Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Cats Cats Wildlife conservation'

Cat ownership in Australia is declining compared to an increasing trend of cat ownership in the United Kingdom, United States and Europe. The decline in Australia may be linked to concerns over perceived impacts of cat predation and an associated dislike of cats. However, while there are numerous studies on feral cats and their impacts on declining native fauna, the impact of pet cats on suburban wildlife or fauna in remnant bushland is relatively unknown although there is a wide perception of risk. The primary aim of this thesis was to apply the precautionary principle to the question of the putative impact of pet cats on the abundance and diversity of small mammals in urban bushland adjacent to low-density suburbia in the City of Armadale, a municipality on the south-east fringe of Perth, Western Australia. At the time of writing, Western Australia is yet to introduce state legislation governing cat control although many local councils within the state have either implemented or are in the process of implementing cat regulations. The precautionary principle was deemed an ideal approach to this question, because it provides a rationale for deciding on possible actions where both the potential risk to environmental values and the uncertainty about possible impacts are high. In such cases the precautionary principle requires two broad lines of action: firstly, detailed consultation with stakeholders to determine their perceptions of risk and the actions they are prepared to take to reduce it and, secondly, research to reduce uncertainty. With regard to stakeholder consultation, local residents were surveyed in regard to their attitudes and current cat husbandry practices. A substantial proportion of respondents within this municipality believed cat regulations were necessary (75% of owners and 95% of non-owners). At least 70% of both owners and non-owners agreed with the propositions that cats not owned by licensed breeders should be desexed, local councils should restrict the maximum number of cats that can be owned on one property and that pet cats entering nature reserves are harmful to wildlife. Most (c.85%) cat owners agreed that they would license their cats if that became compulsory. Although fewer owners (c.60%) were prepared to keep their cats on their property at all times to protect wildlife, over 80% were willing to confine their cats at night if it was required. Owners seemed to be substantially motivated by the value of these measures in reducing injury to cats and facilitating the return of lost animals rather than concern over wildlife protection. Attempts to reduce uncertainty involved (i) assessing roaming patterns of pet cats to determine the sizes of appropriate buffer zones around nature reserves, and (ii) determining species diversity, species richness and abundance of small mammals in remnant bushland adjacent to sub-divisions with varying regulations governing cat husbandry. Radio tracking results to assess cat roaming patterns showed substantial variation in home range size between cats in high density suburbia (ranged between 0.01 ha - 0.64 ha) and those in low density suburbia (ranged from 0.07 ha - 2.86ha). Larger home range sizes of cats in the rural areas (up to 2.9 ha) suggest buffer zones of up to 500 metres around nature reserves are needed to exclude almost all roaming cats. The abundance and species richness of small mammals were investigated in four areas of remnant bushland. Two were adjacent to subdivisions where cat ownership was unrestricted, one next to a subdivision where cat ownership was prohibited and the remaining one next to a subdivision where compulsory night curfew and bells on pet cats were enforced. No definitive evidence of predatory impact by pet cats on the small mammals was found. Mammal species diversity was not significantly different between sites and species richness and absolute abundance were not higher in sites where cats were restricted. Vegetation comparisons showed significant differences in the structure and species composition of the vegetation between most sites and the mammal species richness and abundance appeared linked to ground cover density in the various sites. This factor, not cat restrictions, appeared to be the primary determinant of species richness, species diversity and absolute numbers of small mammals in these sites. This study in the City of Armadale has shown that the implementation of proposed cat legislation must have a 'whole of ecosystem' approach, i.e. protecting identified remnant bushland containing biodiversity from threatening processes such as plant disease and inappropriate fire, especially arson, as well as possible predations from pet cats. Habitat restoration and protection may be more important conservation activities than regulation of cats. Regulation of cats can be done at differing levels of intensity and cost, bearing in mind that this community is receptive to regulation of some aspects of cat ownership. Community education on the values of cat confinement in regards to cat welfare might increase chances of compliance.

Cat ownership in Australia is declining compared to an increasing trend of cat ownership in the United Kingdom, United States and Europe. The decline in Australia may be linked to concerns over perceived impacts of cat predation and an associated dislike of cats. However, while there are numerous studies on feral cats and their impacts on declining native fauna, the impact of pet cats on suburban wildlife or fauna in remnant bushland is relatively unknown although there is a wide perception of risk. The primary aim of this thesis was to apply the precautionary principle to the question of the putative impact of pet cats on the abundance and diversity of small mammals in urban bushland adjacent to low-density suburbia in the City of Armadale, a municipality on the south-east fringe of Perth, Western Australia. At the time of writing, Western Australia is yet to introduce state legislation governing cat control although many local councils within the state have either implemented or are in the process of implementing cat regulations. The precautionary principle was deemed an ideal approach to this question, because it provides a rationale for deciding on possible actions where both the potential risk to environmental values and the uncertainty about possible impacts are high. In such cases the precautionary principle requires two broad lines of action: firstly, detailed consultation with stakeholders to determine their perceptions of risk and the actions they are prepared to take to reduce it and, secondly, research to reduce uncertainty. With regard to stakeholder consultation, local residents were surveyed in regard to their attitudes and current cat husbandry practices. A substantial proportion of respondents within this municipality believed cat regulations were necessary (75% of owners and 95% of non-owners). At least 70% of both owners and non-owners agreed with the propositions that cats not owned by licensed breeders should be desexed, local councils should restrict the maximum number of cats that can be owned on one property and that pet cats entering nature reserves are harmful to wildlife. Most (c.85%) cat owners agreed that they would license their cats if that became compulsory. Although fewer owners (c.60%) were prepared to keep their cats on their property at all times to protect wildlife, over 80% were willing to confine their cats at night if it was required. Owners seemed to be substantially motivated by the value of these measures in reducing injury to cats and facilitating the return of lost animals rather than concern over wildlife protection. Attempts to reduce uncertainty involved (i) assessing roaming patterns of pet cats to determine the sizes of appropriate buffer zones around nature reserves, and (ii) determining species diversity, species richness and abundance of small mammals in remnant bushland adjacent to sub-divisions with varying regulations governing cat husbandry. Radio tracking results to assess cat roaming patterns showed substantial variation in home range size between cats in high density suburbia (ranged between 0.01 ha - 0.64 ha) and those in low density suburbia (ranged from 0.07 ha - 2.86ha). Larger home range sizes of cats in the rural areas (up to 2.9 ha) suggest buffer zones of up to 500 metres around nature reserves are needed to exclude almost all roaming cats. The abundance and species richness of small mammals were investigated in four areas of remnant bushland. Two were adjacent to subdivisions where cat ownership was unrestricted, one next to a subdivision where cat ownership was prohibited and the remaining one next to a subdivision where compulsory night curfew and bells on pet cats were enforced. No definitive evidence of predatory impact by pet cats on the small mammals was found. Mammal species diversity was not significantly different between sites and species richness and absolute abundance were not higher in sites where cats were restricted. Vegetation comparisons showed significant differences in the structure and species composition of the vegetation between most sites and the mammal species richness and abundance appeared linked to ground cover density in the various sites. This factor, not cat restrictions, appeared to be the primary determinant of species richness, species diversity and absolute numbers of small mammals in these sites. This study in the City of Armadale has shown that the implementation of proposed cat legislation must have a 'whole of ecosystem' approach, i.e. protecting identified remnant bushland containing biodiversity from threatening processes such as plant disease and inappropriate fire, especially arson, as well as possible predations from pet cats. Habitat restoration and protection may be more important conservation activities than regulation of cats. Regulation of cats can be done at differing levels of intensity and cost, bearing in mind that this community is receptive to regulation of some aspects of cat ownership. Community education on the values of cat confinement in regards to cat welfare might increase chances of compliance.

