Academic literature on the topic 'Canberra (A.C.T.) Politics and government'

The literature on Congressional control of the bureaucracy has examined how members of Congress pursue strategies such as oversight, the limitation of discretion in legislation [Moe, T. (1989). The politics of bureaucratic structure. In J. E. Chubb & P. E. Peterson (Eds.), Can the Government Govern? Washington, DC: Brookings Institution); Huber, J. D., & Shipan, C. R. (2002). Deliberate discretion: The institutional foundations of bureaucratic autonomy. New York: Cambridge University Press], and the use of tools such as administrative procedures [McCubbins, M., & Schwartz, T. (1984). Congressional oversight overlooked: police patrols vs. fire alarms. American Journal of Political Science, 21(1), 165–179; McCubbins, M., Noll, R., & Weingast, B. (1987). Administrative procedures as instruments of political control. Journal of Law, Economics, and Organization, 3, 243–277] and limitation riders [MacDonald, J. A. (2010). Limitation riders and congressional influence over bureaucratic policy decisions. American Political Science Review, 104 (November), 766–782] to exert influence over executive agency decision making. One area where Congress has attempted to exert control over agency decision-making is through the legislative modification of one of the most common bureaucratic decision-making tools: benefit-cost analysis (BCA). While scholars have examined political influence in agency regulatory impact analysis BCAs for proposed rules [Shapiro, S., & Morrall III, J. F. (2012). The triumph of regulatory politics. Benefit-cost analysis and political salience. Regulation and Governance, 6(2), 189–206], there has been a lack of examination of Congressional modification of agency BCA processes to justify and protect particularized [Mayhew, D. (1974). Congress: The electoral connection. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press] infrastructure projects in their districts. This paper will examine the effect of Congressional control over agency BCA processes to secure particularized benefits by developing an in-depth case study of the Federal Contact Tower Program (FCTP) operated by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) that examines the political and public management implications of Congress’s limitation of the FAA’s autonomy to operate the FCTP under current benefit-cost guidance. Building upon the literature on particularized benefits and Congressional delegation, the results of this study indicate that members of Congress use BCA processes to insulate infrastructure projects in their districts by restricting the ability of agencies to optimize program effectiveness.

Christoph Antons (ed.); Law and development in East and South-East Asia (Adriaan Bedner) David B. Dewitt, Carolina G. Hernandez (eds); Development and security in Southeast Asia (vol. 1 & 2) (Freek Colombijn) Lily Kong, Brenda S.A. Yeoh; The politics of landscape in Singapore; Constructions of ‘nation’ (Ben Derudder) Andrew Hardy; Red hills; Migrants and the state in the highlands of Vietnam (Hans Hägerdal) Hanneman Samuel, Henk Schulte Nordholt (eds); Indonesia in transition; Rethinking ‘civil society’, ‘region’, and ‘crisis’ (david Henley) S. Margana; Pujangga Jawa dan bayang-bayang kolonial (Mason Hoadley) Karel E.M. Bongenaar; De ontwikkeling van het zelfbesturend landschap in Nederlandsch-Indie: 1855-1942 (Gerry van Klinken) Pamela J. Stewart, Andrew Strathern; Humors and substances; Ideas of the body in New Guinea (Michael Lieber) Wu Xiao An; Chinese business in the making of a Malay state, 1882-1941 (Loh Wei Leng) Mikihiro Moriyama; Sundanese print culture and modernity in 19th-century West Java (Julian Millie) Yunita T. Winarto; Seeds of knowledge; The beginning of integrated pest management in Java (Simon Platten) Jelle Miedema, Ger Reesink; One head, many faces; New perspectives on the Bird’s Head Peninsula of New Guinea (Anton Ploeg) Christopher R. Duncan (ed.); Civilizing the margins; Southeast Asian government policies for the development of minorities (Nathan Porath) Rosario Mendoza Cortes, Celestina Puyal Boncan, Ricardo Trota Jose; The Filipino saga; History as social change (Portia L. Reyes) Stephen Dobbs; The Singapore River; A social history, 1819-2002 (Victor R. Savage) Michael Wood; Official history in modern Indonesia; New Order perceptions and counterviews (Henk Schulte Nordholt) Claudio O. Delang (ed.); Living at the edge of Thai society; The Karen in the highlands of northern Thailand (Nicholas Tapp) Andrew C. Willford, Kenneth M. George (eds); Spirited politics: Religion and public life in contemporary Southeast Asia (Bryan S. Turner) Hans Straver, Chris van Fraassen, Jan van der Putten (eds); Ridjali: Historie van Hitu; Een Ambonse geschiedenis uit de zeventiende eeuw (Edwin Wieringa) Z.J. Manusama; Historie en sociale structuur van Hitu tot het midden der zeventiende eeuw (Edwin Wieringa) Edwin Jurriëns; Cultural travel and migrancy; The artistic representation of globalization in the electronic media of West Java (Tim Winter) In: Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde (BKI), no. 162 (2006), no: 1, Leiden

-Johann Angerler, Achim Sibeth, Vom Kultobjekt zur Massenware; Kulturhistorische und kunstethnologische Studie zur figürlichen Holzschnitzkunst der Batak in Nordsumatra/Indonesien. Herbolzheim: Centaurus, 2003, 416 pp. [Sozialökonomische Prozesse in Asien und Afrika 8.] -Greg Bankoff, Eva-Lotta E. Hedman ,Philippine politics and society in the twentieth century; Colonial legacies, post colonial trajectories. London: Routledge, 2000, xv + 206 pp. [Politics in Asia Series.], John T. Sidel (eds) -Peter Boomgard, Andrew Dalby, Dangerous tastes; The story of spices. London: British Museum Press, 2002, 184 pp. -Max de Bruijn, G.J. Schutte, Het Indisch Sion; De Gereformeerde kerk onder de Verenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie. Hilversum: Verloren, 2002, 254 pp. [Serta Historica 7.] -Laura M. Calkins, Jacqueline Aquino Siapno, Gender, Islam, nationalism and the state in Aceh; The paradox of power, co-optation and resistance. London: RoutledgeCurzon, 2002, xxi + 240 pp. -H.J.M. Claessen, Deryck Scarr, A history of the Pacific islands; Passages through tropical time. Richmond: Curzon, 2001, xviii + 323 pp. -Matthew Isaac Cohen, Sean Williams, The sound of the ancestral ship; Highland music of West Java. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001, xii + 276 pp. -Freek Colombijn, Raymond K.H. Chan ,Development in Southeast Asia; Review and prospects. Aldershot: Ashgate, 2002, xx + 265 pp., Kwan Kwok Leung, Raymond M.H. Ngan (eds) -Heidi Dahles, Shinji Yamashita, Bali and beyond; Explorations in the anthropology of tourism. Translated and with an introduction by J.S. Eades, New York: Berghahn, 2003, xix + 175 pp. [Asian Anthropologies.] -Frank Dhont, Hans Antlöv ,Elections in Indonesia; The New Order and beyond. With contributions by Hans Antlöv, Syamsuddin Haris, Endang Turmudi, Sven Cederroth, Kaarlo Voionmaa. London: RoutledgeCurzon, 2004, xii + 164 pp. [Nordic Institute of Asian Studies Monograph Series 88.], Sven Cederroth (eds) -Frank Dhont, Aris Ananta ,Indonesian electoral behaviour; A statistical perspective. