Journal articles: 'Carbon offsets'

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Wilman, Elizabeth A., and Mahen S. Mahendrarajah. "Carbon Offsets." Land Economics 78, no. 3 (August 2002): 405–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3146898.

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Heffernan, Olive. "Carbon offsets." Nature Climate Change 1, no. 1001 (December 10, 2009): 2. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/climate.2010.129.

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Ristea, Catalin, and Thomas C. Maness. "Opportunities, challenges and markets for forest carbon offset projects." Forestry Chronicle 85, no. 5 (October 1, 2009): 715–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.5558/tfc85715-5.

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Forest-based activities can mitigate climate change by reducing carbon sources and enhancing carbon sinks. Under various emissions-reductions programs, credits (called carbon offsets) can be issued to forestry projects that can credibly demonstrate additional and lasting reductions in CO2 emissions. The greatest potential for forest carbon offset projects currently exists in voluntary emissions reduction programs and markets, which, however, have a negligible value in the global carbon market. Unless their relevance can be proven, forestry-based carbon offset projects will play a minor role in compliance markets. This is mainly due to concerns about the additionality, permanence, and leakage of carbon offsets generated by forestry projects. Key words: forest carbon offset project, emissions trading program, cap and trade, carbon market

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CONTE, MARC N., and MATTHEW J. KOTCHEN. "EXPLAINING THE PRICE OF VOLUNTARY CARBON OFFSETS." Climate Change Economics 01, no. 02 (August 2010): 93–111. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s2010007810000091.

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This paper identifies factors that explain the large variability in the price of voluntary carbon offsets. We estimate hedonic price functions using a variety of provider- and project-level characteristics as explanatory variables. We find that providers located in Europe sell offsets at prices that are approximately 30% higher than providers located in either North America or Australasia. Contrary to what one might expect, offset prices are generally higher, by roughly 20%, when projects are located in developing or least-developed nations. But this result does not hold for forestry-based projects. We find evidence that forestry-based offsets sell at lower prices, and the result is particularly strong when projects are located in developing or least-developed nations. Offsets that are certified under the Clean Development Mechanism or the Gold Standard, and therefore qualify for emission reductions under the Kyoto Protocol, sell at a premium of more than 30%; however, third-party certification from the Voluntary Carbon Standard, one of the popular certifiers, is associated with a price discount. Variables that have no effect on offset prices are the number of projects that a provider manages and a provider's status as for-profit or not-for-profit.

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Anderson, Jay A., Amanda Long, and M. K. (Marty) Luckert. "A financial analysis of establishing poplar plantations for carbon offsets using Alberta and British Columbia’s afforestation protocols." Canadian Journal of Forest Research 45, no. 2 (February 2015): 207–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/cjfr-2014-0097.

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Both Alberta and British Columbia allow the use of carbon offsets for meeting government greenhouse gas emission targets, but the provinces have different offset protocols. In British Columbia, afforested lands may be harvested yet still receive carbon offsets, whereas in Alberta, according to a yet-to-be-approved draft protocol, offsets could be contingent upon afforested lands being set aside as conservation easements. Our work considers the regulatory differences between the provincial carbon protocols as they impact the financial viability of afforestation projects in Alberta and British Columbia. Our results suggest that carbon prices would have to rise to approximately $150 per tonne of carbon dioxide equivalent (tCO2e) before conservation afforestation projects using balsam poplar would be financially viable in Alberta. However, afforesting and harvesting short-rotation hybrid poplar in British Columbia yields financially viable results under current carbon prices if stumpage prices for standing timber were to rise above $50·m–3. There may be other incentives such as the benefits from public relations associated with planting trees that may lead to the implementation of some afforestation carbon offset projects. However, it appears that financial considerations present a significant barrier, making it unlikely that afforestation of private land will play a significant role in generating carbon offsets for Alberta or British Columbia.

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Lal, Rattan. "Biofuels and carbon offsets." Biofuels 5, no. 1 (January 2014): 21–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.4155/bfs.13.62.

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McCauley, DJ. "Offsets, Insets, Carbon Markets." CSA News 66, no. 9 (August 20, 2021): 10–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/csan.20562.

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van Kooten, G. Cornelis. "Biological carbon sinks: Transaction costs and governance." Forestry Chronicle 85, no. 3 (June 1, 2009): 372–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.5558/tfc85372-3.