Invasive predators are major drivers of global biodiversity loss and their impacts may be worsened by other disturbances such as fire. I examined how the fire history of shrublands influences the ecology of feral cats Felis catus, dingoes Canis dingo and their prey species in Western Australia’s northern Wheatbelt region. A review of the literature revealed that feral cats inhabit a diverse range of ecosystems worldwide, but are generally recorded most often in habitat types characterised by a mixture of plant growth forms close to ground level. Cat habitat use is influenced by predation/competition, prey availability, shelter availability and anthropogenic resource subsidies. Relatively few studies were available for review and the strength of evidence contained within them was generally low, which highlighted the need for more rigorous field studies. I examined overlap in resource use between cats and dingoes using remote camera surveys and dietary analysis of scats. Both carnivores were recorded in all four major habitat types: recently burnt shrublands (10 to 14 years since last fire), long unburnt shrublands (34 to ~49 years), very long unburnt shrublands (> 50 years), and woodlands. Dingoes and cats preferred woodlands and very long unburnt shrublands respectively, but spatial overlap between the two species was still common. Mean diurnal activity time for feral cats was two and a half hours later than that of dingoes. The diet of feral cats was more diverse than that of dingoes and dietary overlap between the two carnivores was relatively low. Rabbit remains did occur relatively frequently in both cat and dingo scats, but small mammals, reptiles and birds were also common in cat scats, and macropods in dingo scats. Nine of the 15 prey species studied showed a preference for either recently burnt or long unburnt shrublands. Two small mammals and three reptiles were most abundant in recently burnt areas, while the abundance of one small mammal and three reptiles was highest in long unburnt areas. Using giving up density experiments, I showed that rodents exhibited differential foraging behaviour in the two vegetation fire ages. The rodents foraged for longer in sheltered compared to open microhabitats, but this pattern only occurred in recently burnt, not long unburnt shrublands, probably because the higher density of understorey vegetation in recently burnt areas provided the rodents with extra cover to hide and escape from predators. I also developed a new framework for conceptualising interactions between invasive predators and other ecological disturbances, such as fire, habitat fragmentation, and top -predator decline. The impacts of invasive predators can be classified as either functional (density -independent) or numerical (density -dependent), and they interact with other threats through both habitat -mediated (fire, grazing, land clearing) and community -mediated (top -predator decline, altered prey populations, anthropogenic resource subsidies) interaction pathways. The key findings of this thesis show that both old and young shrublands can be suitable habitat for feral cats; predator -prey dynamics are influenced by successional habitat stages; small mammals show behavioural, as well as population -level responses to fire; and that invasive predator management is likely to benefit from addressing multiple threats in unison.

Includes bibliographical references.
Domestic cats (Felis catus) are abundant generalist predators that exploit a wide range of prey within and adjacent to the urban matrix. Cats are known to have contributed to the extinction and endangerment (mostly on islands) of a number of indigenous species, including birds, small mammals, reptiles and amphibians. Most research on this important topic has been carried out in the developed world, predominantly in Australia, New Zealand, the U.K., the U.S. and Canada with only four studies carried out in Africa. Of these, two studies in Cape Town suggest that domestic cats have a big impact on wildlife but these studies may have underestimated predation because they failed to account for the proportion of prey not returned to participants’ homes. In this study I used kitty-cams in an attempt to provide a prey correction factor for urban cats in Cape Town, South Africa. I investigated hunting of wildlife by free-ranging domestic cats in Newlands, a suburb of Cape Town, South Africa over 5 weeks in 2013. I monitored 13 cats (6 deep-urban and 7 urban-edge) by questionnaire survey, asking cat owners to record all prey items returned by their cats. A total of 43 prey items were returned, 42% of which were small mammals, 30% invertebrates, 12% reptiles, 9% amphibians and 7% birds. Combining these data with two similar survey studies carried out in Cape Town I estimated that a total of 118 cats caught an average of 0.04 prey items per cat per day. Ten of the 13 cats were also monitored for 3 weeks using kitty-cam video cameras. Participating cats wore a video camera and all activity was analysed for prey captures and behavioural activity patterns.