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2004, xli + 429 pp. [Indonesia's Population Series 2.], Evi Nurvida Arifin, Leo Suryadinata (eds) -Hans Hägerdal, Arnaud Leveau, Le destin des fils du dragon; L'influence de la communauté chinoise au Viêt Nam et en Thaïlande. Paris: L'Harmattan, Bangkok: Institut de Recherche sur l'Asie de Sud Est Contemporaine, 2003, xii + 88 pp. -Han Bing Siong, A.W.H. Massier, Van recht naar hukum; Indonesische juristen en hun taal, 1915-2000. (Privately published), 2003, xiii + 234 pp. [PhD thesis, Leiden University.] -David Hicks, Andrew Berry, Infinite tropics; An Albert Russel Wallace anthology, with a preface by Stephen Jay Gould. London: Verso, 2002, xviii + 430 pp. -Carool Kersten, J. van Goor, Indische avonturen; Opmerkelijke ontmoetingen met een andere wereld. Den Haag: Sdu Uitgevers, 2000, 294 pp. -Lisa Migo, Robert Martin Dumas, 'Teater Abdulmuluk' in Zuid-Sumatra; Op de drempel van een nieuwe tijdperk. Leiden: Onderzoekschool CNWS, School voor Aziatische, Afrikaanse en Amerindische Studies, 2000, 345 pp. -John N. Miksic, Claude Guillot ,Historie de Barus, Sumatra; Le site de Lobu Tua; II; Étude archéologique et documents. Paris: Association Archipel, 2003, 339 pp. [Cahier d'Archipel 30.], Marie-France Dupoizat, Daniel Perret (eds) -Sandra Niessen, Traude Gavin, Iban ritual textiles. Leiden: KITLV Press, 2003, xi + 356 pp. [Verhandelingen 205.] -Frank Okker, Jan Lechner, Uit de verte; Een jeugd in Indië 1927-1946. Met een nawoord van Gerard Termorshuizen. Leiden: KITLV Uitgeverij, 2004, 151 pp. [Boekerij 'Oost en West'.] -Angela Pashia, William D. Wilder, Journeys of the soul; Anthropological studies of death, burial and reburial practices in Borneo. Phillips ME: Borneo Research Council, 2003, vix + 366 pp. [Borneo Research Council Monograph Series 7.] -Jonathan H. Ping, Huub de Jonge ,Transcending borders; Arabs, politics, trade and Islam in Southeast Asia. Leiden: KITLV Press, 2002, viii + 246 pp. [Proceedings 5.], Nico Kaptein (eds) -Anton Ploeg, William C. Clarke, Remembering Papua New Guinea; An eccentric ethnography. Canberra: Pandanus Books, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, Australian National University, 2003, 178 pp. -Nathan Porath, Gerco Kroes, Same hair, different hearts; Semai identity in a Malay context; An analysis of ideas and practices concerning health and illness. Leiden: Research School of Asian, African and Amerindian Studies (CNWS), Universiteit Leiden, 2002, 188 pp. -Guido Sprenger, Grant Evans, Laos; Culture and society. Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books, 1999, xi + 313 pp. -Gerard Termorshuizen, Dik van der Meulen, Multatuli; Leven en werk van Eduard Douwes Dekker. Nijmegen: SUN, 2002, 912 pp. -Paige West, Karl Benediktsson, Harvesting development; The construction of fresh food markets in Papua New Guinea. Copenhagen: Nordic Institute of Asian Studies/Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2002, xii + 308 pp. -Edwin Wieringa, Amirul Hadi, Islam and state in Sumatra; A study of seventeenth-century Aceh. Leiden: Brill, 2004, xiii + 273 pp. [Islamic History and Civilization, 48.] -Robin Wilson, Pamela J. Stewart ,Remaking the world; Myth, mining and ritual change among the Duna of Papua New Guinea. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 2002, xvi + 219 pp. [Smithsonian Series in Ethnographic Enquiry.], Andrew Strathern (eds)

- K. Alexander Adelaar, James T. Collins, Bibliografi dialek Melayu di pulau Sumatera. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka (Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia), 1995, xliii + 201 pp. [Siri Monograf Bibliografi Sejarah Bahasa Melayu.] - K. Alexander Adelaar, James T. Collins, Bibliografi dialek Melayu di pulau Jawa, Bali dan Sri Lanka. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka (Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia), 1995, xxxvii + 213 pp. [Siri Monograf Bibliografi Sejarah Bahasa Melayu.] - K. Alexander Adelaar, James T. Collins, Bibliografi dialek Melayu di Indonesia Timur. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka (Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia), 1996, xxx + 103 pp. [Siri Monograf Bibliografi Sejarah Bahasa Melayu.] - K. Alexander Adelaar, James T. Collins, Bibliografi dialek Melayu di pulau Borneo. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka (Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia), 1990, xxviii + 100 pp. [Siri Monograf Bibliografi Sejarah Bahasa Melayu.] - Freek L. Bakker, Samuel Wälty, Kintamani; Dorf, Land und Rituale; Entwicklung und institutioneller Wandel in einer Bergregion auf Bali. Münster: Lit Verlag, 1997, xii + 352 pp. - René van den Berg, Linda Barsel, The verb morphology of Mori, Sulawesi. Canberra: Department of Linguistics, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, Australian National University, 1994, x + 139 pp. [Pacific Linguistics Series B-111.] - Martin van Bruinessen, Darul Aqsha, Islam in Indonesia; A survey of events and developments from 1988 to March 1993. Jakarta: INIS, 1995, 535 pp., Dick van der Meij, Johan Hendrik Meuleman (eds.) - Martin van Bruinessen, Niels Mulder, Inside Indonesian society; Cultural change in Java. Amsterdam: Pepin Press, 1996, 240 pp. [Previously published Bangkok, Duang Kamol, 1994.] - Matthew Isaac Cohen, Craig A, Lockard, Dance of life; Popular music and politics in Southeast Asia. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 1998, xix + 390 pp. - Will Derks, Tenas Effendy, Bujang Tan Domang; Sastra lisan orang Petalangan. Yogyakarta: Yayasan Benteng Budaya/Ecole Francaise d’Extrême Orient/The Toyota Foundation, 1997, 818 pp. [Al Azhar and Henri Chambert-Loir (eds).] - Will Derks, Philip Yampolsky, Music from the forests of Riau and Mentawai. Recorded and compiled by Philip Yampolsky; annotated by Hanefi, Ashley Turner, and Philip Yampolsky. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Folkways, 1995. [Music of Indonesia 7SF; CD 40423.] - Will Derks, Philip Yampolsky, Melayu music of Sumatra and the Riau Islands: Zapin, Mak Yong, Mendu, Ronggeng. Recorded, compiled , and annotated by Philip Yampolsky. Washington D.C.: Smithsonian Folkways, 1996. [Music of Indonesia 11 SF; CD 40427.] - Rens Heringa, Roy W. Hamilton, Gift of the cotton maiden; Textiles of Flores and the Solor Islands. Los Angeles: Fowler Museum of Cultural History, University of California, 1994, 287 pp. - Bernice de Jong Boers, Willemijn de Jong, Geschlechtersymmetrie in einer Brautpreisgesellschaft; Die Stoffproduzentinnen der Lio in Indonesien. Berlin: Reimer, 1998, 341 pp. - C. de Jonge, A.Th. Boone, Bekering en beschaving; De agogische activititeiten van het Nederlandsch Zendelinggenootschap in Oost-Java (1840-1865). Zoetermeer: Boekencenturm, 1997, xiv + 222 pp. - Nico Kaptein, Peter G. Riddell, Islam; Essays on scripture, thought and society; A Festschrift in honour of Anthony H. Johns. Leiden: Brill, 1997, xliii + 361 pp., Tony Street (eds.) - Hugo Klooster, Janny de Jong, Niet-westerse geschiedenis; Benaderingen en thema’s. Assen: Van Gorcum, 1998, 185 pp., Gé Prince, Hugo s’Jacob (eds.) - Jean Robert Opgenort, L. Smits, The J.C. Anceaux collection of wordlists of Irian Jaya languages, B: Non-Austronesian (Papuan) languages (Part I). Leiden/Jakarta: Department of Languages and Cultures of Southeast Asia and Oceania, Rijksuniversiteit Leiden/Irian Jaya Studies Interdisciplinary Research Programme (IRIS), 1994, vi + 281 pp. [Irian Jaya Source Materials 9 (Series B No. 3).], C.L. Voorhoeve (eds) (eds.) - Pim Schoorl, Albert Hahl, Gouverneursjahre in Neuguinea. Edited by Wilfried Wagner. Hamburg: Abera Verlag Meyer, 1997, xxxi + 230 pp. - Elly Touwen-Bouwsma, Dieuwke Wendelaar Bonga, Eight prison camps; A Dutch family in Japanese Java. Athens, Ohio: University Center for International Studies, 1996, xii + 219 pp. - Freek Colombijn, Anthony J. Whitten, The ecology of Sumatra. Yogyakarta: Gadjah Mada University Press, 1987 [First edition 1984], xxiii + 583 pp., photographs, figures, tables, index., Sengli J. Damanik, Jazanul Anwar (eds.) - David Henley, Anthony J. Whitten, The ecology of Sulawesi. Yogyakarta: Gadjah Mada University Press, 1987, xxi + 777 pp., Muslimin Mustafa, Gregory S. Henderson (eds.) - Peter Boomgaard, Tony Whitten, The ecology of Java and Bali. [Singapore]: Periplus Editions, 1996, xxiii + 969 pp. [The Ecology of Indonesia Series 2.], Roehayat Emon Soeriaatmadja, Surya A. Afiff (eds.) - Han Knapen, Kathy MacKinnon, The ecology of Kalimantan. [Singapore]: Periplus Editions, 1996, xxiv + 802 pp., tables, figures, boxes, index. [The Ecology of Indonesia Series 3.], Gusti Hatta, Hakimah Halim (eds.) - Bernice de Jong Boers, Manon Ossewiejer, Kathryn A. Monk, The ecology of Nusa Tenggara and Maluku. [Singapore]: Periplus Editions, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997, xvii + 966 pages, tables, figures, boxes, annexes, appendixes, index. [The Ecology of Indonesia Series 5.], Yance de Fretes, Gayatri Reksodiharjo-Lilley (eds.) - Freek Colombijn, Tomas Tomascik, The ecology of the Indonesian seas [2 volumes]. Hong Kong: Periplus, 1997, xiv + vi + 1388 pp., photographs, figures, tables, indexes. [The Ecology of Indonesia Series 7-8.], Anmarie Janice Mah, Anugerah Nontji (eds.)

