. Cigarette smoke contains dangerous substances such as nicotine, which can cause blood vessels to become vasoconstrictive and cause headaches. Caffeine can also cause headaches. Caffeine can be consumed instead of coffee, energy drinks, cocoa and soft drinks. The aim was to determine the relationship of smoking and caffeine consumption to the intensity of headache in the 2016 USU FK whip students. Method: Analytical research methods, with cross-sectional research design on students of the 2016 University of North Sumatra School of Medicine. The study population was 227 students of the 2016 Faculty of Medicine, University of North Sumatra. The sampling method of this study was total sampling, taking the entire population of the Batch 2016 Faculty of Medicine students. All subjects were asked to fill out a questionnaire about the identity, smoking rate, level of caffeine consumption, intensity and headache frequency determined using NRS. Data analysis was made with SPSS and tested using a correlation test. Result: Data were analyzed with the Spearman correlation test. The results show 86 respondents are male respondent (38.1%). The female respondents were 140 respondents (61.9%). This makes women the majority gender in this study. Then, the average age value was 21.01 ± 0.048. It was found that Batak tribe respondents had the largest population, as many as 112 respondents (49.6%). Meanwhile the Minang tribe is the least populous population of 5 respondents (2.2%). Found respondents that smoke are 32 respondents (14.2%). Then found respondents that did not smoke are194 respondents (85.8%). 204 respondents consumed caffeine were around 90.3% and 22 respondents that did not consume caffeine which is about 9.7%. Spearman correlation analysis test showed no significant relationship between the number of cigarettes per day and the intensity of headache (p = 0.624) and there was a significant relationship between caffeine intake and headache intensity (p = <0.001). Conclusion: There is no relationship between the number of cigarettes per day to the headache intensity in the 2016 Faculty of Medicine students of University of North Sumatra. But there is a relationship between the number of cups of caffeine per week to headache intensity in the 2016 Faculty of Medicine students of the University of North Sumatra.

Introduction This paper offers a survey of familiar popular music performers and songwriters who reference coffee in their work. It examines three areas of discourse: the psychoactive effects of caffeine, coffee and courtship rituals, and the politics of coffee consumption. I claim that coffee carries a cultural and musicological significance comparable to that of the chemical stimulants and consumer goods more readily associated with popular music. Songs about coffee may not be as potent as those featuring drugs and alcohol (Primack; Schapiro), or as common as those referencing commodities like clothes and cars (Englis; McCracken), but they do feature across a wide range of genres, some of which enjoy archetypal associations with this beverage. m.o.m.m.y. Needs c.o.f.f.e.e.: The Psychoactive Effect of Coffee The act of performing and listening to popular music involves psychological elements comparable to the overwhelming sensory experience of drug taking: altered perceptions, repetitive grooves, improvisation, self-expression, and psychological empathy—such as that between musician and audience (Curry). Most popular music genres are, as a result, culturally and sociologically identified with the consumption of at least one mind-altering substance (Lyttle; Primack; Schapiro). While the analysis of lyrics referring to this theme has hitherto focused on illegal drugs and alcoholic beverages (Cooper), coffee and its psychoactive ingredient caffeine have been almost entirely overlooked (Summer). The most recent study of drugs in popular music, for example, defined substance use as “tobacco, alcohol, marijuana, cocaine and other stimulants, heroin and other opiates, hallucinogens, inhalants, prescription drugs, over-the-counter drugs, and nonspecific substances” (Primack 172), thereby ignoring a chemical stimulant consumed by 90 per cent of adult Americans every day (Lovett). The wide availability of coffee and the comparatively mild effect of caffeine means that its consumption rarely causes harm. One researcher has described it as a ubiquitous and unobtrusive “generalised public activity […] ‘invisible’ to analysts seeking distinctive social events” (Cooper 92). Coffee may provide only a relatively mild “buzz”—but it is now accepted that caffeine is an addictive substance (Juliano) and, due to its universal legality, coffee is also the world’s most extensively traded and