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Journal articles on the topic 'Cattle Communicable diseases in animals Veterinary epidemiology'
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Dutra, Iveraldo S., Axel Colling, David Driemeier, Marilene F. Brito, Daniel G. Ubiali, Ana Lucia Schild, Franklin Riet-Correa, and Claudio S. L. Barros. "Jürgen Döbereiner: a life dedicated to science." Pesquisa Veterinária Brasileira 39, no. 1 (January 2019): 1–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/1678-5150-pvb-6293.
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ABSTRACT: Dr. Jürgen Döbereiner was born in Germany, on the 1st of November 1923, and lived in Brazil for 68 years during which time he developed a range of scientific projects in veterinary pathology and related disciplines. His main interests were the identification of new poisonous plants and mineral deficiencies and the causes of “cara inchada” (“swollen face” a periodontal disease) and botulism in livestock. This research has resulted in the improved health and saving of hundreds of thousands of animals, mainly cattle, annually, and is consequently of enormous economic value to the country. This contribution remains largely under appreciated. He was also involved in organizing diagnostic methods for identifying infectious diseases such as African swine fever and glanders in horses. One of his other major achievements has been the foundation and editing of specialized scientific journals for the documentation of veterinary science research results. At the beginning of his career in the 1950s, he and colleagues from the Institute for Animal Biology (IBA) were struggling to find a national scientific journal where research results from veterinary medicine could be published with practical application to the Brazilian reality. In consequence, the team founded “Arquivos do Instituto de Biologia Animal” and published three volumes (1959-1961). He then founded and edited “Pesquisa Agropecuária Brasileira” (The Brazilian Journal of Agricultural Research”) that included a veterinary section. A series of veterinary volumes were published (1966-1976). Finally, in 1978 he helped create the Brazilian College of Veterinary Pathology (CBPA) that published “Pesquisa Veterinária Brasileira” (The Brazilian Journal of Veterinary Research) from 1981. The main goal was to communicate the most relevant disease problems of Brazilian livestock, in particular pathology and related subjects such as epidemiology, clinical study series and laboratory diagnosis to field veterinarians and academics. Dr. Jürgen Döbereiner was president of CBPA (1978-2018) and chief editor of “Pesquisa Veterinária Brasileira” (1981-2018). He passed away on the 16th of October, 2018, at the age of 94 at his home in Seropédica/RJ, Brazil.
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Munyeme, Musso, Hetron Mweemba Munang’andu, Andrew Nambota, John Bwalya Muma, Andrew Malata Phiri, and King Shimumbo Nalubamba. "The Nexus between Bovine Tuberculosis and Fasciolosis Infections in Cattle of the Kafue Basin Ecosystem in Zambia: Implications on Abattoir Surveillance." Veterinary Medicine International 2012 (2012): 1–6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2012/921869.
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Bovine tuberculosis (bTB) and fasciolosis are important but neglected diseases that result in chronic infections in cattle. However, in Zambia, these diseases are mainly diagnosed at abattoirs during routine meat inspection. Albeit the coinfection status, these diseases have been reported as nothing more than normal separate findings without an explanatory phenomena. Forthwith, we formulated this study to assess the possible association of the two diseases in a known high prevalence area on the Kafue basin ecosystem. Of the 1,680 animals screened, 600 (35.7%; 95% CI 33.4%–38%) and 124 (7.4%; 95% CI 6.1%–8.6%) had fasciolosis and tuberculous lesions; respectively, whilst 72 had both fasciola and tuberculous lesions representing 12% (95% CI 9.4%–14.6%) and 58.1% (95% CI; 49.3%–66.7%) of the total positives for fasciola and tuberculosis, respectively. Jaundice was seen in 304 animals, 18.1% (95% CI; 16.3%–19.9%) and was significantly correlated to fasciolosis (r=0.59,P<0.0001). A significant association (χ2=76.2,df=1, andP<0.0001) was found between fasciolosis and tuberculous lesions. Simple logistic regression intimated fasciolosis as a strong predictor for tuberculous lesions with animals that had fasciola being five times more likely to have tuberculous lesions (odds ratio = 4.8, 95% CI: 3.3–7.0). This study indicates that transmission and spatial risk factors of communicable and noncommunicable diseases such as bTB and fasciolosis can be correlated in an ecosystem such as the Kafue flats.