Pet cats are a very important part of life for many people and provide companionship to millions of people worldwide, from small children to the elderly. However, wandering pet cats may affect wildlife populations through direct predation, competing for prey with higher order consumers, spreading disease to wildlife and humans, exerting sub-lethal effects such as changes in parental behaviour or reduction in clutch size of prey caused by the fear of cat predation, hybridising with wild felids or breeding with stray and feral cats to maintain feral populations. In addition, they may annoy neighbours by disturbing dogs, attacking pet birds, spraying, digging in gardens, fighting (including with other pet cats) and walking on cars. Pet cats that are allowed to wander are also at risk from disease, fights with other animals that may lead to injury infection, and from traffic accidents (one of the leading causes of pet cat mortality). Despite these risks to wildlife and their pets, many cat owners in Australia and other countries such as the UK and New Zealand are reluctant to restrict their cats to their properties at all times. The primary aims of this thesis were to investigate several different precautionary approaches to reducing the risks proposed by predatory interactions between cats and urban wildlife and determine what precautionary measures the wider community considers acceptable. In association with colleagues from Australia and overseas, I assessed the social attitudes in Australia, the USA, the UK, New Zealand, Japan and China towards pet cats and cat ownership and responsibilities with a detailed survey. We found significantly different results between all countries, indicating that if any legislation was to be imposed regarding pet cats unique approaches would be required in each country. We confirmed that many cat owners will not keep their cats inside, and therefore other methods to prevent wildlife capture and reduce pet cat roaming behaviour are appropriate. I then examined the effectiveness of the anti-predation collar cover the BirdsbeSafe® (BBS) in reducing predation by pet cats on birds. A range of different colours and patterns are available for this device and I found that some patterns (red and rainbow) were effective at reducing predation on prey with good colour vision (birds and herpetofauna) by 47 – 54%. However, yellow collar covers were not effective at reducing cat predation on birds. The BBS had no effect on the numbers of mammal prey captured. This device is useful for cats that catch many bird or herpetofauna prey and either do not catch, or their owners would like them to catch, mammals such as rats and mice. It is not suitable in areas where there are sensitive small mammal populations. Ninety-six per cent of cats adapted to the BBS within two days, indicating that it will not upset or impede on the welfare of the vast majority of cats as long as collars are correctly fitted and checked regularly. Previous research on the anti-predation device the CatBib and my own research on the BBS indicated that these devices may alter the roaming behaviour of some pet cats, in most cases with cats reported as staying closer to home. This potentially provides another incentive for owners to fit their cats with these devices to reduce their wandering behaviour. I tested this hypothesis on 30 pet cats wearing either the CatBib or BBS with the use of GPS collars. In addition, I collected data from cats wearing GPS collars but no anti-predation device to determine factors that influence roaming behaviour. I found that neither the CatBib nor the BBS significantly changed the roaming behaviour of pet cats, supporting claims by the manufacturers of the CatBib and the BBS that the devices reduce hunting success while not restricting other behaviours. Thus they do not offer an option to owners wishing to restrict their cats' roaming. The most significant predictor of pet cat home range was housing density, with pet cats living in more rural locations travelling significantly further than pet cats in areas of high housing density. In order to reduce uncertainty over factors that affect cat predation I used a meta-analysis and mixed linear models to compare all of the studies that used radio-telemetry or GPS to examine cat roaming behaviour. I found that despite most individual studies showing that male cats have larger home ranges than females but no statistically significant difference between the two, comparing all the data concluded that male cats do have significantly larger home ranges than females. I also found that mature cats (over 8 years old) have smaller home ranges than younger adult cats (2 – 8 years old), desexing has no influence on roaming behaviour, husbandry practices (providing vet treatment and socialising cats with humans) did not impact roaming behaviour, and cats living in areas with low housing density (e.g. farm cats or pets on rural properties) had larger home ranges than cats in higher housing density areas. Ultimately, the best solution to prevent pet cats from impacting wildlife and for their own protection is to keep them confined to their owners’ properties at all times. Since this is an unpopular option, education campaigns are required to change the community practices and attitudes towards pet cats so that owners either become more accepting of confinement or more willing to use predation deterrents. Since there are significant differences between different countries in how people perceive cats and the impacts of their wandering behaviour, different approaches are required in different locations. In Australia, and possibly New Zealand, people may change their behaviour based on the effects cats have on some wildlife. However, in countries such as the UK, campaigns should focus on the benefits to cat welfare.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--Michigan State University. Dept. of Fisheries and Wildlife, 2008.
Title from PDF t.p. (viewed on April 1, 2009) Includes bibliographical references (p. 101-117). Also issued in print.

Pet cats kill a range of suburban wildlife, including some native mammals, birds and lizards. The dense cat populations sustained in suburbs by people exacerbate the problem. However, there is sparse evidence of suppression of populations of any native species in suburbia as a result of cat predation and accurate estimates of predation rates are difficult. Such uncertainty as to whether or not cat predation poses a serious risk to remnant wildlife populations in suburbia is no reason for inaction until the question is resolved, because serious environmental impacts including species decline or local extinction could occur before definitive evidence is available. Therefore, it is appropriate to invoke the precautionary principle, which requires (i) detailed consultation to choose and implement precautionary measures to anticipate possible environmental damage, and (ii) concurrent research to reduce uncertainty as to the exact impact and whether precautionary measures should be continued or reduced. In this study I apply a precautionary approach to the question of whether or not predation by pet cats influences passerine species richness or community composition in suburban Perth, Western Australia. In keeping with the twin tenets of the recautionary principle the study involved an assessment of community attitudes and practices regarding the husbandry of pet cats and their impact on wildlife in general (consultation), and a detailed study of factors (including the density of pet cats) influencing passerine species richness or community composition across metropolitan Perth (reducing uncertainty). To assess the attitudes and practices of the general public towards cat legislation and other issues relating to pet cats, I designed and issued a survey to 2,000 residents within the City of Melville, a local government municipality in Perth. The response rate was 63%. Respondents were questioned upon their knowledge of cat issues and their attitudes and practices toward sterilisation of pet cats; legislation regulating cat ownership and the putative impact cats have upon wildlife. Age, gender and cat ownership status of respondents were investigated to determine if such factors influenced responses. Cat-owners, particularly women, knew more about cat issues. Non-owners were more supportive than cat-owners of the introduction of cat control measures and were more concerned about the possible impacts cats exert upon suburban and remnant wildlife. Women, regardless of cat-ownership status, were more supportive of sterilisation, whereas men were more supportive of the introduction of cat control measures. Age was positively related to the implementation of control measures, with older respondents showing most support. Over 70% of respondents, both cat-owners and non-owners, supported the introduction of cat legislation that promoted sterilisation, restricted the number of cats per household and their roaming behaviour, and mandated licensing of pet cats. However, only a minority of cat-owners or non-owners supported the concept that local governments should enforce cat-free zones where ownership of pet cats was prohibited. To find definitive evidence of the impact of cats upon suburban fauna, I utilised data collected by members of Birds Australia for the ‘Suburban Bird Survey’ that covered 57 sites throughout suburban Perth, extending onto the Darling Scarp. Using these data, I tested the influence of eight variables including cat density, dog density, housing density, age of suburb, distance to, and size of, nearest bushland less than or greater than 5 ha on passerine species richness, passerine species composition and the presence/absence of 15 selected passerines that were recorded in 20 to 80% of sites. Garden vegetation factors including structure and floristics were also tested in 18 of these sites. Cat density was not a significant predictor of any of the dependent variables tested. Rather, community composition of passerines declined with increasing housing density and distance to nearest bushland, and increased with size of nearest bushland > 5 ha. These independent variables, particularly housing density, significantly affected small to medium size insectivores. There were no clear results that predicted the presence/absence of the 15 selected passerines, although housing density appeared to be the most likely predictor. Garden vegetation was not a significant predictor for the presence or absence of any of the 15 selected species, although gardens with low bird pollinated plants were more likely to contain Yellow Rumped Thornbill, whereas gardens dominated by fruiting vegetation, tall, bird pollinated and deciduous vegetation were less likely to contain any of the 15 selected species. Overall, the possible cat control measures supported by 70% or more of owners and non-owners would protect wildlife by reducing dumping of unwanted cats, limiting cat densities in suburbia and enabling identification of nuisance animals. Given this high level of community support, these measures should be implemented. However, they are not a panacea for wildlife conservation in the suburbs. While cat predation might be significant adjacent to remnant bushland or other areas of conservation significance, blaming cats for bird conservation issues in long-established suburbs may be a scapegoat for high residential densities, inappropriate landscaping at a range of scales or poor conservation of remnant bushland.