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Activities that remove CO2 from the atmosphere and store it in forest and agricultural ecosystems can generate CO2-offset credits that can thus substitute for CO2 emissions reduction. Are biological CO2-uptake activities competitive with CO2 offsets from reduced fossil fuel use? In this paper, it is argued that transaction costs impose a formidable obstacle to direct substitution of carbon uptake offsets for emissions reduction in trading schemes, and that separate caps should be set for emissions reduction and sink-related activities. While a tax/subsidy scheme is preferred to emissions trading for incorporating biologically generated CO2 offsets, contracts that focus on the activity, and not the amount of carbon sequestered, are most likely to lead to the lowest transaction costs. Key words: carbon sequestration, transaction costs, climate change

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Freedman, Bill, Graham Stinson, and Paresh Lacoul. "Carbon credits and the conservation of natural areas." Environmental Reviews 17, NA (December 2009): 1–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/a08-007.

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Increasing the amount of organic-carbon stored in the biomass of terrestrial ecosystems is an effective way to reduce the net anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere. This can be done by conserving existing ecological reservoirs of fixed organic-carbon, maintaining or enhancing the rate of sequestration, and restoring stocks that have been depleted by past land-use practices. Most trading systems for greenhouse-gas offsets recognize the validity of projects that gain ecological offsets, and permit them to sell carbon credits in an emerging marketplace for these novel commodities. Although ecological carbon-offset projects have been criticized from a variety of perspectives, most of the supposed problems can be satisfactorily mitigated. In addition to offsetting emissions of greenhouse gases, ecological projects that accumulate carbon credits may have a strong cross-linkage to the conservation of natural values, which in itself is an important action for society to undertake. This is, however, less of a consideration for projects that are based on anthropogenic ecosystems, such as no-till agricultural systems and plantation forests, which provide relatively few benefits to native biodiversity and might even detract from that objective if developed on newly converted natural habitat. Moreover, the existing rules for carbon-offset systems exclude some kinds of ecological projects from the trading markets, even though they would result in avoided emissions or enhanced sequestration of organic-carbon. As the emerging marketplace for carbon offsets grows, it will be important to understand the co-benefits and side effects of offset projects on non-carbon values, including native biodiversity.

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Hope, Emily S., Ben Filewod, Daniel W. McKenney, and Tony C. Lemprière. "A financial analysis of four carbon offset accounting protocols for a representative afforestation project (southern Ontario, Canada)." Canadian Journal of Forest Research 51, no. 7 (July 2021): 1015–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/cjfr-2020-0183.

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Forestry projects participate in carbon markets by sequestering carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e) and producing carbon offsets. The creation of forest-based offsets is guided by protocols that dictate how sequestered CO2e is converted into marketable offsets. Existing protocol designs aim to produce offsets that meet sustainability requirements, while providing financial incentives for landowner participation. However, limited Canadian uptake implies that current financial incentives are insufficient to encourage the production of carbon offsets via private landowners. Here we consider various design features of four protocols and their financial implications for an illustrative afforestation project in southern Ontario, Canada. We explore the protocols (two tonne–tonne protocols and two tonne–year protocols) under two afforestation project management systems (“no-harvest” and “harvest” management scenarios). Results indicate that a project that terminates in a harvest is not economically attractive at current CO2e prices under any protocol design at a scale likely to be undertaken in southern Ontario, Canada. Projects that do not conclude in harvest are generally more attractive. Tonne–tonne protocols that pay upfront for sequestered CO2e improve the economic attractiveness of afforestation projects, but the delayed realization of the value of offset credits under tonne–year protocols reduces the economic attractiveness of these projects. We discuss these results in light of the choices facing afforestation project proponents and offset protocol designers (including governments) in general, and provide detailed insights into the financial dynamics of the Canadian case.

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Freedman, Bill, and Todd Keith. "Planting trees for carbon credits: a discussion of context, issues, feasibility, and environmental benefits." Environmental Reviews 4, no. 2 (April 1, 1996): 100–111. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/a96-006.