enthusiastically consumed psychoactive consumer product (Juliano 1). The musical genre of jazz has a longstanding relationship with marijuana and narcotics (Curry; Singer; Tolson; Winick). Unsurprisingly, given its Round Midnight connotations, jazz standards also celebrate the restorative impact of coffee. Exemplary compositions include Burke/Webster’s insomniac torch song Black Coffee, which provided hits for Sarah Vaughan (1949), Ella Fitzgerald (1953), and Peggy Lee (1960); and Frank Sinatra’s recordings of Hilliard/Dick’s The Coffee Song (1946, 1960), which satirised the coffee surplus in Brazil at a time when this nation enjoyed a near monopoly on production. Sinatra joked that this ubiquitous drink was that country’s only means of liquid refreshment, in a refrain that has since become a headline writer’s phrasal template: “There’s an Awful Lot of Coffee in Vietnam,” “An Awful Lot of Coffee in the Bin,” and “There’s an Awful Lot of Taxes in Brazil.” Ethnographer Aaron Fox has shown how country music gives expression to the lived social experience of blue-collar and agrarian workers (Real 29). Coffee’s role in energising working class America (Cooper) is featured in such recordings as Dolly Parton’s Nine To Five (1980), which describes her morning routine using a memorable “kitchen/cup of ambition” rhyme, and Don't Forget the Coffee Billy Joe (1973) by Tom T. Hall which laments the hardship of unemployment, hunger, cold, and lack of healthcare. Country music’s “tired truck driver” is the most enduring blue-collar trope celebrating coffee’s analeptic powers. Versions include Truck Drivin' Man by Buck Owens (1964), host of the country TV show Hee Haw and pioneer of the Bakersfield sound, and Driving My Life Away from pop-country crossover star Eddie Rabbitt (1980). Both feature characteristically gendered stereotypes of male truck drivers pushing on through the night with the help of a truck stop waitress who has fuelled them with caffeine. Johnny Cash’s A Cup of Coffee (1966), recorded at the nadir of his addiction to pills and alcohol, has an incoherent improvised lyric on this subject; while Jerry Reed even prescribed amphetamines to keep drivers awake in Caffein [sic], Nicotine, Benzedrine (And Wish Me Luck) (1980). Doye O’Dell’s Diesel Smoke, Dangerous Curves (1952) is the archetypal “truck drivin’ country” song and the most exciting track of its type. It subsequently became a hit for the doyen of the subgenre, Red Simpson (1966). An exhausted driver, having spent the night with a woman whose name he cannot now recall, is fighting fatigue and wrestling his hot-rod low-loader around hairpin mountain curves in an attempt to rendezvous with a pretty truck stop waitress. The song’s palpable energy comes from its frenetic guitar picking and the danger implicit in trailing a heavy load downhill while falling asleep at the wheel. Tommy Faile’s Phantom 309, a hit for Red Sovine (1967) that was later covered by Tom Waits (Big Joe and the Phantom 309, 1975), elevates the “tired truck driver” narrative to gothic literary form. Reflecting country music’s moral code of citizenship and its culture of performative storytelling (Fox, Real 23), it tells of a drenched and exhausted young hitchhiker picked up by Big Joe—the driver of a handsome eighteen-wheeler. On arriving at a truck stop, Joe drops the traveller off, giving him money for a restorative coffee. The diner falls silent as the hitchhiker orders up his “cup of mud”. Big Joe, it transpires, is a phantom trucker. After running off the road to avoid a school bus, his distinctive ghost rig now only reappears to rescue stranded travellers. Punk rock, a genre closely associated with recreational amphetamines (McNeil 76, 87), also features a number of caffeine-as-stimulant songs. Californian punk band, Descendents, identified caffeine as their drug of choice in two 1996 releases, Coffee Mug and Kids on Coffee. These songs describe chugging the drink with much the same relish and energy that others might pull at the neck of a beer bottle, and vividly compare the effects of the drug to the intense rush of speed. The host of “New Music News” (a segment of MTV’s 120 Minutes) references this correlation in 1986 while introducing the band’s video—in which they literally bounce off the walls: “You know, while everybody is cracking down on crack, what about that most respectable of toxic substances or stimulants, the good old cup of coffee? That is the preferred high, actually, of California’s own Descendents—it is also the subject of their brand new video” (“New Music News”). Descendents’s Sessions EP (1997) featured an overflowing cup of coffee on the sleeve, while punk’s caffeine-as-amphetamine trope is also promulgated by Hellbender (Caffeinated 