A survey of gastro-intestinal parasites was conducted on faecal samples collected from 379 feral cats and 851 native fauna from 16 locations throughout Western Australia. The prevalence of each parasite species detected varied depending upon the sampling location. Common helminth parasites detected in feral cats included Ancylostoma spp. (29.8%), Oncicola pomatostomi (25.6%), Spirometra erinaceieuropaei (14%), Taenia taeniaeformis (4.7%), Physaloptera praeputialis (3.7%) and Toxocara cati (2.6%). The most common protozoan parasites detected in feral cats were Isospora rivolta (16.9%) and I. felis (4.5%). The native mammals were predominately infected with unidentified nematodes of the order Strongylida (59.1%), with members of the orders Rhabditida, Spirurida and Oxyurida also common. Oxyuroid nematodes were most common in the rodents (47.9%) and western grey kangaroos (27.8%). Several species of Eimeria were detected in the marsupials whilst unidentified species of Entamoeba and coccidia were common in most of the native fauna. Primers anchored in the first and second internal transcribed spacers (ITS1 and ITS2) of the ribosomal DNA (rDNA) were used to develop a polymerase chain reaction-linked restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) technique to differentiate the species of Ancylostoma detected in feral cats. Amplification of the ITS+ region (ITS1, ITS2 and 5.8S gene) followed by digestion with the endonuclease RsaI produced characteristic patterns for A. tubaeforme, A. ceylanicum and A. caninum, which were detected in 26.6%, 4.7% and 0% of feral cats respectively. Giardia was detected in a cat, dingo, quenda and two native rodents. Sequence analysis at the small subunit rDNA gene (SSU-rDNA) identified the cat and dingo as harbouring G.duodenalis infections belonging to the genetic assemblages A and D respectively. Subsequent analysis of the SSU-rDNA and elongation factor 1 alpha (ef1[alpha]) identified a novel species of Giardia occurring in the quenda. Attempts to genetically characterise the Giardia in the two native rodents were unsuccessful. Serological detection of Toxoplasma gondii was compared to a one tube hemi-nested PCR protocol to evaluate its sensitivity. PCR was comparable to serology in detecting T. gondii infections, although PCR was a much more definitive and robust technique than serology for large numbers of samples. Amplification of T. gondii DNA detected infections in 4.9% of feral cats and 6.5% of native mammals. The distribution of T. gondii does not appear to be restricted by environmental factors, which implies that vertical transmission is important for the persistence of T. gondii infections in Western Australia. These results demonstrate that cats carry a wide range of parasitic organisms, many of which may influence the survival and reproduction of native mammals. As such, the large-scale conservation and reintroduction of native fauna in Western Australia must not disregard the potential influence parasites can have on these populations.

A survey of gastro-intestinal parasites was conducted on faecal samples collected from 379 feral cats and 851 native fauna from 16 locations throughout Western Australia. The prevalence of each parasite species detected varied depending upon the sampling location. Common helminth parasites detected in feral cats included Ancylostoma spp. (29.8%), Oncicola pomatostomi (25.6%), Spirometra erinaceieuropaei (14%), Taenia taeniaeformis (4.7%), Physaloptera praeputialis (3.7%) and Toxocara cati (2.6%). The most common protozoan parasites detected in feral cats were Isospora rivolta (16.9%) and I. felis (4.5%). The native mammals were predominately infected with unidentified nematodes of the order Strongylida (59.1%), with members of the orders Rhabditida, Spirurida and Oxyurida also common. Oxyuroid nematodes were most common in the rodents (47.9%) and western grey kangaroos (27.8%). Several species of Eimeria were detected in the marsupials whilst unidentified species of Entamoeba and coccidia were common in most of the native fauna. Primers anchored in the first and second internal transcribed spacers (ITS1 and ITS2) of the ribosomal DNA (rDNA) were used to develop a polymerase chain reaction-linked restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) technique to differentiate the species of Ancylostoma detected in feral cats. Amplification of the ITS+ region (ITS1, ITS2 and 5.8S gene) followed by digestion with the endonuclease RsaI produced characteristic patterns for A. tubaeforme, A. ceylanicum and A. caninum, which were detected in 26.6%, 4.7% and 0% of feral cats respectively. Giardia was detected in a cat, dingo, quenda and two native rodents. Sequence analysis at the small subunit rDNA gene (SSU-rDNA) identified the cat and dingo as harbouring G.duodenalis infections belonging to the genetic assemblages A and D respectively. Subsequent analysis of the SSU-rDNA and elongation factor 1 alpha (ef1[alpha]) identified a novel species of Giardia occurring in the quenda. Attempts to genetically characterise the Giardia in the two native rodents were unsuccessful. Serological detection of Toxoplasma gondii was compared to a one tube hemi-nested PCR protocol to evaluate its sensitivity. PCR was comparable to serology in detecting T. gondii infections, although PCR was a much more definitive and robust technique than serology for large numbers of samples. Amplification of T. gondii DNA detected infections in 4.9% of feral cats and 6.5% of native mammals. The distribution of T. gondii does not appear to be restricted by environmental factors, which implies that vertical transmission is important for the persistence of T. gondii infections in Western Australia. These results demonstrate that cats carry a wide range of parasitic organisms, many of which may influence the survival and reproduction of native mammals. As such, the large-scale conservation and reintroduction of native fauna in Western Australia must not disregard the potential influence parasites can have on these populations.