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Increasing concentrations of certain atmospheric gases, particularly CO2, may be intensifying Earth's naturally occurring greenhouse effect. Anthropogenic emissions of CO2 are mostly associated with fossil-fuel combustion and deforestation, both of which are intimately associated with diverse economically important activities. This circumstance will make it difficult for society to rapidly achieve large reductions in the emissions of CO2. The extensive planting of trees can contribute to offsetting a portion of the anthropogenic emissions of CO2 and other radiatively active gases (RAGs). Growing plants fix atmospheric CO2 into organic carbon of their accumulating biomass, and ecological budgets suggest that substantial carbon credits can be achieved by planting large numbers of trees, in both urban and rural environments. Moreover, many additional noncarbon environmental benefits are achieved by planting trees over extensive areas. A tree-planting strategy could not, however, be practically used to offset more than a relatively small portion of the RAGs emitted through human activities. This limitation is mostly due to the immense areas of land that would have to be afforested to achieve more substantial offsets. Ultimately, effectively dealing with an anthropogenic enhancement of Earth's greenhouse effect will require a comprehensive integrated strategy, the major component of which will be reduced emissions. However, carbon offsets associated with the planting of trees will also be an important element of that integrated strategy. This review discusses issues involved in the planting of trees to offset emissions of CO2 and other RAGs. Forest-carbon offsets are discussed in the contexts of the greenhouse effect and climate change, options for reducing emissions of CO2, and the feasibility and environmental benefits of achieving CO2 offsets by extensively planting trees. Attention is paid to both carbon and noncarbon benefits, in the contexts of industrial and nonindustrial forests, both urban and rural.Key words: forest-carbon offsets, carbon credits, afforestation, rural forest, urban forest.

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Rose, Helene Agerskov, John Meadows, and Mogens Bo Henriksen. "Bayesian Modeling of Wood-Age Offsets in Cremated Bone." Radiocarbon 62, no. 2 (February 3, 2020): 379–401. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/rdc.2020.3.

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ABSTRACTExperimental studies have shown that significant carbon exchange occurs between bone-apatite and the pyre atmosphere during cremation, which can cause a calendar date offset between the radiocarbon (14C) event and the date of cremation. There are limited empirical data available to assess the magnitude of such wood-age offsets, but the aim of this paper is to test if they can be modeled statistically. We present new 14C dates on modern bone cremated in realistic open-air experiments and on archaeological samples of cremated bone and associated organic material. Experimental results demonstrate a wide range of carbon exchange with a mean of 58.6 ± 14.8%. Archaeological results indicate that the wood-age offsets have an approximately exponential distribution. We test whether the default Charcoal Outlier_Model in OxCal v4.3, developed to reduce the impact of wood-age offsets in dates of charcoal, is appropriate for cremated bone, but find that it slightly underestimates apparent offsets. To counter the intrinsic age of both pyre fuel and unburned bio-apatite, we instead propose a bespoke Cremation Outlier_Model, which combines an exponential distribution of calendar age offsets with a minimum offset, and provides better estimates of the actual dates of cremations.

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Galatowitsch, Susan M. "Carbon Offsets as Ecological Restorations." Restoration Ecology 17, no. 5 (September 2009): 563–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1526-100x.2009.00587.x.

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Corbera, Esteve, and Adrian Martin. "Carbon offsets: Accommodation or resistance?" Environment and Planning A: Economy and Space 47, no. 10 (October 2015): 2023–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0308518x15611666.

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Soulet, Guillaume, Liviu Giosan, Clément Flaux, and Valier Galy. "Using Stable Carbon Isotopes to Quantify Radiocarbon Reservoir Age Offsets in the Coastal Black Sea." Radiocarbon 61, no. 1 (July 18, 2018): 309–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/rdc.2018.61.

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AbstractConstraining radiocarbon (14C) reservoir age offsets is critical to deriving accurate calendar-age chronologies from 14C dating of materials which did not draw carbon directly from the atmosphere. The application of 14C dating to such materials is severely limited in hydrologically sensitive environments like the Black Sea because of the difficulty to quantify reservoir age offsets, which can vary quickly and significantly through time, due to the dynamics of the biogeochemical cycling of carbon. Here we reconstruct 14C reservoir age offsets (Rshell-atm) of Holocene bivalve shells from the coastal Black Sea relatively to their contemporaneous atmosphere. We show that the 14C reservoir age offset and the stable carbon isotope composition of bivalve shells are linearly correlated in this region. From a biogeochemical standpoint, this suggests that inorganic stable carbon isotope and 14C compositions of Black Sea coastal waters are controlled by the balance between autochthonous primary productivity and heterotrophic respiration of allochthonous pre-aged terrestrial organic matter supplied by rivers. This provided an important implication for Black Sea geochronology as the reservoir age offset of 14C-dated bivalve shell can be inferred from its stable carbon isotope composition. Our results provide a fundamental and inexpensive geochemical tool which will considerably improve the accuracy of Holocene calendar age chronologies in the Black Sea.

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Arup, Christopher, and Hao Zhang. "Lessons from Regulating Carbon Offset Markets." Transnational Environmental Law 4, no. 1 (December 2, 2014): 69–100. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s2047102514000272.