1996), Lagwagon (Mr. Coffee 1997), and Regatta 69 (Addicted to Coffee 2005). Coffee in the Morning and Kisses in the Night: Coffee and Courtship Coffee as romantic metaphor in song corroborates the findings of early researchers who examined courtship rituals in popular music. Donald Horton’s 1957 study found that hit songs codified the socially constructed self-image and limited life expectations of young people during the 1950s by depicting conservative, idealised, and traditional relationship scenarios. He summarised these as initial courtship, honeymoon period, uncertainty, and parting (570-4). Eleven years after this landmark analysis, James Carey replicated Horton’s method. His results revealed that pop lyrics had become more realistic and less bound by convention during the 1960s. They incorporated a wider variety of discourse including the temporariness of romantic commitment, the importance of individual autonomy in relationships, more liberal attitudes, and increasingly unconventional courtship behaviours (725). Socially conservative coffee songs include Coffee in the Morning and Kisses in the Night by The Boswell Sisters (1933) in which the protagonist swears fidelity to her partner on condition that this desire is expressed strictly in the appropriate social context of marriage. It encapsulates the restrictions Horton identified on courtship discourse in popular song prior to the arrival of rock and roll. The Henderson/DeSylva/Brown composition You're the Cream in My Coffee, recorded by Annette Hanshaw (1928) and by Nat King Cole (1946), also celebrates the social ideal of monogamous devotion. The persistence of such idealised traditional themes continued into the 1960s. American pop singer Don Cherry had a hit with Then You Can Tell Me Goodbye (1962) that used coffee as a metaphor for undying and everlasting love. Otis Redding’s version of Butler/Thomas/Walker’s Cigarettes and Coffee (1966)—arguably soul music’s exemplary romantic coffee song—carries a similar message as a couple proclaim their devotion in a late night conversation over coffee. Like much of the Stax catalogue, Cigarettes and Coffee, has a distinctly “down home” feel and timbre. The lovers are simply content with each other; they don’t need “cream” or “sugar.” Horton found 1950s blues and R&B lyrics much more sexually explicit than pop songs (567). Dawson (1994) subsequently characterised black popular music as a distinct public sphere, and Squires (2002) argued that it displayed elements of what she defined as “enclave” and “counterpublic” traits. Lawson (2010) has argued that marginalised and/or subversive blues artists offered a form of countercultural resistance against prevailing social norms. Indeed, several blues and R&B coffee songs disregard established courtship ideals and associate the product with non-normative and even transgressive relationship circumstances—including infidelity, divorce, and domestic violence. Lightnin’ Hopkins’s Coffee Blues (1950) references child neglect and spousal abuse, while the narrative of Muddy Waters’s scorching Iodine in my Coffee (1952) tells of an attempted poisoning by his Waters’s partner. In 40 Cups of Coffee (1953) Ella Mae Morse is waiting for her husband to return home, fuelling her anger and anxiety with caffeine. This song does eventually comply with traditional courtship ideals: when her lover eventually returns home at five in the morning, he is greeted with a relieved kiss. In Keep That Coffee Hot (1955), Scatman Crothers supplies a counterpoint to Morse’s late-night-abandonment narrative, asking his partner to keep his favourite drink warm during his adulterous absence. Brook Benton’s Another Cup of Coffee (1964) expresses acute feelings of regret and loneliness after a failed relationship. More obliquely, in Coffee Blues (1966) Mississippi John Hurt sings affectionately about his favourite brand, a “lovin’ spoonful” of Maxwell House. In this, he bequeathed the moniker of folk-rock band The Lovin’ Spoonful, whose hits included Do You Believe in Magic (1965) and Summer in the City (1966). However, an alternative reading of Hurt’s lyric suggests that this particular phrase is a metaphorical device proclaiming the author’s sexual potency. Hurt’s “lovin’ spoonful” may actually be a portion of his seminal emission. In the 1950s, Horton identified country as particularly “doleful” (570), and coffee provides a common metaphor for failed romance in a genre dominated by “metanarratives of loss and desire” (Fox, Jukebox 54). Claude Gray’s I'll Have Another Cup of Coffee (Then I’ll Go) (1961) tells of a protagonist delivering child support payments according to his divorce lawyer’s instructions. The couple share late night coffee as their children