House cat movements in Canberra suburbs adjacent to grassland and forest/woodland areas were examined using radio-telemetry over 9 months. Information on the composition of vertebrate prey caught by house cats in Canberra was also collected by recording prey items deposited at cat owners' residences over 12 months. Home range areas of 10 suburban house cats, and a colony of seven farm cats, were examined using 95% convex polygons. Nocturnal home range areas of the suburban cats varied between 0.02 and 27.93 ha (mean 7.89 ha), and were larger than diurnal home range areas (range 0.02 to 17.19 ha - mean 2.73 ha). Nocturnal home range areas of cats from the farm cat colony varied between 1.38 and 4.46 ha (mean 2.54 ha), and were also larger than diurnal home range areas (range 0.77 to 3.70 ha - mean 1.70 ha). Activity levels were greater at night than during the day, though diel activity patterns varied seasonally in response to ambient temperature. Four suburban house cats moved between 390 m and 900 m into habitat adjoining the suburb. Movements further than 100-200 m from the suburb edge were always made at night. Polygons describing the home ranges of these animals were strongly spatially biased away from the suburban environment, though the cats spent the majority of their time within the bounds of the suburb. In addition to nocturnal and diurnal effects, home range areas, and subsequently habitat utilisation, appeared primarily determined by the density and spatial distribution of cats utilising separate food resources, and the dominance of individual cats in local social hierarchies, rather than gender or neutering effects. Home ranges of cats in the farm cat colony overlapped extensively, as did those of cats living at the same suburban residence. There was little or no overlap between the home ranges of cats from different residences. Barriers, in the form of busy roads, appeared to also significantly influence home range size and shape. Within home range areas, house cat movements during the day appeared strongly influenced by available cover (drains, tall grass, fences and shrubs etc.), and the location of resting/sunning spots and hunting sites close to home. At night, movement patterns appeared influenced by the location of favoured hunting sites toward the outer edges of home range areas (in this study, tall grass and scrub/forest habitat, and farm buildings). Nineteen hundred and sixty one prey items representing 67 species were reported or collected. Sixty-four percent of the prey items were introduced mammals, with native birds comprising 14%, introduced birds 10%, unidentified birds 3%, reptiles 7%, amphibians 1% and native mammals 1%. Predation appeared to be largely opportunistic with respect to spatial and temporal (daily and seasonal) prey availability and accessibility. All amphibians and 62% of mammals taken by cats not confined at night, were caught at night. In contrast, 70% of birds caught, and 90% of reptiles, were taken during the day (45% of birds between 0600 h and 1200 h, and 61% of reptiles between 1200 h and 1800 h). There was some evidence that small mammals are preferred prey of house cats. The mean number of prey items reported per cat over 12 months - 10.2 � 2.66 (2SE, n=138) - was significantly lower than mean predation per cat per year - 23.3 � 6.16 (2SE, n=138) - estimated by cat owners before the prey survey began. Seventy percent of cats were observed to catch less than 10 prey items over 12 months, but for 6% of cats, more than 50 prey items were recorded. Because counts of the amount of prey caught per house cat per unit time were highly positively skewed, data assumptions and statistical parameters used to extrapolate results from the study sample of cats, to the house cat population of Canberra, had a significant effect on estimates of total predation in Canberra. The precision of the total predation estimate was low (± 25%), from a sample of 0.3% of the Canberra house cat population. The accuracy of such estimates are dependent on how representative the study cat sample is of the wider house cat population, and on the proportion of prey items not observed by cat owners. The total amount of prey taken was not significantly influenced by cat gender, age when desexed, or cat breed. Nor did belling or the number of meals provided per day have a significant influence on predatory efficiency. Cat age and the proportion of nights spent outside explained approximately 11 % of the variation in the amount of prey caught by individual cats. House cat density and distance to prey source areas (rural/grassland habitat) explained 43% of variation in predation on introduced mammals and birds. The impact of predation beyond suburb edges is likely to be most significant on populations of small to medium sized arboreal and ground-dwelling mammals, because of their nocturnal nature, and because they appear to be preferred prey types of house cats. Impacts on diurnally active prey, such as most birds and reptiles, are likely to be confined to within 200 m of residential housing (possibly further where good cover is available). Properly enforced nocturnal confinement should restrict the range sizes of cats that roam widely and utilisation of habitat beyond suburb edges, and also reduce predation on mammals and amphibians. Night-time curfews however, are unlikely to greatly reduce predation on diurnally active species, including most birds and reptiles. Curfews are currently neither widely adopted nor effectively practiced in Canberra. Estimates of predation by house cats, particularly extrapolated estimates, should be treated with caution. They do not necessarily reflect relative impacts on different prey types. Nor do high rates of predation prove prey populations are detrimentally effected, particularly in urban environments. Nonetheless, on a small (backyard) scale in suburban environments, and in habitat within 1 km of residential housing, including isolated private properties, predation by individual cats may threaten populations of native wildlife. Hunting by house cats is particularly undesirable in relatively undisturbed habitat because of fundamental differences in the ecological processes operating in these areas (especially isolated remnants) compared with contrived and modified suburban environments. Adverse impacts on native fauna will always be potentially greatest in undisturbed habitat adjacent to new residential developments

The issues raised in this thesis concern the adverse effects of EU's wildlife trade regulations, mainly the unequal treatment of captive and wild-born endangered animals. The nature of these regulations is analyzed from an animal law perspective. The purpose of the analysis is to determine whether the regulations are anthropocentric and, if so, what issues arise from it. Previous research has studied the legal personhood of animals in relation to animal welfare. This thesis continues that discussion by examining legal animal rights as a potential solution to the issues of wildlife trade. The analysis is pragmatic and employs a non-formalistic view of law. Consequentially, it uses a doctrinal and legal philosophical approach, meaning that sources outside of law are integral to the discussion. The results of the analysis show that EU’s wildlife trade regulations are anthropocentric and that this has led to severe issues regarding the welfare of endangered animals. In addition, the practical enforcement of the regulations has proven defective. Legal rights for animals seem to provide a viable solution to these issues, yet their practical implementation is complicated. The reasons for this are primarily financial and opinion-based. Therefore, a step-by-step approach, starting with limited fundamental rights and resulting in full legal personhood for animals, is recommended for this approach to be successful.