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AbstractTo support carbon markets, regulators must engage in a continuous process of learning. This article explores offsets regulation in the compliance markets of Europe, the United States and China, alongside the Clean Development Mechanism, to identify what has been learnt since offsets were initiated. We argue that offsets regulation must learn to work with demands for commercial viability, environmental sustainability and political legitimacy. We find that the learning here recommends greater control of the shares, sectors, sources and standards of offsets than was initially chosen. The findings provide some cautious optimism about the scope for improvements to such market mechanisms.

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de Gorter, Harry, and Dusan Drabik. "Policy Update: Carbon offsets and biofuels." Biofuels 2, no. 3 (May 2011): 255–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.4155/bfs.11.16.

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Dargusch, Paul, and Sebastian Thomas. "A critical role for carbon offsets." Nature Climate Change 2, no. 7 (June 26, 2012): 470. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nclimate1578.

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Anderson, Kevin. "The inconvenient truth of carbon offsets." Nature 484, no. 7392 (April 2012): 7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/484007a.

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van Kooten, G. Cornelis, and Craig M. T. Johnston. "The Economics of Forest Carbon Offsets." Annual Review of Resource Economics 8, no. 1 (October 5, 2016): 227–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-resource-100815-095548.

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Greene, Suzanne, and Cristiano Façanha. "Carbon offsets for freight transport decarbonization." Nature Sustainability 2, no. 11 (October 21, 2019): 994–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41893-019-0413-0.

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Strand, Jon. "Carbon offsets with endogenous environmental policy." Energy Economics 33, no. 2 (March 2011): 371–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eneco.2010.11.006.

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Miller, Brett Alan, William D. Pearse, and Courtney G. Flint. "Saving the Forest from the Trees: Expert Views on Funding Restoration of Northern Arizona Ponderosa Pine Forests through Registered Carbon Offsets." Forests 12, no. 8 (August 21, 2021): 1119. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/f12081119.

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Ponderosa pine forests in the southwestern United States of America are overly dense, increasing the risk of high-intensity stand-replacing wildfires that result in the loss of terrestrial carbon and release of carbon dioxide, contributing to global climate change. Restoration is needed to restore forest structure and function so that a more natural regime of higher frequency, lower intensity wildfires returns. However, restoration has been hampered by the significant cost of restoration and other institutional barriers. To create additional revenue streams to pay for restoration, the National Forest Foundation supported the development of a methodology for the estimation and verification of carbon offsets generated by the restoration of ponderosa pine forests in northern Arizona. The methodology was submitted to the American Carbon Registry, a prominent carbon registry, but it was ultimately rejected. This paper presents a post-mortem examination of that methodology and the reasons it was rejected in order to improve the development of similar methodologies in the future. Using a mixed-methods approach, this paper analyzes the potential atmospheric carbon benefits of the proposed carbon offset methodology and the public and peer-reviewed comments from the associated review of the methodology. Results suggest a misalignment between the priorities of carbon registries and the context-specific ecosystem service benefits of this type of restoration; although findings confirm the potential for reductions in released carbon due to restoration, these results illuminate barriers that complicate registering these reductions as voluntary carbon offsets under current guidelines and best practices, especially on public land. These barriers include substantial uncertainty about the magnitude and timing of carbon benefits. Overcoming these barriers will require active reflexivity by the institutions that register voluntary carbon offsets and the institutions that manage public lands in the United States. Such reflexivity, or reconsideration of the concepts and purposes of carbon offsets and/or forest restoration, will allow future approaches to better align objectives for successfully registering restoration-based voluntary carbon offsets. Therefore, the results of this analysis can inform the development of future methodologies, policies, and projects with similar goals in the same or different landscapes.

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Kathy Dhanda, Kanwalroop. "The role of carbon offsets in achieving carbon neutrality." International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management 26, no. 8 (November 4, 2014): 1179–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/ijchm-03-2013-0115.

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Soulet, Guillaume, Luke C. Skinner, Steven R. Beaupré, and Valier Galy. "A Note on Reporting of Reservoir 14C Disequilibria and Age Offsets." Radiocarbon 58, no. 1 (January 7, 2016): 205–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/rdc.2015.22.

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AbstractReservoir age offsets are widely used to correct marine and speleothem radiocarbon age measurements for various calibration purposes. They also serve as a powerful tracer for carbon cycle dynamics. However, a clear terminology regarding reservoir age offsets is lacking, sometimes leading to miscalculations. This note seeks to provide consistent conventions for reporting reservoir 14C disequilibria useful to a broad range of environmental sciences. This contribution introduces the F14R and δ14R metrics to express the relative 14C disequilibrium between two contemporaneous reservoirs and the R metric as the associated reservoir age offset.