Early childhood development (PAUD) is a fundamental investment that is included in the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Previous research has shown that ECD investment in Indonesia, and its financial governance remains a challenging issue. Through a qualitative approach to a case study method design, this study aims to examine the state of PAUD financial management in Panggungharjo Village, Yogyakarta. This study uses in-depth interviews and desk research as data collection techniques. The instrument was developed from the SABER-ECD World Bank Assessment and ECD Financial Profiling Tools. The results showed that PAUD financial management in established villages had innovative financing, budget management and institutional development resulted in a blueprint for managing PAUD financing in other villages in Indonesia. Important policy objectives in all aspects, including the legal framework, cross-sectoral coordination, program coverage, coverage, equity, data availability, quality standards, and compliance with standards, the vision of financing early childhood development will be more achievable for future research. Keywords: Early Childhood, Financial Governance, Village References: Alatas, H., Brinkman, S., Chang, M. C., Hadiyati, T., Hartono, D., Hasan, A., Hyson, M., Jung, H., Kinnell, A., Pradhan, M., & Roesli, R. (2013). Early childhood education and development services in Indonesia. In Education in Indonesia (pp. 82–108). Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. Ambang.Yudanto. (2019). Analisis Kepemimpinan Transformasional Kepala Desa dalam Pengelolaan Badan Usaha Milik Desa: Studi Kasus Bumdes Panggung Lestari, Bantul [Analysis of Village Head Transformational Leadership in Village Owned Enterprise Management: A Case Study of Bumdes Panggung Lestari, Bantul]. The Journal of Business and Management. Antlöv, H., Wetterberg, A., & Dharmawan, L. (2016). Village Governance, Community Life, and the 2014 Village Law in Indonesia. Bulletin of Indonesian Economic Studies, 52(2), 161–183. https://doi.org/10.1080/00074918.2015.1129047 Aqsati, F. A. (2018). Pengelolaan Alokasi Dana Desa untuk Pengembangan Pembedayaan Masyarakat di Desa Panggungharjo [Management of Village Fund Allocation for Community Empowerment Development in Panggungharjo Village]. Resolusi: Jurnal Sosial Politik. Astuti, S. J. W., & Suaedi, F. (2019). Building Independent Villages through Collaborative Governance by Village-Owned Enterprises (Best Practice from Panggungharjo Village, Central Java, Indonesia). Iapa Proceedings Conference, 265. https://doi.org/10.30589/proceedings.2018.200 Basuki, A. F., Setyowati, K., & Wahyunengseh, R. D. (2019). Accountability Model of Financial Management in the Public Sector: A Study on Panggungharjo Village Budget. Bisnis & Birokrasi Journal. https://doi.org/10.20476/jbb.v26i1.10312 Bauhr, M., & Nasiritousi, N. (2013). Resisting Transparency: Corruption, Legitimacy, and the Quality of Global Environmental Policies. Global Environmental Politics, 13(August), 46–64. https://doi.org/10.1162/GLEP Bloom, N., Van Reenen, J., & Williams, H. (2019). A toolkit of policies to promote innovation. Voprosy Ekonomiki, 2019(10), 5–31. https://doi.org/10.32609/0042-8736-2019-10-5-31 Boggild-Jones, I., Gardiner, S., Gustafsson-Wright, E., Castillo, A. M., Castro Espinosa, B., Sánchez Vázquez, G., Rivera Ruíz, M., Hetzel, O., Lugo, H., Khan, A., Mozambique, F., Duarte, S., Fisker, A., Mozambique, A., Briggs, C., Kasajja, M.-S., Anis, K., Campira, P., Figia, N., … Njoroge, S. (2017). Emily Gustafsson-Wright the Standardized Early Childhood Development Costing Tool (SECT) A Global Good to Increase and Improve Investments in Young Children. Brinkman, S. A., Hasan, A., Jung, H., Kinnell, A., & Pradhan, M. (2017). The impact of expanding access to early childhood education services in rural Indonesia. Journal of Labor Economics, 35(S1), S305–S335. https://doi.org/10.1086/691278 Britto, P. R., Engle, P. L., & Super, C. M. (2013). Handbook of Early Childhood Development Research and Its Impact on Global Policy. In Handbook of Early Childhood Development Research and Its Impact on Global Policy. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199922994.001.0001 Cardenas, M., & Cadena, A. M. (2020). How to prioritize Early Childhood? A note on the recent expeerience in Columbia. May 2020. Denboba, A., Hasan, A., & Wodon, Q. (2015). Early Childhood Education and Development in Indonesia. In World Bank Publications. Edi, A. C., & Wardhani, I. S. (2019). Transformational and Transactional Leadership, Understanding How Leadership Cultivates Democratic Citizenship in Panggungharjo, Bantul, Yogyakarta. PCD Journal, 6(2), 239. https://doi.org/10.22146/pcd.35229 Hasan, Amer., Hyson, Marilou., & Chu-Chang, M. (2013). Early childhood education and development in poor villages of Indonesia: Strong foundations, later success. World Bank. Istiqomah, L. (2016). Tiga Pilar Kebijakan Pemerintah dalam Pembinaan PAUD. Golden Age [Three Pillars of Government Policy in Early Childhood Education. Golden Age]: Jurnal Ilmiah Tumbuh Kembang Anak Usia Dini. Jeffrey, D. S., & Guido, S. T. (2014). Financing Sustainable Development: Implementing the SDGs through Effective Investment Strategies and Partnerships. Sustainable Development Solutions Network. Juniar, T. (n.d.). Efektivitas Program Kartu Jakarta Pintar (KIP) Dan Manfaatnya Dalam Meningkatkan Kesejahteraan Sosial Di SDN Bintaro 08 Pagi Jakarta Selatan [The Effectiveness of the Jakarta Smart Card (KIP) Program and Its Benefits in Improving Social Welfare at SDN Bintaro 08 Pagi South Jakarta]. Repository.Uinjkt.Ac.Id. Klees, S. J., Ginsburg, M., Anwar, H., Robbins, M. B., Bloom, H., Busacca, C., Corwith, A., Decoster, B., Fiore, A., Gasior, S., Le, H. M., Primo, L. H., & Reedy, T. D. (2020). The World Bank’s SABER: A Critical Analysis. Comparative Education Review. https://doi.org/10.1086/706757 Kurniawati, S., Suryadarma, D., Bima, L., & Yusrina, A. (2018). Education in Indonesia: A white elephant? Journal of Southeast Asian Economies, 35(2), 185–199. https://doi.org/10.1355/ae35-2e Magnuson, K., & Duncan, G. J. (2016). Can early childhood interventions decrease inequality of economic opportunity? Rsf, 2(2), 123–141. https://doi.org/10.7758/rsf.2016.2.2.05 Mizwar Hasyim, N. (2019). Peningkatan Kemandirian Desa Panggungharjo Melalui Komunikasi Pembangunan [Increasing the Independence of Panggungharjo Village through Development Communication]. Jurnal Pemberdayaan Masyarakat: Media Pemikiran Dan Dakwah Pembangunan, 3(2), 352–376. https://doi.org/10.14421/jpm.2019.032-06 Nakajima, N., Hasan, A., Jung, H., Kinnell, A., Maika, A., & Pradhan, M. (2021). 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This paper shows, through the analysis of the literature and the most recent news, how through the use of neural algorithms and the application of strategies framed in what is called post-truth, certain political groups, mainly those who hold power in democracies with weak institutions, create a segmented reality that serves their interests and that in turn makes the task of exposing the factual facts more complicated.methodologies as long as appropriate teacher training and education processes are in place. Keywords: Post-truth, discrete reality, politics. References [1]P. Berger y T. Luckmann, Construcción social de la realidad, Buenos Aires: Amorrortu Editores, 2003. [2]F. B. Morales Romero y R. R. Martínez Martínez, «La posverdad: identidades colectivas que degeneran las democracias,» Anagramas Rumbos y Sentidos de la Comunicación, vol. 19, nº 37, pp. 111-126, 2020. [3]M. Barón Pulido, Á. Duque Soto, F. Mendoza Lozano y Q.P. 