sleep through the conversation. This song was subsequently recorded by seventeen-year-old Bob Marley (One Cup of Coffee, 1962) under the pseudonym Bobby Martell, a decade prior to his breakthrough as an international reggae star. Marley’s youngest son Damian has also performed the track while, interestingly in the context of this discussion, his older sibling Rohan co-founded Marley Coffee, an organic farm in the Jamaican Blue Mountains. Following Carey’s demonstration of mainstream pop’s increasingly realistic depiction of courtship behaviours during the 1960s, songwriters continued to draw on coffee as a metaphor for failed romance. In Carly Simon’s You’re So Vain (1972), she dreams of clouds in her coffee while contemplating an ostentatious ex-lover. Squeeze’s Black Coffee In Bed (1982) uses a coffee stain metaphor to describe the end of what appears to be yet another dead-end relationship for the protagonist. Sarah Harmer’s Coffee Stain (1998) expands on this device by reworking the familiar “lipstick on your collar” trope, while Sexsmith & Kerr’s duet Raindrops in my Coffee (2005) superimposes teardrops in coffee and raindrops on the pavement with compelling effect. Kate Bush’s Coffee Homeground (1978) provides the most extreme narrative of relationship breakdown: the true story of Cora Henrietta Crippin’s poisoning. Researchers who replicated Horton’s and Carey’s methodology in the late 1970s (Bridges; Denisoff) were surprised to find their results dominated by traditional courtship ideals. The new liberal values unearthed by Carey in the late 1960s simply failed to materialise in subsequent decades. In this context, it is interesting to observe how romantic coffee songs in contemporary soul and jazz continue to disavow the post-1960s trend towards realistic social narratives, adopting instead a conspicuously consumerist outlook accompanied by smooth musical timbres. This phenomenon possibly betrays the influence of contemporary coffee advertising. From the 1980s, television commercials have sought to establish coffee as a desirable high end product, enjoyed by bohemian lovers in a conspicuously up-market environment (Werder). All Saints’s Black Coffee (2000) and Lebrado’s Coffee (2006) identify strongly with the culture industry’s image of coffee as a luxurious beverage whose consumption signifies prominent social status. All Saints’s promotional video is set in a opulent location (although its visuals emphasise the lyric’s romantic disharmony), while Natalie Cole’s Coffee Time (2008) might have been itself written as a commercial. Busting Up a Starbucks: The Politics of Coffee Politics and coffee meet most palpably at the coffee shop. This conjunction has a well-documented history beginning with the establishment of coffee houses in Europe and the birth of the public sphere (Habermas; Love; Pincus). The first popular songs to reference coffee shops include Jaybird Coleman’s Coffee Grinder Blues (1930), which boasts of skills that precede the contemporary notion of a barista by four decades; and Let's Have Another Cup of Coffee (1932) from Irving Berlin’s depression-era musical Face The Music, where the protagonists decide to stay in a restaurant drinking coffee and eating pie until the economy improves. Coffee in a Cardboard Cup (1971) from the Broadway musical 70 Girls 70 is an unambiguous condemnation of consumerism, however, it was written, recorded and produced a generation before Starbucks’ aggressive expansion and rapid dominance of the coffee house market during the 1990s. The growth of this company caused significant criticism and protest against what seemed to be a ruthless homogenising force that sought to overwhelm local competition (Holt; Thomson). In response, Starbucks has sought to be defined as a more responsive and interactive brand that encourages “glocalisation” (de Larios; Thompson). Koller, however, has characterised glocalisation as the manipulative fabrication of an “imagined community”—whose heterogeneity is in fact maintained by the aesthetics and purchasing choices of consumers who make distinctive and conscious anti-brand statements (114). Neat Capitalism is a more useful concept here, one that intercedes between corporate ideology and postmodern cultural logic, where such notions as community relations and customer satisfaction are deliberately and perhaps somewhat cynically conflated with the goal of profit maximisation (Rojek). As the world’s largest chain of coffee houses with over 19,400 stores in March 2012 (Loxcel), Starbucks is an exemplar of this phenomenon. Their apparent commitment to environmental stewardship, community relations, and ethical sourcing is outlined in the company’s annual “Global Responsibility Report” (Vimac). It is