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Carraway, B., and W. Xu. "Forest carbon offsets in the United States." Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 63, no. 4 (July 1, 2008): 119A—120A. http://dx.doi.org/10.2489/jswc.63.4.119a.

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Gillenwater, Michael. "What is wrong with ‘real’ carbon offsets?" Greenhouse Gas Measurement and Management 2, no. 4 (December 2012): 167–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/20430779.2013.781879.

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González-Ramírez, Jimena, Catherine L. Kling, and Adriana Valcu. "An Overview of Carbon Offsets from Agriculture." Annual Review of Resource Economics 4, no. 1 (August 2012): 145–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-resource-083110-120016.

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Sparrow, Lori. "Carbon offsets and First Nations in British Columbia." Forestry Chronicle 88, no. 05 (October 2012): 609–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.5558/tfc2012-113.

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A comparison of pre-Treaty and post-Treaty land title and authority for First Nations pursuing carbon offsets in British Columbia will be filtered through three themes: property rights, shared decision-making and forest governance. The Indian Act (1876) has unclear jurisdiction for pursuing carbon offsets. The Haida Reconciliation Protocol-Kunst’aa guu-Kunst’aayah (2009), Coastal First Nations Reconciliation Protocol (2010) and Nanwakolas First Nations Reconciliation Protocol (2011) address this grey area and achieve protocols that provide certainty for carbon rights. Nisga’a, Tsawwassen, Maa-nulth and Sliammon treaties do not include carbon rights but have the power to instill a carbon project.

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van Kooten, G. Cornelis. "Forest carbon offsets and carbon emissions trading: Problems of contracting." Forest Policy and Economics 75 (February 2017): 83–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.forpol.2016.12.006.

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Wang, Minglu, Bruce McCarl, Hanlin Wei, and Layla Shiva. "Unintended Consequences of Agricultural Participation in Voluntary Carbon Markets: Their Nature and Avoidance." Complexity 2021 (July 17, 2021): 1–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2021/9518135.

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Greenhouse gas (GHG) trading markets have been widely discussed for climate change mitigation. However in implementation coverage has not been universal. Agriculture, despite being the source of nearly 25% of net emissions, has not commonly been capped. But it has been mentioned as voluntary source of net emission offsets. Such offsets could arise from action reducing GHG emissions, enhancing sequestration, or producing feedstocks for low emitting bioenergy replacements for fossil based energy. This could be harnessed by setting up voluntary carbon markets that producers could join at their discretion. However, such a scheme could have unintended consequences. We conduct theoretical and empirical analyses of a voluntary “carbon” market examining both intended and unintended effects. We find certain participation rules can stimulate rebound effects from emitters and suppress participation from sequestration and bioenergy producing entities. To overcome this we develop and simulate offset participation limitations that could preclude unintended consequences.

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Biggs, Jeffrey, and Susanna Laaksonen-Craig. "Viability of carbon offset-generating afforestation projects in boreal Ontario." Forestry Chronicle 82, no. 1 (January 1, 2006): 70–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.5558/tfc82070-1.

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Carbon offsets generated under the Kyoto Protocol (KP) should be included in the management options considered by resource managers. This paper investigates investments in afforestation for the generation of KP-compliant carbon offsets in the Timmins Management Unit, concentrating on the availability of quality carbon budget models, domestic carbon market concerns and the presence of an enabling environment. A modelling exercise is undertaken using GORCAMWC1, with ownership, leading species, investment horizon, site productivity and carbon price as variables. Under current institutional frameworks, afforestation projects with the purpose of generating carbon offsets in the TMU are not viable investments for the first commitment period, though such projects will be profitable under certain conditions if constraints are removed and investment is long term. Key words: afforestation, Kyoto Protocol, boreal Ontario, carbon sequestration

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Dormady, Noah C., and Gabriel Englander. "Carbon allowances and the demand for offsets: a comprehensive assessment of imperfect substitutes." Journal of Public Policy 36, no. 1 (February 10, 2015): 139–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0143814x14000336.

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AbstractThe efficient use of market-based policy instruments is an area of increasing importance as scholars and policymakers work to balance effective climate policy with economic growth. Carbon allowances and carbon offsets, despite being statutorily substitutable, behave in practice like imperfect substitutes. This paper provides a synthesis of extant work, market data and the regulatory frameworks of the world’s major carbon markets, and provides a comprehensive assessment of the drivers of demand for carbon offsets. It also provides a detailed assessment of the process through which international carbon offsets are produced, the UN’s Clean Development Mechanism. Demand for carbon offsets is heavily influenced by key programme design parameters that are specific to carbon market design and its implementation. These design parameters heavily influence the degree to which transaction costs, regulatory uncertainty and risk factor into the decisions of firms operating within the carbon trading programme. This paper also identifies key extra-statutory drivers that are outside of the policymaker’s control, which should be considered in both the policy design and the implementation process. This paper provides an instructive set of guiding criteria for policymakers and scholars for the design of future market-based environmental policy.