Iberische und Eurasische Luchse zeigen einen saisonalen Monoöstrus. Nach der Ovulation findet man frisch gebildete (freshCL) und physiologisch persistierende Gelbkörper (corpora lutea, perCL). Funktionelle perCL verhindern eine Ovulation außerhalb der Zuchtsaison durch konstant erhöhte Progesteron-(P4)-Plasmawerte. Hauskatzen zeigen einen saisonalen Polyöstrus. Nach der Ovulation werden CL gebildet, deren Lebensspanne in Abhängigkeit von einer Trächtigkeit durch unterschiedliche P4-Plasmaprofile charakterisiert ist. Ziel der Dissertation war es, die Synthese und Rezeption von Steroiden und Prostaglandinen (PG) in CL von Feliden zu untersuchen, um potentiell luteotrophe und luteolytische Faktoren zu identifizieren. Während der Gelbkörperphase trächtiger und nicht-trächtiger Katzen weisen CL gleicher Histomorphologie, unabhängig vom Vorhandensein einer Trächtigkeit, ähnliche steroidogene Kapazitäten auf. Die Abnahme der CL-Funktion spiegelt sich im graduellen Verlust der Steroidbiogenese wider. Bei Luchsen ist die steroidogene Kapazität der perCL im Proöstrus herabgesetzt, aber im Metöstrus wieder verstärkt. Die steroidogene Kapazität ist demnach mit verschiedenen CL-Stadien und dem Reproduktionszyklus assoziiert. Die Synthese und Rezeption von PGE2 erfolgen bei Katze und Luchs unabhängig vom CL-Stadium und dem Reproduktionszyklus. Hohe Werte an luteotrophem PGE2 in perCL könnten für die funktionelle und strukturelle CL-Persistenz beim Luchs verantwortlich sein. Der feline CL ist zur Bindung von luteolytischem PGF2alpha fähig, jedoch ist die Kapazität zur Synthese begrenzt. Feliden weisen keine PGF2alpha-assoziierte luteale Regression in Abwesenheit einer Trächtigkeit auf. Allerdings wurden Höchstwerte an PGF2alpha in der Plazenta, wie auch im Plasma (PGFM), im letzten Trächtigkeitstrimester der Katze gemessen. Folglich ist die feline Plazenta zur Synthese von luteolytischem PGF2alpha fähig, welches die CL-Regression und Geburt am Ende der Trächtigkeit ermöglicht.
Iberian and Eurasian lynxes exhibit a seasonal monooestrus. After ovulation, freshly formed (freshCL) coexist with physiologically persistent luteal bodies (corpora lutea, perCL). Functional perCL prevent ovulation outside the breeding season through constantly elevated plasma progesterone (P4) levels. Domestic cats show a seasonal polyoestrus. After ovulation, CL are built with lifespans being characterised by different plasma P4 profiles dependent on pregnancy. The aim of the dissertation was to characterise the synthesis and reception of steroids and prostaglandins (PGs) in CL of felids to identify potential luteotrophic and luteolytic factors. During the luteal lifespan of pregnant and non-pregnant cats, CL of equal histomorphology exhibit similar steroidogenic capacities, irrespectively of an ongoing pregnancy. The functional demise of CL mirrors the gradual loss of steroid biogenesis. In lynxes, the steroidogenic capacity of perCL is limited at prooestrus, but is enhanced again during metoestrus. The steroidogenic capacity is thus associated with different CL stages and the reproductive cycle. The synthesis and reception of PGE2 in cat and lynx is independent on the CL stage and reproductive cycle. High levels of luteotrophic PGE2 in perCL might be responsible for the functional and structural CL persistence in lynxes. The feline CL is capable of binding luteolytic PGF2alpha; however, the capacity to synthesise PGF2alpha is limited. Felids show no PGF2alpha-associated luteal regression in the absence of pregnancy. Interestingly, peak levels of PGF2alpha in the placenta, as well as in plasma (PGFM), were measured during the last trimester of pregnancy in the cat. Therefore, the feline placenta is capable of synthesising luteolytic PGF2alpha, which enables CL regression and parturition at the end of pregnancy.

A survey of gastro-intestinal parasites was conducted on faecal samples collected from 379 feral cats and 851 native fauna from 16 locations throughout Western Australia. The prevalence of each parasite species detected varied depending upon the sampling location. Common helminth parasites detected in feral cats included Ancylostoma spp. (29.8%), Oncicola pomatostomi (25.6%), Spirometra erinaceieuropaei (14%), Taenia taeniaeformis (4.7%), Physaloptera praeputialis (3.7%) and Toxocara cati (2.6%). The most common protozoan parasites detected in feral cats were Isospora rivolta (16.9%) and I. felis (4.5%). The native mammals were predominately infected with unidentified nematodes of the order Strongylida (59.1%), with members of the orders Rhabditida, Spirurida and Oxyurida also common. Oxyuroid nematodes were most common in the rodents (47.9%) and western grey kangaroos (27.8%). Several species of Eimeria were detected in the marsupials whilst unidentified species of Entamoeba and coccidia were common in most of the native fauna. Primers anchored in the first and second internal transcribed spacers (ITS1 and ITS2) of the ribosomal DNA (rDNA) were used to develop a polymerase chain reaction-linked restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) technique to differentiate the species of Ancylostoma detected in feral cats. Amplification of the ITS+ region (ITS1, ITS2 and 5.8S gene) followed by digestion with the endonuclease RsaI produced characteristic patterns for A. tubaeforme, A. ceylanicum and A. caninum, which were detected in 26.6%, 4.7% and 0% of feral cats respectively. Giardia was detected in a cat, dingo, quenda and two native rodents. Sequence analysis at the small subunit rDNA gene (SSU-rDNA) identified the cat and dingo as harbouring G.duodenalis infections belonging to the genetic assemblages A and D respectively. Subsequent analysis of the SSU-rDNA and elongation factor 1 alpha (ef1á) identified a novel species of Giardia occurring in the quenda. Attempts to genetically characterise the Giardia in the two native rodents were unsuccessful. Serological detection of Toxoplasma gondii was compared to a one tube hemi-nested PCR protocol to evaluate its sensitivity. PCR was comparable to serology in detecting T. gondii infections, although PCR was a much more definitive and robust technique than serology for large numbers of samples. Amplification of T. gondii DNA detected infections in 4.9% of feral cats and 6.5% of native mammals. The distribution of T. gondii does not appear to be restricted by environmental factors, which implies that vertical transmission is important for the persistence of T. gondii infections in Western Australia. These results demonstrate that cats carry a wide range of parasitic organisms, many of which may influence the survival and reproduction of native mammals. As such, the large-scale conservation and reintroduction of native fauna in Western Australia must not disregard the potential influence parasites can have on these populations.