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Khimich, M. S., O. T. Piven, O. M. Gorobey, V. Z. Salata, D. V. Freiuk, and O. V. Naidich. "The analysis of the dynamics of detection animal’s invasive diseases during veterinary expertise." Scientific Messenger of LNU of Veterinary Medicine and Biotechnology 21, no. 93 (April 2, 2019): 149–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.32718/nvlvet9326.
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The main direction of state policy regarding the guaranty safety and quality of animal products is the creation of conditions that are safe for human health during the production and sale of food raw materials. According to current legislation of Ukraine responsibility for the safety of food products placed on the manufacturer but government control plays an important role. This is especially true today, when almost 69.5% of meat is produced in private home farms. It is mainly sold in the agro-industrial markets. The State Service of Ukraine for Food Safety should perform the conditions of modern European regulation and base its activities on the basis of risk assessment. One of the risks are parasitosis, as their negative effect affects the health of millions of people in the world. In this cjnnection the purpose of the study was to analyze the dynamics of the identification of invasive diseases at the stages of slaughter of animals and the sale of slaughter products. Research material was reporting on veterinary medicine (Form № 5-vet and Form № 6-vet) of a number of districts of Odessa region for 2014‒2017. It was founded that 75943 animals were slaughtered in 2014‒2017: 91.18% pigs, 8.14% cattle and 0.68% sheep. The analysis of the dynamics of slaughter, depending on its location, showed that from 41.85% to 99.81% of animals were slaughtered at courtyard. According to the results of veterinary-sanitary control and supervision during the slaughter for the studied years there were no cases of diseases. It was founded that 22617 animal’s carcasses came to the agrofood markets of the regions for the years 2014‒2017, among which 89.56% were pig carcasses, 10,11% cattle carcasses and only 0.33% sheep. According to results of veterinary-sanitary examination in the conditions of SLVSE in the markets, specialists established 351 cases of diseases. In the study of pig carcasses 246 cases of diseases were detected: among them of non-communicable (45.93%) and invasive (54.07%) etiology (echinococcosis). Luring the expertise of cattle carcases was founded 96 cases of diseases: – dicroceliosis (98.96%) and exinococcosis (1.04%); during the expertise of sheep’s carcases – 9 cases of diseases – dicroceliosis (66.67%) and exinococcosis (33.33%). Considering that during the reporting period, according to the results of veterinary-sanitary control and supervision during the slaughter of animals, no cases of diseases were detected, but at the same time the number of cases of detection of invasive diseases during veterinary-sanitary examination in SLVSE on markets constantly increases risk management at the stage of slaughter can be considered not sufficiently effective. Also, the results of our research indicate that the current system for managing the safety of slaughter products is still based primarily on the study of the final product. It does not take into account all possible risks at the previous stages of production. This system can’t fully guarantee to consumer safety of products.
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SERRANO, E., P. C. CROSS, M. BENERIA, A. FICAPAL, J. CURIA, X. MARCO, S. LAVÍN, and I. MARCO. "Decreasing prevalence of brucellosis in red deer through efforts to control disease in livestock." Epidemiology and Infection 139, no. 10 (May 31, 2011): 1626–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0950268811000951.
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SUMMARYWhen a pathogen infects a number of different hosts, the process of determining the relative importance of each host species to the persistence of the pathogen is often complex. Removal of a host species is a potential but rarely possible way of discovering the importance of that species to the dynamics of the disease. This study presents the results of a 12-year programme aimed at controlling brucellosis in cattle, sheep and goats and the cascading impacts on brucellosis in a sympatric population of red deer (Cervus elaphus) in the Boumort National Game Reserve (BNGR; NE Spain). From February 1998 to December 2009, local veterinary agencies tested over 36 180 individual blood samples from cattle, 296 482 from sheep and goats and 1047 from red deer in the study area. All seropositive livestock were removed annually. From 2006 to 2009 brucellosis was not detected in cattle and in 2009 only one of 97 red deer tested was found to be positive. The surveillance and removal of positive domestic animals coincided with a significant decrease in the prevalence of brucellosis in red deer. Our results suggest that red deer may not be able to maintain brucellosis in this region independently of cattle, sheep or goats, and that continued efforts to control disease in livestock may lead to the eventual eradication of brucellosis in red deer in the area.