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Russell-Roy, Emily T., William S. Keeton, Jennifer A. Pontius, and Charles D. Kerchner. "Rehabilitation forestry and carbon market access onhigh-graded northern hardwood forests." Canadian Journal of Forest Research 44, no. 6 (June 2014): 614–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/cjfr-2013-0437.

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Decades of heavy-cutting and high-grading in the northeastern United States provide an opportunity for rehabilitation and increased carbon stores, yet few studies have examined the feasibility of using carbon markets to restore high-graded forests. We evaluated the effectiveness of rehabilitation on 391 ha of high-graded forest in Vermont, USA. Thirteen silvicultural scenarios were modeled over 100 years using the Forest Vegetation Simulator. Carbon offsets were quantified with the Climate Action Reserve (CAR) and American Carbon Registry (ACR) protocols and evaluated under voluntary and regulatory carbon price assumptions. Results indicate that management scenarios involving no harvest or low-intensity harvest yield the greatest incentives, yet these scenarios include a range of short-term rehabilitation options that provide flexibility for landowners. The choice of protocol also significantly influences results. Although ACR consistently generated more offsets than CAR for the same scenarios (p < 0.05), the protocols yielded similar net present values of US$121–US$256·ha−1 under high offset price assumptions. These returns are comparable to those generated from timber harvest alone under more intensive management scenarios. While timber will continue to be a primary source of revenue for many landowners, carbon markets may increasingly appeal as a new incentive for restoring high-graded forests.

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Marino, Bruno D. V., Nahuel Bautista, and Brandt Rousseaux. "Howland Forest, ME, USA: Multi-Gas Flux (CO2, CH4, N2O) Social Cost Product Underscores Limited Carbon Proxies." Land 10, no. 4 (April 20, 2021): 436. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/land10040436.

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Forest carbon sequestration is a widely accepted natural climate solution. However, methods to determine net carbon offsets are based on commercial carbon proxies or CO2 eddy covariance research with limited methodological comparisons. Non-CO2 greenhouse gases (GHG) (e.g., CH4, N2O) receive less attention in the context of forests, in part, due to carbon denominated proxies and to the cost for three-gas eddy covariance platforms. Here we describe and analyze results for direct measurement of CO2, CH4, and N2O by eddy covariance and forest carbon estimation protocols at the Howland Forest, ME, the only site where these methods overlap. Limitations of proxy-based protocols, including the exclusion of sink terms for non-CO2 GHGs, applied to the Howland project preclude multi-gas forest products. In contrast, commercial products based on direct measurement are established by applying molecule-specific social cost factors to emission reductions creating a new forest offset (GHG-SCF), integrating multiple gases into a single value of merit for forest management of global warming. Estimated annual revenue for GHG-SCF products, applicable to the realization of a Green New Deal, range from ~$120,000 USD covering the site area of ~557 acres in 2021 to ~$12,000,000 USD for extrapolation to 40,000 acres in 2040, assuming a 3% discount rate. In contrast, California Air Resources Board compliance carbon offsets determined by the Climate Action Reserve protocol show annual errors of up to 2256% relative to eddy covariance data from two adjacent towers across the project area. Incomplete carbon accounting, offset over-crediting and inadequate independent offset verification are consistent with error results. The GHG-SCF product contributes innovative science-to-commerce applications incentivizing restoration and conservation of forests worldwide to assist in the management of global warming.

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Jöhnck, Janika, Ann Holbourn, Wolfgang Kuhnt, and Nils Andersen. "Oxygen Isotope Offsets in Deep-Water Benthic Foraminifera." Journal of Foraminiferal Research 51, no. 3 (July 31, 2021): 225–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.2113/gsjfr.51.3.225.