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The pandemic of COVID-19 has afflicted every individual and has initiated a cascade of directly or indirectly involved events in precipitating mental health issues. The human species is a wanderer and hunter-gatherer by nature, and physical social distancing and nationwide lockdown have confined an individual to physical isolation. The present review article was conceived to address psychosocial and other issues and their aetiology related to the current pandemic of COVID-19. The elderly age group has most suffered the wrath of SARS-CoV-2, and social isolation as a preventive measure may further induce mental health issues. Animal model studies have demonstrated an inappropriate interacting endogenous neurotransmitter milieu of dopamine, serotonin, glutamate, and opioids, induced by social isolation that could probably lead to observable phenomena of deviant psychosocial behavior. Conflicting and manipulated information related to COVID-19 on social media has also been recognized as a global threat. Psychological stress during the current pandemic in frontline health care workers, migrant workers, children, and adolescents is also a serious concern. Mental health issues in the current situation could also be induced by being quarantined, uncertainty in business, jobs, economy, hampered academic activities, increased screen time on social media, and domestic violence incidences. The gravity of mental health issues associated with the pandemic of COVID-19 should be identified at the earliest. Mental health organization dedicated to current and future pandemics should be established along with Government policies addressing psychological issues to prevent and treat mental health issues need to be developed. References World Health Organization (WHO) Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) Dashboard. 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Connecting I’ve moved house on the weekend, closer to the centre of an Australian capital city. I had recently signed up for broadband, with a major Australian Internet company (my first contact, cf. Turner). Now I am the proud owner of a larger modem than I have ever owned: a white cable modem. I gaze out into our new street: two thick black cables cosseted in silver wire. I am relieved. My new home is located in one of those streets, double-cabled by Telstra and Optus in the data-rush of the mid-1990s. Otherwise, I’d be moth-balling the cable modem, and the thrill of my data percolating down coaxial cable. And it would be off to the computer supermarket to buy an ASDL modem, then to pick a provider, to squeeze some twenty-first century connectivity out of old copper (the phone network our grandparents and great-grandparents built). If I still lived in the country, or the outskirts of the city, or anywhere else more than four kilometres from the phone exchange, and somewhere that cable pay TV will never reach, it would be a dish for me — satellite. Our digital lives are premised upon infrastructure, the networks through which we shape what we do, fashion the meanings of our customs and practices, and exchange signs with others. Infrastructure is not simply the material or the technical (Lamberton), but it is the dense, fibrous knotting together of social visions, cultural resources, individual desires, and connections. No more can one easily discern between ‘society’ and ‘technology’, ‘carriage’ and ‘content’, ‘base’ and ‘superstructure’, or ‘infrastructure’ and ‘applications’ (or ‘services’ or ‘content’). To understand telecommunications in action, or the vectors of fibre, we need to consider the long and heterogeneous list of links among different human and non-human actors — the long networks, to take Bruno Latour’s evocative concept, that confect our broadband networks (Latour). The co-ordinates of our infrastructure still build on a century-long history of telecommunications networks, on the nineteenth-century centrality of telegraphy preceding this, and on the histories of the public and private so inscribed. Yet we are in the midst of a long, slow dismantling of the posts-telegraph-telephone (PTT) model of the monopoly carrier for each nation that dominated the twentieth century, with its deep colonial foundations. Instead our New World Information and Communication Order is not the decolonising UNESCO vision of the late 1970s and early 1980s (MacBride, Maitland). Rather it is the neoliberal, free trade, market access model, its symbol the 1984 US judicial decision to require the break-up of AT&T and the UK legislation in the same year that underpinned the Thatcherite twin move to privatize British Telecom and introduce telecommunications competition. Between 1984 and 1999, 110 telecommunications companies were privatized, and the ‘acquisition of privatized PTOs [public telecommunications operators] by European and American operators does follow colonial lines’ (Winseck 396; see also Mody, Bauer & Straubhaar). The competitive market has now been uneasily installed as the paradigm for convergent communications networks, not least with the World Trade Organisation’s 1994 General Agreement on Trade in Services and Annex on Telecommunications. As the citizen is recast as consumer and customer (Goggin, ‘Citizens and Beyond’), we rethink our cultural and political axioms as well as the axes that orient our understandings in this area. Information might travel close to the speed of light, and we might fantasise about optical fibre to the home (or pillow), but our terrain, our band where the struggle lies today, is narrower than we wish. Begging for broadband, it seems, is a long way from warchalking for WiFi. Policy Circuits The dreary everyday business of getting connected plugs the individual netizen into a tangled mess of policy circuits, as much as tricky network negotiations. Broadband in mid-2003 in Australia is a curious chimera, welded together from a patchwork of technologies, old and newer communications industries, emerging economies and patterns of use. Broadband conjures up grander visions, however, of communication and cultural cornucopia. Broadband is high-speed, high-bandwidth, ‘always-on’, networked communications. People can send and receive video, engage in multimedia exchanges of all sorts, make the most of online education, realise the vision of home-based work and trading, have access to telemedicine, and entertainment. Broadband really entered the lexicon with the mass takeup of the Internet in the early to mid-1990s, and with the debates about something called the ‘information superhighway’. The rise of the Internet, the deregulation of telecommunications, and the involuted convergence of communications and media technologies saw broadband positioned at the centre of policy debates nearly a decade ago. In 1993-1994, Australia had its Broadband Services Expert Group (BSEG), established by the then Labor government. The BSEG was charged with inquiring into ‘issues relating to the delivery of broadband services to homes, schools and businesses’. Stung by criticisms of elite composition (a narrow membership, with only one woman among its twelve members, and no consumer or citizen group representation), the BSEG was prompted into wider public discussion and consultation (Goggin & Newell). The then Bureau of Transport and Communications Economics (BTCE), since transmogrified into the Communications Research Unit of the Department of Communications, Information Technology and the Arts (DCITA), conducted its large-scale Communications Futures Project (BTCE and Luck). The BSEG Final report posed the question starkly: As a society we have choices to make. If we