Praticamente todos os ecossistemas naturais têm sido afetados pelas atividades humanas. A construção de usinas hidrelétricas produz grandes impactos ambientais causando problemas notáveis como a fragmentação e perdas de habitats. No Brasil aproximadamente 70% da matriz energética é formada por hidrelétricas e há previsão de expansão nos próximos anos. A degradação ambiental é apontada como a principal ameaça à conservação da biodiversidade e a maior causa do declínio das populações de espécies ameaçadas, especialmente de grandes mamíferos e, particularmente, de grandes carnívoros. Apesar da ampla distribuição no continente, as populações de onça-pintada (Panthera onca) têm sido reduzidas ou extintas pela pressão antrópica, tendo sua área de distribuição reduzida aproximadamente à metade. No Brasil é considerada uma espécie Vulnerável e está Criticamente Ameaçada de extinção na Mata Atlântica. Na Ecorregião Florestas do Alto Paraná está distribuída na forma de metapopulação, possivelmente em processo de isolamento de suas subpopulações. No Alto Rio Paraná a Usina Hidrelétrica de Porto Primavera (UHEPP) alagou em 1998 uma área de cerca de 2.250 km². A dissertação aborda este impacto ambiental e tem por objetivo avaliar como o enchimento do reservatório da UHEPP afetou a população de onças-pintadas na região, em relação à distribuição espacial e adequabilidade de habitat. Foram monitorados 11 indivíduos por radiotelemetria em dois períodos (1992 a 1995 e 1998 a 2002), investigando-se o tamanho de área de uso e movimentação. Com estes dados mais a cobertura de solo foram avaliadas adequabilidade ambiental e seleção de habitat. A distribuição espacial e a adequabilidade do habitat foram avaliadas em dois cenários, anterior e posterior ao enchimento, relacionando as mudanças ocorridas com o impacto na área sob o efeito direto do enchimento. Um terceiro cenário foi também avaliado, englobando toda a área de várzea remanescente no Alto Rio Paraná e incluindo as Unidades de Conservação (UCs), quanto à adequabilidade e seleção de habitat. Para este cenário foram utilizadas localizações de outros 10 indivíduos monitorados no Parque Estadual das Várzeas do Rio Ivinhema, Mato Grosso do Sul e no Parque Estadual Morro do Diabo, São Paulo, entre 1998 e 2005. Após o enchimento houve um aumento significativo nas dimensões das áreas de uso das onças-pintadas (fêmeas: anterior, 78 km² [n=8]; posterior, 197 km² [n=5]; macho [n=1]: anterior, 111 km²; posterior, 149 km²) bem como em seus deslocamentos máximos, pois passaram a ocupar áreas mais degradadas de fazendas, com poucos refúgios e presas naturais. Porém não foram observadas diferenças nos deslocamentos médios e sobreposição de áreas, assim como as áreas de uso não diferiram sazonalmente. A modelagem de habitat demonstrou que o enchimento atingiu principalmente as áreas mais favoráveis para a espécie suprimindo cerca de metade dessas. As onças selecionaram várzeas e florestas enquanto que a paisagem altamente modificada pelo homem foi evitada. Com as áreas mais degradadas ocupadas e o conflito com o homem, grande parte dos animais foram mortos em retaliação à predação de animais domésticos, levando praticamente a extinção local da espécie na área sob o efeito direto do enchimento. A área remanescente do Alto Rio Paraná comporta ainda cerca de 50 onças-pintadas adultas, sendo um terço em UCs. Portanto áreas adjacentes às UCs, na sua maioria com várzeas, devem ser preservadas e áreas florestais devem ser restauradas para a conservação da espécie em longo prazo na região. As informações geradas nesta dissertação podem auxiliar nas ações de conservação e manejo da onça-pintada no Alto Rio Paraná e mostra que a modelagem de habitat pode ser uma importante ferramenta para avaliação de impactos ambientais.
Virtually all natural ecosystems have been affected by human activities. The construction of hydroelectric power plants is the cause of major environmental impacts, such as habitat destruction and fragmentation. Brazil's energy matrix is mostly based on hydroelectricity, which comprises approximately 70% of all produced energy in the country, and the national government plans to expand it in the coming years. Habitat destruction is considered the main threat to biodiversity conservation and the major cause of the decline of endangered species, especially large mammals and large carnivores. Despite their wide distribution in the Americas, jaguar (Panthera onca) populations have been reduced or extinguished by human pressure, and the species current distribution represents half of its past distribution. In Brazil, the jaguar is considered a vulnerable species and it is critically endangered in the Atlantic Rain Forest. In the Upper Paraná Forest Ecoregion the species is distributed as a metapopulation, possibly in an isolation process of its subpopulations. In the Upper Paraná River (UPR), the reservoir filling of the Porto Primavera Hydroelectric plant (PPHE) began in 1998, and flooded an area of approximately 2250 km ². I evaluated the effects of the PPHE reservoir filling on the local jaguar population, its effects on the species spatial distribution and habitat suitability. I monitored a total of 11 jaguars using radio telemetry in two periods (1992-1995 and 1998-2002). I investigated jaguar home range size and movements, and evaluated habitat selection and suitability combing spatial and land cover data (Geographic Information System). These two metrics were measured before and after reservoir filling, linking the impact with changes in the species spatial patterns between these two phases. I evaluated three scenarios: the area affected directly by the PPHE filling, before and after, and all the remaining wetlands in the UPR, including protected areas. Jaguars’ home ranges increased significantly after reservoir filling (females: 78 km ² before [n = 8], 197 km ² after [n = 5]; male [n = 1]: 111 km ² before, 149 km ² after). Maximum movement of the four jaguars (3 females and 1 male) also increased from one phase to the other (10.75 km before; 25.05 km after). The increase in movement patterns results from jaguars using new and more degraded areas in farms, where there are few refuges and natural preys. Home ranges did not differ seasonally on the first period; neither did the mean movements and overlapping areas. The PPHE filling mainly affected jaguars by suppressing approximately half of their suitable area. Jaguars selected wetlands and forests and avoided landscapes heavily modified by Man. Most jaguars were killed in retaliation to cattle predation as they commenced to occupy the most degraded areas, nearly driving the population to extinction. The remaining area of the UPR still holds approximately 50 adult jaguars and one third of them are in protected areas. Therefore, the long-term species conservation depends on the preservation of the adjacent wetlands and on the restoration of forest patches. My results can subsidize jaguar conservation and management plans in the UPR and show that habitat suitability modeling can be a useful tool for assessing environmental impacts.