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EJIDOKUN, O. O., A. WALSH, J. BARNETT, Y. HOPE, S. ELLIS, M. W. SHARP, G. A. PAIBA, M. LOGAN, G. A. WILLSHAW, and T. CHEASTY. "Human Vero cytotoxigenic Escherichia coli (VTEC) O157 infection linked to birds." Epidemiology and Infection 134, no. 2 (September 7, 2005): 421–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0950268805004917.
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Vero cytotoxin-producing Escherichia coli O157 (VTEC O157) infections are a threat to public health. VTEC O157 has been isolated from gulls but evidence of transmission to humans from birds has not been reported. We recount an incident of VTEC O157 infection affecting two sibling children who had no direct contact with farm animals. An outbreak control team was convened to investigate the source of infection, its likely mode of transmission, and to advise on control measures. Human and veterinary samples were examined and the human isolates were found to be identical to an isolate from a sample of bird (rook) faeces. Cattle, rabbit and environmental samples were negative. This report provides evidence that birds may act as intermediaries for human infection with VTEC O157.
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Terfa, Waktole, Bersissa Kumsa, Dinka Ayana, Anna Maurizio, Cinzia Tessarin, and Rudi Cassini. "Epidemiology of Gastrointestinal Parasites of Cattle in Three Districts in Central Ethiopia." Animals 13, no. 2 (January 13, 2023): 285. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ani13020285.
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Parasitic diseases are a major impediment to livestock production worldwide. However, knowledge about the epidemiology of gastrointestinal parasites in many low-income countries is still limited. An epidemiological survey on these parasites in traditionally reared cattle was performed in central Ethiopia (West Shewa Zone), from September 2019 to November 2021. Overall, 691 samples were analyzed qualitatively (flotation technique) and quantitatively (McMaster technique) to detect helminth eggs and Eimeria oocysts. Furthermore, coprocultures were conducted on pooled samples to identify the genera of gastrointestinal strongyles (GIS). The difference in prevalence according to agroecology, season, age, sex and body condition score (BCS) was investigated using univariable tests and through a multivariable logistic regression analysis, whereas abundance values were interpreted using a descriptive approach. The highest prevalence values were observed for GIS (50.2%) and Eimeria spp. (36.0%), whereas Moniezia spp. (16.3%), Strongyloides spp. (5.1%) and Schistosoma spp. (4.2%) showed lower values. Trichuris spp. and Toxocara vitulorum were sporadically found. A coproculture revealed that Haemonchus spp. (34.6%), Trichostrongylus spp. (25.9%) and Bunostomum spp. (19.1%) were the most frequent genera of GIS. A poor BCS was strongly associated with the occurrence of GIS, while seasonal variations were detected for Eimeria spp., GIS, Moniezia spp. and Schistosoma spp., with a higher prevalence and burden during the rainy season, and agroecology also strongly influenced different parasitic taxa. This present study increases the knowledge about the epidemiological features of gastrointestinal parasites in the context of a low-income country, suggesting a more tailored approach for their control. The use of a BCS as an indicator for the selective treatment of highly infested animals is supported by our findings, introducing a possible way to prevent anthelmintic resistance in areas where basic diagnostic services are rarely used by farmers.
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Sabah Fakhry, Saad, Zainab Noori Hammed, Wasan Abdul - elah Bakir, and Bahaa Abdullah Laftaah ALRubaii. "Identification of methicillin-resistant strains of Staphylococcus aureus isolated from humans and food sources by use mecA 1 and mecA 2 genes in Pulsed-field gel electrophoresis technique." Bionatura 7, no. 2 (May 15, 2022): 1–5. http://dx.doi.org/10.21931/rb/2022.07.02.44.