ignore the opportunities we run the risk of being left behind as other countries introduce new services and make themselves more competitive: we will become consumers of other countries’ content, culture and technologies rather than our own. Or we could adopt new technologies at any cost…This report puts forward a different approach, one based on developing a new, user-oriented strategy for communications. The emphasis will be on communication among people... (BSEG v) The BSEG proposed a ‘National Strategy for New Communications Networks’ based on three aspects: education and community access, industry development, and the role of government (BSEG x). Ironically, while the nation, or at least its policy elites, pondered the weighty question of broadband, Australia’s two largest telcos were doing it. The commercial decision of Telstra/Foxtel and Optus Vision, and their various television partners, was to nail their colours (black) to the mast, or rather telegraph pole, and to lay cable in the major capital cities. In fact, they duplicated the infrastructure in cities such as Sydney and Melbourne, then deciding it would not be profitable to cable up even regional centres, let alone small country towns or settlements. As Terry Flew and Christina Spurgeon observe: This wasteful duplication contrasted with many other parts of the country that would never have access to this infrastructure, or to the social and economic benefits that it was perceived to deliver. (Flew & Spurgeon 72) The implications of this decision for Australia’s telecommunications and television were profound, but there was little, if any, public input into this. Then Minister Michael Lee was very proud of his anti-siphoning list of programs, such as national sporting events, that would remain on free-to-air television rather than screen on pay, but was unwilling, or unable, to develop policy on broadband and pay TV cable infrastructure (on the ironies of Australia’s television history, see Given’s masterly account). During this period also, it may be remembered, Australia’s Internet was being passed into private hands, with the tendering out of AARNET (see Spurgeon for discussion). No such national strategy on broadband really emerged in the intervening years, nor has the market provided integrated, accessible broadband services. In 1997, landmark telecommunications legislation was enacted that provided a comprehensive framework for competition in telecommunications, as well as consolidating and extending consumer protection, universal service, customer service standards, and other reforms (CLC). Carrier and reseller competition had commenced in 1991, and the 1997 legislation gave it further impetus. Effective competition is now well established in long distance telephone markets, and in mobiles. Rivalrous competition exists in the market for local-call services, though viable alternatives to Telstra’s dominance are still few (Fels). Broadband too is an area where there is symbolic rivalry rather than effective competition. This is most visible in advertised ADSL offerings in large cities, yet most of the infrastructure for these services is comprised by Telstra’s copper, fixed-line network. Facilities-based duopoly competition exists principally where Telstra/Foxtel and Optus cable networks have been laid, though there are quite a number of ventures underway by regional telcos, power companies, and, most substantial perhaps, the ACT government’s TransACT broadband network. Policymakers and industry have been greatly concerned about what they see as slow takeup of broadband, compared to other countries, and by barriers to broadband competition and access to ‘bottleneck’ facilities (such as Telstra or Optus’s networks) by potential competitors. The government has alternated between trying to talk up broadband benefits and rates of take up and recognising the real difficulties Australia faces as a large country with a relative small and dispersed population. In March 2003, Minister Alston directed the ACCC to implement new monitoring and reporting arrangements on competition in the broadband industry. A key site for discussion of these matters has been the competition policy institution, the Australian Competition and Consumer Commission, and its various inquiries, reports, and considerations (consult ACCC’s telecommunications homepage at http://www.accc.gov.au/telco/fs-telecom.htm). Another key site has been the Productivity Commission (http://www.pc.gov.au), while a third is the National Office on the Information Economy (NOIE - http://www.noie.gov.au/projects/access/access/broadband1.htm). Others have questioned whether even the most perfectly competitive market in broadband will actually provide access to citizens and consumers. A great deal of work on this issue has been undertaken by DCITA, NOIE, the regulators, and industry bodies, not to mention consumer and public interest groups. Since 1997, there have been a number of governmental inquiries undertaken or in progress concerning the takeup of broadband and networked new media (for example, a House of Representatives Wireless Broadband Inquiry), as well as important inquiries into the still most strategically important of Australia’s companies in this area, Telstra. Much of this effort on an ersatz broadband policy has been piecemeal and fragmented. There are fundamental difficulties with the large size of the Australian continent and its harsh terrain, the small size of the Australian market, the number of providers, and the dominant position effectively still held by Telstra, as well as Singtel Optus (Optus’s previous overseas investors included Cable & Wireless and Bell South), and the larger telecommunications and Internet companies (such as Ozemail). Many consumers living in metropolitan Australia still face real difficulties in realising the slogan ‘bandwidth for all’, but the situation in parts of rural Australia is far worse. Satellite ‘broadband’ solutions are available, through Telstra Countrywide or other providers, but these offer limited two-way interactivity. Data can be received at reasonable speeds (though at far lower data rates than how ‘broadband’ used to be defined), but can only be sent at far slower rates (Goggin, Rural Communities Online). The cultural implications of these digital constraints may well be considerable. Computer gamers, for instance, are frustrated by slow return paths. In this light, the final report of the January 2003 Broadband Advisory Group (BAG) is very timely. The BAG report opens with a broadband rhapsody: Broadband communications technologies can deliver substantial economic and social benefits to Australia…As well as producing productivity gains in traditional and new industries, advanced connectivity can enrich community life, particularly in rural and regional areas. It provides the basis for integration of remote communities into national economic, cultural and social life. (BAG 1, 7) Its prescriptions include: Australia will be a world leader in the availability and effective use of broadband...and to capture the economic and social benefits of broadband connectivity...Broadband should be available to all Australians at fair and reasonable prices…Market arrangements should be pro-competitive and encourage investment...The Government should adopt a National Broadband Strategy (BAG 1) And, like its predecessor nine years earlier, the BAG report does make reference to a national broadband strategy aiming to maximise “choice in work and recreation activities available to all Australians independent of location, background, age or interests” (17). However, the idea of a national broadband strategy is not something the BAG really comes to grips with. The final report is keen on encouraging broadband adoption, but not explicit on how barriers to broadband can be addressed. Perhaps this is not surprising given that the membership of the BAG, dominated by representatives of large corporations and senior