The resident feral cat (Felis catus) population on the University of KwaZulu-Natal (UKZN), Howard College campus (HCC) in Durban, South Africa was studied from March 2004 to November 2005. This study was initiated as the HCC is an registered as an urban conservancy and so should be removing alien invasive flora and fauna and conserving the indigenous biodiversity of the campus. This research was undertaken to assist with recommendations for the control and management of feral cats on the HCe. A survey to determine public perceptions and opinions regarding the feral cats was conducted among various communities on the campus. Feral cats from the resident population on the HCC were trapped and fitted with radio-collars in order that their home range sizes and distribution could be determined. Monthly census counts were also carried out in an attempt to calculate population densities of the feral cats on campus, while data on behaviour patterns was collected opportunistically throughout the study period. The survey showed that two extreme views existed on campus regarding the presence of feral cats. The university is a registered conservancy which some feel is no place for this exotic species. However, it is also situated within an urban surrounding and there are some cat enthusiasts among the public who feel that resources should be provided for the feral cats, both nutritionally and financially. While many people were unaware that the feral cats were a cause for concern on the HCC, the majority concluded that a management policy needed to be adopted to control feral cat numbers. Most were against the suggestion of eradicating the cats and strongly agreed with the implementation of a university funded feral cat IV sterilising and feeding programme. Feeding the feral cats, however, needs to be stringently controlled. In this study, the availability of an abundance of food resources was shown to be the primary influencing factor for home range size, cat distribution and population densities. It also had an overriding effect on the feral cats' behaviour patterns and activity levels. Once these had been initially established, other factors such as human activity, reproductive status and gender then came into play. Distribution of the feral cats around campus was not homogenous, and densities differed according to areas on campus. Highest cat densities were recorded in those areas on the HCC where permanent cat feeding stations had been established (usually the developed areas on campus), while no feral cats were sighted in the Msinsi Nature Reserve, a natural bush area on campus were no food resources (other than prey species) is available. Home range sizes of the feral cats were relatively small with a considerable amount of overlap between and within the sexes. There were also no seasonal differences in range sizes and diurnal ranges were only marginally smaller than nocturnal range sIzes. In terms of behaviour, the HCC feral cats were generally inactive, with passive behaviour such as lying down and sitting being most often observed. Although hunting activity was very rarely witnessed, the combined effects of feral cats supported at high densities by supplemental feeding may exert predation pressures that could be detrimental to both local prey and predator populations. Little social interactions were observed by the cats on the HCC. Other studies show that competition is greatly reduced if food is available in abundance and there is no need for territorial disputes if both food and a potential mate are located in close proximity. In the present study, this also means that immigrating feral cats from surrounding neighbourhoods are tolerated; another factor contributing to the increase in feral cat numbers on the campus. These findings suggest that the feral cat population on the HCC is being maintained at higher population densities than would be expected and management initiatives are needed to control the feral cat population at a minimum density through a sterilising and low key feeding programme so that it is acceptable to all concerned parties. However, the decisions need to favour the status of the HCC as a conservancy in an urban area as well as consider the well-being of the students and staffmembers in a public place.
Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2005.

碩士
國立屏東科技大學
野生動物保育研究所
103
Geographic distribution and habitat use are critical information for effective wildlife conservation and management. Using scat detection dog in surveying for scats on endangered species can save expense of DNA analysis and be more effectively. This study objective to use a scat detection dog to find and distinguish scats of leopard cats (Prionailurus bengalensis chinensis) and domestic cats (Felis catus). Additionally, this study collected the presence locations in Miaoli County to establish the predicted distribution maps of leopard cats. The accuracy rate of the dog scat detection in indoor and outdoor was 86 % and 83 %, respectively. The detection rate in outdoor was 75 %. In 32 surveys, the scat detection dog found 18 scats, including 12 leopard cat scats after DNA identification. In the MaxEnt model, 128 presence locations of leopard cats collected in 2004-2013 were applied to establish the distribution prediction model of leopard cats, the AUC of training and test data were 0.917 and 0.874, respectively. The predicted distribution covered 296.56 km2 (15 % of the study area). Among the environmental factors, elevation, aspect, coverage of the forest and distance to the nearest road were the most important factors to explain the geographic distribution of leopard cats.

While we should celebrate the bicentennial of naming the Sumatran rhinoceros (SR), the only extant population on earth might be on the island of Sumatra. Since Strien's 1986 study in Mamas Valley, Leuser, very little more has been learned about how this species distributed and what factors are influencing its extirpation. This study is the first conducted in Sumatra at an Island-wide scale. Using hierarchical models, I estimate the occurrence rates (%) and indices of abundance of SR on three remaining population areas: Leuser Landscape (LL) in 2007 (2.77%, 26 (CI 12-61)), Way Kambas (WK) in 2008 (33.58%, 27 (CI 14-50)) and Bukit Barisan Selatan (BBS) in 2010 (36.4%, 31 (CI 19-66)). Primary dry land forest and rivers are factors affecting SR occurrence in LL, but the index of abundance also is affected by deforestation, roughness of terrain, and and a vegetation index. The index of abundance in WK is more affected by major roads, and brush and savannah cover types, and the occurrence there is additionally affected by deforestation. Secondary dry land forest, regular roads, and deforestation is affecting both the occurrence rate and index of abundance of SR in BBS. The identification of these environmental and disturbance factors is translated into spatially explicit map that can be used to update the IUCN distribution map. In LL, by comparison to the historical distribution based on Strien (1986), the small population in Bendahara Mountain might still persist outside the core population in Mamas Valley.