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Staphylococcus aureus causes mastitis in dairy cows, lambs, goats, and skin disorders in pigs and other animals. S. aureus causes localized purulent infections that affect soft tissues, bones, and other organs in humans. Using restriction patterns, the researchers want to isolate and identify methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) strains from cattle and humans. They also hope to assess their genetic relatedness by comparing the mecA1 and mecA2 gene sequence discrepancies. Animals (223 strains) and people have been used to acquire S. aureus strains for study (83). The E-test was used to assess whether or not the bacteria were resistant to methicillin. The mecA1 and mecA2 genes were identified by using pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) to analyze DNA restriction patterns. The results were shown. S. aureus strains from animals and men were resistant to methicillin in 32 (14.34 %) and 53 (63.8 %), respectively. PFGE was used to determine the differences between human and veterinary pathology strains. Two strains of bacteria collected from animals were discovered to be identical; nevertheless, microorganisms recovered from humans were found to be significantly similar to the bacteria recovered from animals. Both human and veterinary pathology were implicated in the development of methicillin resistance. The MRSA strains found in humans were much more significant than those found in animals. The strains recovered from animals exhibited a high degree of genetic heterogeneity. Still, the enormous number of indistinguishable bacteria in humans leads one to believe that a dominant clone is present. When it comes to the molecular characterization of MRSA isolates, PFGE might be regarded as the gold standard. Keywords. Animals, Human, MRSA, PFGE, Staphylococcus, mecA genes
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Savitskaya, T. A., V. A. Trifonov, I. V. Milova, G. Sh Isaeva, I. D. Reshetnikova, I. V. Serova, D. V. Lopushov, and V. B. Ziatdinov. "Anthrax in the Republic of Tatarstan (1920–2020)." Problems of Particularly Dangerous Infections, no. 3 (October 30, 2022): 129–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.21055/0370-1069-2022-3-129-136.
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The aim of the work was to characterize the epidemiological and epizootic situation on anthrax among population and animals in the Republic of Tatarstan over a period of 1920–2020.Materials and methods. The analysis of the epidemiological and epizootic situation is based on the archival data, epidemiological maps of anthrax patients, results of epizootiological-epidemiological survey of anthrax foci conducted by the Rospotrebnadzor Administration in the Republic of Tatarstan and Center of Hygiene and Epidemiology in the Republic of Tatarstan, materials of the Main Directorate of Veterinary Medicine of the Republic of Tatarstan. Microbiological studies of samples from patients and environmental objects were performed in accordance with the requirements of MR 4.2.2413-08 “Laboratory diagnostics and detection of anthrax pathogen”, real-time PCR was set using the AmpliSense Bacillus anthracis-FRT test-system (Central Research Institute of Epidemiology, Moscow). Statistical data processing was carried out using the quantile ranking method.Results and discussion. There are more than 1000 anthrax soil foci in the Republic of Tatarstan, which territorially belongs to the Volga Federal District. Analysis of the epizootic and epidemiological situation in the Republic of Tatarstan over the period of 1920–2020 has revealed that it has undergone significant changes, from mass diseases in animals and humans in early 20th century to sporadic cases of infection among population and animals at the beginning of the 21st century, primarily due to preventive veterinarysanitary measures, including veterinary and sanitary examination of animal products, mass specific immunization of animals against anthrax, arrangement of anthrax cattle burial grounds. In view of the improvement of epizootiological situation and implementation of preventive measures, there was a decrease in the incidence of anthrax among the population. The regions of the Republic have been ranked by the number of animal anthrax cases.
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Dakic, Zorica, Nikola Indjic, Branko Milosevic, Jasmina Poluga, Zoran Kulisic, Milos Korac, Novica Stajkovic, Irena Ofori-Belic, and Milos Pavlovic. "Epidemiology and diagnostics of human fasciolosis." Veterinarski glasnik 64, no. 1-2 (2010): 127–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.2298/vetgl1002127d.