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ABSTRACT Despite the extensive use of the benthic foraminiferal oxygen isotope composition (δ18O) as a proxy for paleoclimatic reconstructions, uncertainties remain regarding the consistency of interspecies offsets and the environmental factors controlling 18O fractionation. We investigated δ18O offsets of some frequently used Uvigerina, Bulimina, and Cibicidoides species in core top samples from different hydrographic and sedimentary regimes in the South China Sea, Makassar Strait, and Timor Strait/Eastern Indian Ocean. The δ18O values of the epifaunal taxa Cibicidoides mundulus and Cibicidoides wuellerstorfi showed no significant offset in all investigated regions, whereas shallow infaunal Cibicidoides species exhibited higher variability and were less reliable. We found no offsets between species of Uvigerina and Bulimina and assume that these genera can be measured together and/or substituted. Our results show that epifaunal taxa are close to equilibrium with ambient seawater and thus provide more reliable records of past ice volume and/or bottom water temperature variations than infaunal taxa. Offsets among equilibrium calcite, epifaunal taxa, and infaunal taxa are not constant “vital effects” but are influenced by changing gradients in bottom to pore water pH and carbonate ion concentrations that depend on deep-water ventilation and export flux of particulate carbonate and organic carbon. Offsets between epifaunal and infaunal taxa varied between 0.58 and 0.73‰, depending on regional bottom and pore water conditions. Our findings highlight the importance of regional and temporal variations in organic carbon flux/degradation and dissolution of calcite that may lead to slight under- or overestimates of the amplitude of δ18O fluctuations, especially during times of rapidly changing calcite-saturation of bottom and pore water.

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van Kooten, Gerrit Cornelis, Timothy N. Bogle, and Frans P. de Vries. "Forest Carbon Offsets Revisited: Shedding Light on Darkwoods." Forest Science 61, no. 2 (April 5, 2015): 370–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.5849/forsci.13-183.

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Rupesinghe, N. L., R. J. Cole, M. Chhowalla, G. A. J. Amaratunga, and P. Weightman. "Tetrahedral amorphous carbon–silicon heterojunction band energy offsets." Diamond and Related Materials 9, no. 3-6 (April 2000): 1148–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0925-9635(00)00195-3.

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de Foresta, Hubert, Rona Dennis, Quirine Ketterings, Daniel Murdiyarso, Cheryl Palm, Fred Stolle, and Meine van Noordwijk. "Carbon offsets for conservation and development in Indonesia?" American Journal of Alternative Agriculture 17, no. 3 (September 1, 2002): 125–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1079/ajaa200219.

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Segerstedt, Anna, and Ulrike Grote. "Increasing adoption of voluntary carbon offsets among tourists." Journal of Sustainable Tourism 24, no. 11 (February 24, 2016): 1541–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2015.1125357.

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Brown, Katrina, and W. Neil Adger. "Economic and political feasibility of international carbon offsets." Forest Ecology and Management 68, no. 2-3 (October 1994): 217–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0378-1127(94)90047-7.

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Marino, Bruno D. V., Martina Mincheva, and Aaron Doucett. "California air resources board forest carbon protocol invalidates offsets." PeerJ 7 (September 23, 2019): e7606. http://dx.doi.org/10.7717/peerj.7606.

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The commercial asset value of sequestered forest carbon is based on protocols employed globally; however, their scientific basis has not been validated. We review and analyze commercial forest carbon protocols, claimed to have reduced net greenhouse gas emissions, issued by the California Air Resources Board and validated by the Climate Action Reserve (CARB-CAR). CARB-CAR forest carbon offsets, based on forest mensuration and model simulation, are compared to a global database of directly measured forest carbon sequestration, or net ecosystem exchange (NEE) of forest CO2. NEE is a meteorologically based method integrating CO2 fluxes between the atmosphere, forest and soils and is independent of the CARB-CAR methodology. Annual carbon accounting results for CAR681 are compared with NEE for the Ameriflux site, Howland Forest Maine, USA, (Ho-1), the only site where both methods were applied contemporaneously, invalidating CARB-CAR protocol offsets. We then test the null hypothesis that CARB-CAR project population data fall within global NEE population values for natural and managed forests measured in the field; net annual gC m−2yr−1 are compared for both protocols. Irrespective of geography, biome and project type, the CARB-CAR population mean is significantly different from the NEE population mean at the 95% confidence interval, rejecting the null hypothesis. The CARB-CAR population exhibits standard deviation ∼5× that of known interannual NEE ranges, is overcrediting biased, incapable of detecting forest transition to net positive CO2 emissions, and exceeds the 5% CARB compliance limit for invalidation. Exclusion of CO2 efflux via soil and ecosystem respiration precludes a valid net carbon accounting result for CARB-CAR and related protocols, consistent with our findings. Protocol invalidation risk extends to vendors and policy platforms such as the United Nations Program on Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+) and the Paris Agreement. We suggest that CARB-CAR and related protocols include NEE methodology for commercial forest carbon offsets to standardize methods, ensure in situ molecular specificity, verify claims of carbon emission reduction and harmonize carbon protocols for voluntary and compliance markets worldwide.