bureaucrats was even less representative than its BSEG predecessor. Some months after the BAG report, the Federal government did declare a broadband strategy. It did so, intriguingly enough, under the rubric of its response to the Regional Telecommunications Inquiry report (Estens), the second inquiry responsible for reassuring citizens nervous about the full-privatisation of Telstra (the first inquiry being Besley). The government’s grand $142.8 million National Broadband Strategy focusses on the ‘broadband needs of regional Australians, in partnership with all levels of government’ (Alston, ‘National Broadband Strategy’). Among other things, the government claims that the Strategy will result in “improved outcomes in terms of services and prices for regional broadband access; [and] the development of national broadband infrastructure assets.” (Alston, ‘National Broadband Strategy’) At the same time, the government announced an overall response to the Estens Inquiry, with specific safeguards for Telstra’s role in regional communications — a preliminary to the full Telstra sale (Alston, ‘Future Proofing’). Less publicised was the government’s further initiative in indigenous telecommunications, complementing its Telecommunications Action Plan for Remote Indigenous Communities (DCITA). Indigenous people, it can be argued, were never really contemplated as citizens with the ken of the universal service policy taken to underpin the twentieth-century government monopoly PTT project. In Australia during the deregulatory and re-regulatory 1990s, there was a great reluctance on the part of Labor and Coalition Federal governments, Telstra and other industry participants, even to research issues of access to and use of telecommunications by indigenous communicators. Telstra, and to a lesser extent Optus (who had purchased AUSSAT as part of their licence arrangements), shrouded the issue of indigenous communications in mystery that policymakers were very reluctant to uncover, let alone systematically address. Then regulator, the Australian Telecommunications Authority (AUSTEL), had raised grave concerns about indigenous telecommunications access in its 1991 Rural Communications inquiry. However, there was no government consideration of, nor research upon, these issues until Alston commissioned a study in 2001 — the basis for the TAPRIC strategy (DCITA). The elision of indigenous telecommunications from mainstream industry and government policy is all the more puzzling, if one considers the extraordinarily varied and significant experiments by indigenous Australians in telecommunications and Internet (not least in the early work of the Tanami community, made famous in media and cultural studies by the writings of anthropologist Eric Michaels). While the government’s mid-2003 moves on a ‘National Broadband Strategy’ attend to some details of the broadband predicament, they fall well short of an integrated framework that grasps the shortcomings of the neoliberal communications model. The funding offered is a token amount. The view from the seat of government is a glance from the rear-view mirror: taking a snapshot of rural communications in the years 2000-2002 and projecting this tableau into a safety-net ‘future proofing’ for the inevitable turning away of a fully-privately-owned Telstra from its previously universal, ‘carrier of last resort’ responsibilities. In this aetiolated, residualist policy gaze, citizens remain constructed as consumers in a very narrow sense in this incremental, quietist version of state securing of market arrangements. What is missing is any more expansive notion of citizens, their varied needs, expectations, uses, and cultural imaginings of ‘always on’ broadband networks. Hybrid Networks “Most people on earth will eventually have access to networks that are all switched, interactive, and broadband”, wrote Frances Cairncross in 1998. ‘Eventually’ is a very appropriate word to describe the parlous state of broadband technology implementation. Broadband is in a slow state of evolution and invention. The story of broadband so far underscores the predicament for Australian access to bandwidth, when we lack any comprehensive, integrated, effective, and fair policy in communications and information technology. We have only begun to experiment with broadband technologies and understand their evolving uses, cultural forms, and the sense in which they rework us as subjects. Our communications networks are not superhighways, to invoke an enduring artefact from an older technology. Nor any longer are they a single ‘public’ switched telecommunications network, like those presided over by the post-telegraph-telephone monopolies of old. Like roads themselves, or the nascent postal system of the sixteenth century, broadband is a patchwork quilt. The ‘fibre’ of our communications networks is hybrid. To be sure, powerful corporations dominate, like the Tassis or Taxis who served as postmasters to the Habsburg emperors (Briggs & Burke 25). Activating broadband today provides a perspective on the path dependency of technology history, and how we can open up new threads of a communications fabric. Our options for transforming our multitudinous networked lives emerge as much from everyday tactics and strategies as they do from grander schemes and unifying policies. We may care to reflect on the waning potential for nation-building technology, in the wake of globalisation. We no longer gather our imagined community around a Community Telephone Plan as it was called in 1960 (Barr, Moyal, and PMG). Yet we do require national and international strategies to get and stay connected (Barr), ideas and funding that concretely address the wider dimensions of access and use. We do need to debate the respective roles of Telstra, the state, community initiatives, and industry competition in fair telecommunications futures. Networks have global reach and require global and national integration. Here vision, co-ordination, and resources are urgently required for our commonweal and moral fibre. To feel the width of the band we desire, we need to plug into and activate the policy circuits. Thanks to Grayson Cooke, Patrick Lichty, Ned Rossiter, John Pace, and an anonymous reviewer for helpful comments. Works Cited Alston, Richard. ‘ “Future Proofing” Regional Communications.’ Department of Communications, Information Technology and the Arts, Canberra, 2003. 17 July 2003 <http://www.dcita.gov.au/Article/0,,0_1-2_3-4_115485,00.php> —. ‘A National Broadband Strategy.’ Department of Communications, Information Technology and the Arts, Canberra, 2003. 17 July 2003 <http://www.dcita.gov.au/Article/0,,0_1-2_3-4_115486,00.php>. Australian Competition and Consumer Commission (ACCC). Broadband Services Report March 2003. Canberra: ACCC, 2003. 17 July 2003 <http://www.accc.gov.au/telco/fs-telecom.htm>. —. Emerging Market Structures in the Communications Sector. 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MLA Style Goggin, Gerard. "Broadband" M/C: A Journal of Media and Culture< http://www.media-culture.org.au/0308/02-featurebroadband.php>. APA Style Goggin, G. (2003, Aug 26). Broadband. M/C: A Journal of Media and Culture, 6,< http://www.media-culture.org.au/0308/02-featurebroadband.php>