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Fasciolosis is a zoonotic infection caused by the trematoda Fasciola hepatica and Fasciola gigantica. Human fasciolosis is endemic in some parts of South America, Africa, Eastern Asia and Europe. High prevalence of human fasciolosis does not necessarily occur in areas where fasciolosis is a major veterinary problem. Infection with Fasciola hepatica has not been reported in humans in Serbia and former Yugoslavia, although a large variety of animals, such as sheep and cattle show infection rates that may reach significant proportions in some areas. Humans can become accidental hosts of this parasite by ingesting contaminated drinking water or plants in an endemic area. Infection with Fasciola hepatica has a variable clinical presentation depending on the stage of the disease. Typical symptoms that may be associated with fascioliasis can be divided by the phases of the disease including the acute or liver phase, the chronic or biliary phase, the obstructive phase, and ectopic or pharyngeal fascioliasis. The diagnosis of human fasciolosis may be problematical and delayed, especially in non-endemic areas, because physicians rarely encounter this disease and a long list of other diseases must be included in the differential diagnosis. The diagnosis of fasciolosis is complex and requires the application of direct an indirect methods of diagnostics: clinical diagnosis, haematological and biochemical findings, parasitological diagnosis, immuno-diagnosis, imaging procedures, liver biopsy. At the Clinic for Infectious and Tropical Diseases in 2005, we recorded the first case of human fasciolosis in a woman from Belgrade, a citizen of Serbia, who developed clinical symptoms of acute fasciolosis after several months of living in Bosnia-Herzegovina. This article reviews the epidemiology and diagnostics of human fasciolosis. .
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Bradley, R. "Transmittable diseases: the lessons from bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE)." BSAP Occasional Publication 17 (January 1993): 19–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0263967x00001245.
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AbstractBSE was first discovered in November 1986 and by July 1991 about 60 000 cases had been confirmed in Great Britain with a low incidence being reported in Northern Ireland, the Republic of Ireland, Switzerland and France. The origin of the extended common source epidemic appears to have been food containing meat and bone meal which contained the causal agent. Recycling of infected cattle waste was significant in increasing exposure, at least from the time of the first unrecognized clinical appearance of the disease in 1985. Small numbers of five species of Bovidae in British zoos, domestic cats, a puma and a cheetah have also succumbed to a newly described spongiform encephalopathy. It is anticipated that as a result of the imposition of a ruminant food ban in countries affected by BSE new infections from food have ceased and the incidence of BSE will fall to zero provided there is no other source of infection. Effective controls are in place in Great Britain and Northern Ireland to protect animal and public health. These include disease notification, compulsory slaughter of suspect animals and incineration of the carcasses, a ban on the feeding of specified bovine offals from cattle over 6 months of age or protein derived from them to man, or any species of animal or bird, and a ban on the feeding of ruminant protein to ruminant animals. Genetic studies are still in progress but there is no epidemiological evidence supporting breed predisposition and bovine PrP gene polymorphisms have not been linked with disease occurrence. The lessons from BSE include: the need to retain an animal health surveillance system to detect new and emerging diseases; a strong veterinary research base in unconventional agent disease; and a powerful epidemiology discipline with access to computerized data recording systems, analytical and modelling expertise. Major changes to the composition or processing of animal food, particularly that derived from sources which are not natural for the consuming species, should be carefully monitored for safety before being permitted.
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Ringo, Aaron Edmond, Hezron Emanuel Nonga, Eloiza May Galon, Shengwei Ji, Mohamed Abdo Rizk, Shimaa Abd El-Salam El-Sayed, Uday Kumar Mohanta, et al. "Molecular Investigation of Tick-Borne Haemoparasites Isolated from Indigenous Zebu Cattle in the Tanga Region, Tanzania." Animals 12, no. 22 (November 16, 2022): 3171. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ani12223171.