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Schulting, Rick J., Christophe Snoeck, Ian Begley, Steve Brookes, Vladimir I. Bazaliiskii, Christopher Bronk Ramsey, and Andrzej Weber. "Using δ2H in Human Bone Collagen to Correct for Freshwater 14C Reservoir Offsets: A Pilot Study from Shamanka II, Lake Baikal, Southern Siberia." Radiocarbon 60, no. 5 (July 18, 2018): 1521–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/rdc.2018.56.

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ABSTRACTThere is increasing awareness of the need to correct for freshwater as well as marine reservoir effects when undertaking radiocarbon (14C) dating of human remains. Here, we explore the use of stable hydrogen isotopes (δ2H), alongside the more commonly used stable carbon (δ13C) and nitrogen isotopes (δ15N), for correcting 14C freshwater reservoir offsets in 10 paired human-faunal dates from graves at the prehistoric cemetery of Shamanka II, Lake Baikal, southern Siberia. Excluding one individual showing no offset, the average human-faunal offset was 515±175 14C yr. Linear regression models demonstrate a strong positive correlation between δ15N and δ2H ratios, supporting the use of δ2H as a proxy for trophic level. Both isotopes show moderate but significant correlations (r2 ~ 0.45, p < 0.05) with 14C offsets (while δ13C on its own does not), though δ2H performs marginally better. A regression model using all three stable isotopes to predict 14C offsets accounts for approximately 65% of the variation in the latter (r2=0.651, p=0.025), with both δ13C and δ2H, but not δ15N, contributing significantly. The results suggest that δ2H may be a useful proxy for freshwater reservoir corrections, though further work is needed.

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Faubert, Patrick, Sylvie Bouchard, Rémi Morin Chassé, Hélène Côté, Pierre-Luc Dessureault, and Claude Villeneuve. "Achieving Carbon Neutrality for A Future Large Greenhouse Gas Emitter in Quebec, Canada: A Case Study." Atmosphere 11, no. 8 (July 31, 2020): 810. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/atmos11080810.

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To reach the Paris Agreement targets of holding the global temperature increase below 2 °C above the preindustrial levels, every human activity will need to be carbon neutral by 2050. Feasible means for industries to achieve carbon neutrality must be developed and assessed economically. Herein we present a case study on available solutions to achieve net-zero carbon from the get-go for a planned liquefied natural gas (LNG) plant in Quebec, which would classify as a large Canadian greenhouse gas (GHG) emitter. From a literature review, available options were prioritized with the promoter. Each prioritized potential solution is discussed in light of its feasibility and the associated economic opportunities and challenges. Although net-zero carbon is feasible from the get-go, results show that the promoter should identify opportunities to reduce as much as possible emissions at source, cooperate with other industries for CO2 capture and utilization, replace natural gas from fossil sources by renewable sources and offset the remaining emissions by planting trees and/or buying offsets on the compliance and voluntary markets. As some of these solutions are still to be developed, to ensure timely net-zero pledge for the lifespan of the LNG plant, a portfolio and progressive approach to combine offsets and other options is preferable.

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Bumpus, Adam G. "The Matter of Carbon: Understanding the Materiality of tCO2e in Carbon Offsets." Antipode 43, no. 3 (April 15, 2011): 612–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8330.2011.00879.x.

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Jayasuriya, Maneesha T., René H. Germain, and John E. Wagner. "Protecting timberland RMZs through carbon markets: A protocol for riparian carbon offsets." Forest Policy and Economics 111 (February 2020): 102084. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.forpol.2019.102084.

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van Kooten, G. Cornelis, Alison J. Eagle, James Manley, and Tara Smolak. "How costly are carbon offsets? A meta-analysis of carbon forest sinks." Environmental Science & Policy 7, no. 4 (August 2004): 239–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2004.05.006.

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Rawhouser, Hans Nikolas, and Michael E. Cummings. "Measuring Social Value Creation: Lessons from Carbon Offsets Markets." Academy of Management Proceedings 2015, no. 1 (January 2015): 18524. http://dx.doi.org/10.5465/ambpp.2015.18524abstract.

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Lu, Jin-Long, and Zhang Yi Shon. "Exploring airline passengers’ willingness to pay for carbon offsets." Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment 17, no. 2 (March 2012): 124–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2011.10.002.

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Spiekermann, Kai. "Buying Low, Flying High: Carbon Offsets and Partial Compliance." Political Studies 62, no. 4 (June 7, 2013): 913–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1467-9248.12044.

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Journal articles on the topic 'Carbon offsets'

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