On Wednesday 21 April the Minister for Communications, Information Technology and the Arts introduced a piece of legislation into the Australian Senate to regulate the way Australians use the Internet. This legislation is presented within Australia's existing system of content regulation, a scheme that the Minister describes is not censorship, but merely regulation (Alston 55). Underlying Senator Alston's rhetoric about the protection of children from snuff film makers, paedophiles, drug pushers and other criminals, this long anticipated bill is aimed at reducing the amount of pornographic materials available via computer networks, a censorship regime in an age when regulation and classification are the words we prefer to use when society draws the line under material we want to see, but dare not allow ourselves access to. Regardless of any noble aspirations expressed by free-speech organisations such as Electronic Frontiers Australia relating to the defence of personal liberty and freedom of expression, this legislation is about porn. Under the Bill, Australia would proscribe our citizens from accessing: explicit depictions of sexual acts between consenting adults; mild non-violent fetishes; depictions of sexual violence, coercion or non-consent of any kind; depictions of child sexual abuse, bestiality, sexual acts accompanied by offensive fetishes, or exploitative incest fantasies; unduly detailed and/or relished acts of extreme violence or cruelty; explicit or unjustifiable depictions of sexual violence against non-consenting persons; and detailed instruction or encouragement in matters of crime or violence or the abuse of proscribed drugs. (OFLC) The Australian public, as a whole, favour the availability of sexually explicit materials in some form, with OFLC data indicating a relatively high degree of public support for X rated videos, the "high end" of the porn market (Paterson et al.). In Australia strict regulation of X rated materials in conventional media has resulted in a larger illegal market for these materials than the legalised sex industries of the ACT and Northern Territory (while 1.2 million X rated videos are legally sold out of the territories, 2 million are sold illegally in other jurisdictions, according to Patten). In Australia, censorship of media content has traditionally been based on the principles of the protection of society from moral harm and individual degradation, with specific emphasis on the protection of innocents from material they are not old enough for, or mentally capable of dealing with (Joint Select Committee on Video Material). Even when governments distanced themselves from direct personal censorship (such as Don Chipp's approach to the censorship of films and books in the late 1960s and early 1970s) and shifted the rationale behind censorship from prohibition to classification, the publicly stated aims of these decisions have been the support of existing community standards, rather than the imposition of strict legalistic moral values upon an unwilling society. In the debates surrounding censorship, and especially the level of censorship applied (rather than censorship as a whole), the question "what is the community we are talking about here?" has been a recurring theme. The standards that are applied to the regulation of media content, both online and off, are often the focus of community debate (a pluralistic community that obviously lacks "standards" by definition of the word). In essence the problem of maintaining a single set of moral and ethical values for the treatment of media content is a true political dilemma: a problem that lacks any form of solution acceptable to all participants. Since the introduction of the Internet as a "mass" medium (or more appropriately, a "popular" one), government indecision about how best to treat this new technology has precluded any form or content regulation other than the ad hoc use of existing non-technologically specific law to deal with areas of criminal or legally sanctionable intent (such as the use of copyright law, or the powers under the Crimes Act relating to the improper use of telecommunications services). However, indecision in political life is often associated with political weakness, and in the face of pressure to act decisively (motivated again by "community concern"), the Federal government has decided to extend the role of the Australian Broadcasting Authority to regulate and impose a censorship regime on Australian access of morally harmful materials. It is important to note the government's intention to censor access, rather than content of the Internet. While material hosted in Australia (ignoring, of course, the "cyberspace" definitions of non-territorial existence of information stored in networks) will be censored (removed from Australia computers), the government, lacking extraterritorial powers to compel the owners of machines located offshore, intends to introduce of some form of refused access list to materials located in other nations. What is interesting to consider in this context is the way that slight shifts of definitional paradigm alter the way this legislation can be considered. If information flows (upon which late capitalism is becoming more dependent) were to be located within the context of international law governing the flow of waterways, does the decision to prevent travel of morally dubious material through Australia's informational waterways impinge upon the riparian rights of other nations (the doctrine of fair usage without impeding flow; Godana 50)? Similarly, if we take Smith's extended definition of community within electronic transactional spaces (the maintenance of members' commitment to the group, monitoring and sanctioning behaviour and the production and distribution of resources), then the current Bill proposes the regulation of the activities of one community by another (granted, a larger community that incorporates the former). Seen in this context, this legislation is the direct intervention in an established social order by a larger and less homogeneous group. It may be trite to quote the Prime Minister's view of community in this context, where he states ...It is free individuals, strong communities and the rule of law which are the best defence against the intrusive power of the state and against those who think they know what is best for everyone else. (Howard 21) possibly because the paradigm in which this new legislation is situated does not classify those Australians online (who number up to 3 million) as a community in their own right. In a way the Internet users of Australia have never identified themselves as a community, nor been asked to act in a communitarian manner. While discussions about the value of community models when applied to the Internet are still divided, there are those who argue that their use of networked services can be seen in this light (Worthington). What this new legislation does, however, is preclude the establishment of public communities in order to meet the desires of government for some limits to be placed on Internet content. The Bill does allow for the development of "restricted access systems" that would allow pluralistic communities to develop and engage in a limited amount of self-regulation. These systems include privately accessible Intranets, or sites that restrict access through passwords or some other form of age verification technique. Thus, ignoring the minimum standards that will be required for these communities to qualify for some measure of self-regulatory freedom, what is unspoken here is that specific subsections of the Internet population may exist, provided they keep well away from the public gaze. A ghetto without physical walls. Under the Bill, a co-regulatory approach is endorsed by the government, favouring the establishment of industry codes of practice by ISPs and (or) the establishment of a single code of practice by the content hosting industry (content developers are relegated to yet undetermined complementary state legislation). However, this section of the Bill, in mandating a range of minimum requirements for these codes of practice, and denying plurality to the content providers, places an administrative imperative above any communitarian spirit. That is, that the Internet should have no more than one community, it should be an entity bound by a single guiding set of principles and be therefore easier to administer by Australian censors. This administrative imperative re-encapsulates the dilemma faced by governments dealing with the Internet: that at heart, the broadcast and print press paradigms of existing censorship regimes face massive administrative