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Tick-borne diseases (TBDs) are a major hindrance to livestock production in pastoral communities of Africa. Although information on tick-borne infections is necessary for setting up control measures, this information is limited in the pastoral communities of Tanzania. Therefore, this study aimed to provide an overview of the tick-borne infections in the indigenous cattle of Tanzania. A total of 250 blood samples were collected from the indigenous zebu cattle in the Tanga region, Tanzania. Then, we conducted a molecular survey using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and gene sequencing to detect and identify the selected tick-borne pathogens. The PCR was conducted using assays, based on Theileria spp. (18S rRNA), Theileria parva (p104), Theileria mutans and T. taurotragi (V4 region of the 18S rRNA), Babesia bigemina (RAP-1a), B. bovis (SBP-2), Anaplasma marginale (heat shock protein groEL) and Ehrlichia ruminantium (pCS20). The PCR screening revealed an overall infection rate of (120/250, 48%) for T. mutans, (64/250, 25.6%) for T. parva, (52/250, 20.8%) for T. taurotragi, (33/250, 13.2%) for B. bigemina and (81/250, 32.4%) for A. marginale. Co-infections of up to four pathogens were revealed in 44.8% of the cattle samples. A sequence analysis indicated that T. parva p104 and A. marginale groEL genes were conserved among the sampled animals with sequence identity values of 98.92–100% and 99.88%–100%, respectively. Moreover, the B. bigemina RAP-1a gene and the V4 region of the 18S rRNA of T. mutans genes were diverse among the sampled cattle, indicating the sequence identity values of 99.27%–100% and 22.45%–60.77%, respectively. The phylogenetic analyses revealed that the T. parva (p104) and A. marginale (groEL) gene sequences of this study were clustered in the same clade. In contrast, the B. bigemina (RAP-1a) and the T. mutans V4 region of the 18S rRNA gene sequences appeared in the different clades. This study provides important basement data for understanding the epidemiology of tick-borne diseases and will serve as a scientific basis for planning future control strategies in the study area.
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Azócar-Aedo, Lucía. "Basic Aspects and Epidemiological Studies on Leptospirosis Carried Out in Animals in Chile: A Bibliographic Review." Tropical Medicine and Infectious Disease 8, no. 2 (February 1, 2023): 97. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/tropicalmed8020097.
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Leptospirosis is an important zoonosis worldwide. This disease affects numerous animal species, some of them are classified as “maintenance hosts”, and others are categorized as “incidental hosts”. Humans are at risk of becoming infected by having contact with domestic and wild animals. In this paper, general aspects of the etiology and transmission of leptospirosis are addressed, data regarding the clinical presentation of the pathology in humans and animals are also presented, and the results of some epidemiological studies on leptospirosis carried out in Chile in different animal species and humans are summarized through a bibliographic review of the literature. The research on domestic canines and horses stands out in terms of their number in the country, with prevalences between 12.0% and 59.1% in dogs and from 23.3% to 65.4% in equids. Studies have been performed on domestic felines in recent years with frequencies ranging from 3.0% to 25.2%, as well as on wild animals (mainly in mammals). In pigs, cattle, sheep, and goats, the information is scarce, with little updated research dating back several decades and variable prevalence rates, which are generally high, except for in sheep. Leptospirosis is a disease of varied etiology in terms of infecting species, serovars and serogroups, which influences its epidemiology, and its prevalence is variable in different animals. An increase in the awareness given to this pathology in human and veterinary public health is required, as well as more scientific studies in Chile, to update the existing knowledge.
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Pal, Mahendra, Nigusa Zenebe, and Md Tanvir Rahman. "Growing Significance of Mycobacterium bovis in Human Health." Microbes and Health 3, no. 1 (August 1, 2014): 29–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.3329/mh.v3i1.19779.
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Tuberculosis is one of the most wide spread highly infectious bacterial zoonotic diseases, and is responsible for high morbidity and mortality in the world particularly in the developing nations. Mycobacterium bovis and closely associated acid fast bacilli cause disease in humans and animals. Humans can be infected with M. bovis where cattle act as the principal reservoir. Air borne infections continue to occur among the persons working in the meat industry, slaughterhouses, and in persons living in close physical contact with infected animals.M. bovis infection is recognized as an occupational hazard to abattoir workers, livestock handlers and veterinarians. The main cause of concern related to M. bovis in industrialized counties are epizootics nature of the disease in domesticated and wild animals. In addition, latent infection in immigrants particularly in HIV infected patients are also a big issue in developed world, since those people could be the potential source of TB for other people. The reemergence of M. bovis infection in captive and free-ranging wild animals, with subsequent transmission to domestic animals, is of concern to livestock producers and regulatory officials. As wild animals represent major reservoir of tuberculosis bacilli, it is imperative to investigate the role of wild animals in transmission dynamics of M. bovis infection. Further studies on the molecular epidemiology and development of safe, cheap and potent drugs to mitigate tuberculosis in highly susceptible population particularly in HIV/AIDS patients is emphasized. In addition, multidisciplinary approaches such as One Health that comprise professionals from medical science, veterinary medicine and wildlife etc. are essential to take measures to control this devastating bacterial zoonosis. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3329/mh.v3i1.19779 Microbes and Health, June 2014. 3(1): 29-34
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Dugarzhapova, Z. F., M. A. Ivacheva, M. V. Chesnokova, E. V. Kravets, E. A. Reshetnyak, A. A. Umanets, T. N. Detkovskaya, D. Yu Kuzin, and S. V. Balakhonov. "Antrax in Primorsky Territory (1919–2020). Communication 2. Episootiological- Epidemiological Situation and Zoning of Administrative Territories." Problems of Particularly Dangerous Infections, no. 4 (January 26, 2022): 67–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.21055/0370-1069-2021-4-67-78.