also demonstrated in their engagement with charitable and environmental non-governmental organisations such as Fairtrade and Co-operative for Assistance and Relief Everywhere (CARE). By emphasising this, Starbucks are able to interpellate (that is, “call forth”, “summon”, or “hail” in Althusserian terms) those consumers who value environmental protection, social justice and ethical business practices (Rojek 117). Bob Dylan and Sheryl Crow provide interesting case studies of the persuasive cultural influence evoked by Neat Capitalism. Dylan’s 1962 song Talkin’ New York satirised his formative experiences as an impoverished performer in Greenwich Village’s coffee houses. In 1995, however, his decision to distribute the Bob Dylan: Live At The Gaslight 1962 CD exclusively via Starbucks generated significant media controversy. Prominent commentators expressed their disapproval (Wilson Harris) and HMV Canada withdrew Dylan’s product from their shelves (Lynskey). Despite this, the success of this and other projects resulted in the launch of Starbucks’s in-house record company, Hear Music, which released entirely new recordings from major artists such as Ray Charles, Paul McCartney, Joni Mitchell, Carly Simon and Elvis Costello—although the company has recently announced a restructuring of their involvement in this venture (O’Neil). Sheryl Crow disparaged her former life as a waitress in Coffee Shop (1995), a song recorded for her second album. “Yes, I was a waitress. I was a waitress not so long ago; then I won a Grammy” she affirmed in a YouTube clip of a live performance from the same year. More recently, however, Crow has become an avowed self-proclaimed “Starbucks groupie” (Tickle), releasing an Artist’s Choice (2003) compilation album exclusively via Hear Music and performing at the company’s 2010 Annual Shareholders’s Meeting. Songs voicing more unequivocal dissatisfaction with Starbucks’s particular variant of Neat Capitalism include Busting Up a Starbucks (Mike Doughty, 2005), and Starbucks Takes All My Money (KJ-52, 2008). The most successful of these is undoubtedly Ron Sexsmith’s Jazz at the Bookstore (2006). Sexsmith bemoans the irony of intense original blues artists such as Leadbelly being drowned out by the cacophony of coffee grinding machines while customers queue up to purchase expensive coffees whose names they can’t pronounce. In this, he juxtaposes the progressive patina of corporate culture against the circumstances of African-American labour conditions in the deep South, the shocking incongruity of which eventually cause the old bluesman to turn in his grave. Fredric Jameson may have good reason to lament the depthless a-historical pastiche of postmodern popular culture, but this is no “nostalgia film”: Sexsmith articulates an artfully framed set of subtle, sensitive, and carefully contextualised observations. Songs about coffee also intersect with politics via lyrics that play on the mid-brown colour of the beverage, by employing it as a metaphor for the sociological meta-narratives of acculturation and assimilation. First popularised in Israel Zangwill’s 1905 stage play, The Melting Pot, this term is more commonly associated with Americanisation rather than miscegenation in the United States—a nuanced distinction that British band Blue Mink failed to grasp with their memorable invocation of “coffee-coloured people” in Melting Pot (1969). Re-titled in the US as People Are Together (Mickey Murray, 1970) the song was considered too extreme for mainstream radio airplay (Thompson). Ike and Tina Turner’s Black Coffee (1972) provided a more accomplished articulation of coffee as a signifier of racial identity; first by associating it with the history of slavery and the post-Civil Rights discourse of African-American autonomy, then by celebrating its role as an energising force for African-American workers seeking economic self-determination. Anyone familiar with the re-casting of black popular music in an industry dominated by Caucasian interests and aesthetics (Cashmore; Garofalo) will be unsurprised to find British super-group Humble Pie’s (1973) version of this song more recognisable. Conclusion Coffee-flavoured popular songs celebrate the stimulant effects of caffeine, provide metaphors for courtship rituals, and offer critiques of Neat Capitalism. Harold Love and Guthrie Ramsey have each argued (from different perspectives) that the cultural micro-narratives of small social groups allow us to identify important “ethnographic truths” (Ramsey 22). Aesthetically satisfying and intellectually stimulating coffee songs are found where these micro-narratives intersect with the ethnographic truths of coffee culture. 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