problems when presented with a communications technology that allows for wholesale publication of materials by individuals. Whereas the limited numbers of broadcasters and publishers have allowed the development of Australia's system of classification of materials (on a sliding scale from G to RC classifications or the equivalent print press version), the new legislation introduced into the Senate uses the classification scheme simply as a censorship mechanism: Internet content is either "ok" or "not ok". From a public administration perspective, this allows government to drastically reduce the amount of work required by regulators and eases the burden of compliance costs by ISPs, by directing clear and unambiguous statements about the acceptability of existing materials placed online. However, as we have seen in other areas of social policy (such as the rationalisation of Social Security services or Health), administrative expedience is often antipathetic to small communities that have special needs, or cultural sensitivities outside of mainstream society. While it is not appropriate to argue that public administration creates negative social impacts through expedience, what can be presented is that, where expedience is a core aim of legislation, poor administration may result. For many Australian purveyors of pornography, my comments will be entirely unhelpful as they endeavour to find effective ways to spoof offshore hosts or bone up (no pun intended) on tunnelling techniques. Given the easy way in which material can be reconstituted and relocated on the Internet, it seems likely that some form of regulatory avoidance will occur by users determined not to have their content removed or blocked. For those regulators given the unenviable task of censoring Internet access it may be worthwhile quoting from Sexing the Cherry, in which Jeanette Winterson describes the town: whose inhabitants are so cunning that to escape the insistence of creditors they knock down their houses in a single night and rebuild them elsewhere. So the number of buildings in the city is always constant but they are never in the same place from one day to the next. (43) Thus, while Winterson saw this game as a "most fulfilling pastime", it is likely to present real administrative headaches to ABA regulators when attempting to enforce the Bill's anti-avoidance clauses. The Australian government, in adapting existing regulatory paradigms to the Internet, has overlooked the informal communities who live, work and play within the virtual world of cyberspace. In attempting to meet a perceived social need for regulation with political and administrative expedience, it has ignored the potentially cohesive role of government in developing self-regulating communities who need little government intervention to produce socially beneficial outcomes. In proscribing activity externally to the realm in which these communities reside, what we may see is a new type of community, one whose desire for a feast of flesh leads them to evade the activities of regulators who operate in the "meat" world. What this may show us is that in a virtual environment, the regulators' net is no match for a world wide web. References Alston, Richard. "Regulation is Not Censorship." The Australian 13 April 1999: 55. Paterson, K., et. al. Classification Issues: Film, Video and Television. Sydney: The Office of Film and Literature Classification, 1993. Patten, F. Personal interview. 9 Feb. 1999. Godana, B.A. Africa's Shared Water Resources: Legal and Institutional Aspects of the Nile, Niger and Senegal River Systems. London: Frances Pinter, 1985. Howard, John. The Australia I Believe In: The Values, Directions and Policy Priorities of a Coalition Government Outlined in 1995. Canberra: Liberal Party, 1995. Joint Select Committee On Video Material. Report of the Joint Select Committee On Video Material. Canberra: APGS, 1988. Office of Film and Literature Classification. Cinema & Video Ratings Guide. 1999. 1 May 1999 <http://www.oflc.gov.au/classinfo.php>. Smith, Marc A. "Voices from the WELL: The Logic of the Virtual Commons." 1998. 2 Mar. 1999 <http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/soc/csoc/papers/voices/Voices.htm>. Winterson, Jeanette. Sexing the Cherry. New York: Vintage Books. 1991. Worthington, T. Testimony before the Senate Select Committee on Information Technologies. Unpublished, 1999. Citation reference for this article MLA style: Peter Chen. "Community without Flesh: First Thoughts on the New Broadcasting Services Amendment (Online Services) Bill 1999." M/C: A Journal of Media and Culture 2.3 (1999). [your date of access] <http://www.uq.edu.au/mc/9905/bill.php>. Chicago style: Peter Chen, "Community without Flesh: First Thoughts on the New Broadcasting Services Amendment (Online Services) Bill 1999," M/C: A Journal of Media and Culture 2, no. 3 (1999), <http://www.uq.edu.au/mc/9905/bill.php> ([your date of access]). APA style: Author. (1999) Community without flesh: first thoughts on the new broadcasting services amendment (online services) bill 1999. M/C: A Journal of Media and Culture 2(3). <http://www.uq.edu.au/mc/9905/bill.php> ([your date of access]).

Discussion of 'economies in transition' often assumes movement from socialist planning to free market capitalism. Vietnam has moved significantly in this direction, but the Communist Party of Vietnam (CPV) claims the long-term transition is to a higher form of socialism than in the past. CPV cadres list a variety of aspects that differentiate their 'socialist-oriented market economy' from a 'capitalist market economy'. What this orientation consists of, and whether there is anything "socialist" about it, is however much debated. This dissertation focuses on the state-owned enterprises as one way to assess whether any authentic socialist orientation exists. It finds considerable complexity in state enterprises, so the assessment is not straight forward. But the complexity includes significant socialist substance. Their decisions regarding investment or profit distribution are not purely commercially driven, and their purported "inefficiency" is often connected to socially beneficial activity, not only for their own workers but within society at large. This helps explain the stubborn tenacity of the state sector, despite years of "liberalising" legislative changes. This is not merely elites who "oppose reform" due to their vested interests. Significant sectors of society also have an interest in opposing the kind of "reform" that would be detrimental to their interests and the social good overall. These conflicting pressures on and in state enterprises are reflected in the debates within the CPV about socialist orientation. One central feature of this orientation is that public forms of ownership must predominate even while capitalism forms part of the economy. But challenging this is a minority who blur the distinction between the socialist-oriented and a capitalist market economy. These two broad tendencies are often labelled "conservatives" and "reformers," implying a value judgement. I propose to rename them the Socialist-Orientation Tendency (SOT), and the Market-Orientation Tendency (MOT), signifying opposing emphases within the "market economy with a socialist orientation" equation. They do not represent hard and fast factional groupings, but rather tendencies of thought; many cadres incorporate elements of both, and both have sprouted sub-tendencies. The role of the state enterprises is often central to the debate between these tendencies and among analysts of Vietnam's political economy. Much has been written showing that they fall short of their socialist purpose. That they allegedly have little relation to social progress is often seen as evidence that the Socialist Orientationists are merely elite ideologues or corrupt officials who use the socialist label to cover their intransigence or malfeasance. This dissertation takes issue with this view.