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The aim of the study was to analyze the epizootiological and epidemiological situation in the Primorsky Territory (1919–2020) and to zone the administrative districts in regard to anthrax. Materials and methods. Accounting and reporting documents, information and archival materials were collected and analyzed, statistical reference books and literature sources were used. A comprehensive epizootiological and epidemiological survey of 12 supposed places of anthrax burials and cattle burial grounds was carried out, and their biological hazard assessed. Results and discussion. Within the framework of updating the Cadastre of stationary potentially hazardous as regards anthrax areas in the Russian Federation (2005), the number of infected farm animals and human cases was specified: according to official data, over the period of 1930–1979, the disease in 173 animals and 34 people with five deaths was registered in 82 stationary unfavorable for anthrax areas of 22 municipalities of the region. Together with the veterinary service of the region, an audit of 12 supposed places of anthrax burials in seven districts of the region was conducted. Based on the results of a comprehensive epizootiological and epidemiological survey, high biological hazard was established for 2 and potential one – for 1 anthrax burials. The culture of Bacillus anthracis isolated on the territory of Primorsky Territory belongs to one of the canonical SNP clusters – A.Br.008/009 of the global genetic line A (subgroup A1). Five criteria for assessing the epizootiological and epidemiological disadvantage for anthrax and the ranking of indicators of the administrative territories in the region have been determined. Zoning of the administrative territories of the region according to risk of anthrax has been carried out. Prophylactic anti-epizootic and anti-epidemic measures have been put forward.
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Mader, Rodolphe, Cindy Demay, Evelyne Jouvin-Marche, Marie-Cécile Ploy, Olivier Barraud, Sadika Bernard, Yohann Lacotte, et al. "Defining the scope of the European Antimicrobial Resistance Surveillance network in Veterinary medicine (EARS-Vet): a bottom-up and One Health approach." Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy 77, no. 3 (January 12, 2022): 816–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jac/dkab462.
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Abstract Background Building the European Antimicrobial Resistance Surveillance network in Veterinary medicine (EARS-Vet) was proposed to strengthen the European One Health antimicrobial resistance (AMR) surveillance approach. Objectives To define the combinations of animal species/production types/age categories/bacterial species/specimens/antimicrobials to be monitored in EARS-Vet. Methods The EARS-Vet scope was defined by consensus between 26 European experts. Decisions were guided by a survey of the combinations that are relevant and feasible to monitor in diseased animals in 13 European countries (bottom-up approach). Experts also considered the One Health approach and the need for EARS-Vet to complement existing European AMR monitoring systems coordinated by the ECDC and the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). Results EARS-Vet plans to monitor AMR in six animal species [cattle, swine, chickens (broilers and laying hens), turkeys, cats and dogs], for 11 bacterial species (Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Mannheimia haemolytica, Pasteurella multocida, Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae, Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus pseudintermedius, Staphylococcus hyicus, Streptococcus uberis, Streptococcus dysgalactiae and Streptococcus suis). Relevant antimicrobials for their treatment were selected (e.g. tetracyclines) and complemented with antimicrobials of more specific public health interest (e.g. carbapenems). Molecular data detecting the presence of ESBLs, AmpC cephalosporinases and methicillin resistance shall be collected too. Conclusions A preliminary EARS-Vet scope was defined, with the potential to fill important AMR monitoring gaps in the animal sector in Europe. It should be reviewed and expanded as the epidemiology of AMR changes, more countries participate and national monitoring capacities improve.
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Oguz, Bekir. "Genetic Characterization of Toxocara vitilorum in Turkey by Mitochondrial Gene Markers (cox1)." Acta Scientiae Veterinariae 46, no. 1 (June 18, 2018): 6. http://dx.doi.org/10.22456/1679-9216.83063.
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Background: Toxocara vitulorum is a involved in the Ascaridoidea family and is a large roundworm with a semi translucent, soft body surface and pinkish color. Female worms measure 8-30cm in length, male worms 6-25cm. The major hosts of T.vitulorum are buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) and cattle (Bos species) in the humid tropics of Asia, Africa and South America. The diagnosis of T. vitulorum infections is usually made by observing characteristic eggs in routine fecal examination. Serological methods are also used to diagnose Toxocariasis. However, in recent years, PCR, a new generation molecular diagnostic method, has been used. The genetic structure of T. vitulorum is little known compared with data available from other parasites. The present sutudy was designed to determine the T. vitulorum isolates by the genetic characterization of the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (cox1) gene.Materials, Methods & Results: Adult worms were collected from the feces of two calves (East Anatolian Red) during visits to the clinic at the Department of Internal Medicine of Van Yuzuncu Yil University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine. Worms were washed thoroughly in 0.85 % saline to remove any debris and fixed into 70 % ethanol. After repeated and thoroughly washing the specimens, total genomic DNA of parasite extraction was performed be employing DNA extraction reagent kit (Thermo, GeneJET Genomic DNA Purification Kit) according to manufacturer’s recommendations. After DNA amplification, a 446 bp fragment of cox1 of T. vitulorum were obtained in all three isolates. All generated sequences were registered in GenBank database with accession numbers including MG905159, MG911729 and MG911730. The cox1 of T. vitulorum examined differed from another two isolates extracted from Germany beef cattle (KY313642.1) and Sri Lanka buffalo calf (FJ664617.1) at NCBI database. The MEGA 7 software was employed to calculate intra-species distance and similarity. The intra-species distance rate and similarity among the isolates were 0.005 and 99.995%, respectively. The cox 1 sequence of T. vitulorum did not differ from an isolate from Germany, but differed more from isolate from Sri Lanka. The phylogenetic tree that was constructed using the Neighbor-Joining (NJ) method. Bootstrap support (Bp) for ML trees was calculating 1000 bootstrap replicates. This results indicate that both the different species of Toxocara are host-specific and each member of the genus Toxocara spp. has a different about the molecular sequences. We used the phylogenies from the Maximum Parsimony (MP) method to construct another phylogenetic tree based on the cox1 (mtDNA) gene. The results again display that the cattle-calves (East Anatolian Red) isolates from Turkey homology with that obtained from the Germany beef cattle (accession no. KY313642.1).Discussion: The genetic analysis of parasites is a crucial factor in terms of determining epidemiology and the control parasitic diseases of humans and animals. Toxocara vitulorum is the most common gastrointestinal helmints infecting ruminants particularly in tropical regions. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that T. vitulorum is 100% homology with related to sequence of T. vitulorum from Germany. The characterization of cox1 region can provides a foundation for accurate identification of some helminth species using PCR. Even though the small sample size, the obtained results might provide useful information for further phylogenetic studies on the family Ascaridae.
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Meikle, V., M. Schneider, G. Azenzo, M. Zumárraga, G. Magnano, and A. Cataldi. "Individual Animals of a Cattle Herd Infected with the Same Mycobacterium bovis Genotype Shows Important Variations in Bacteriological, Histopathological and Immune Response Parameters." Zoonoses and Public Health 54, no. 2 (February 23, 2007): 86–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1863-2378.2007.01027.x.
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Adair, Henry S., Timothy G. Eastman, Catherine Ulibarri, Martha E. Stebbins, George E. Moore, Robert D. Garrison, David M. Moore, et al. "A Guide to Equine Joint Injection (3rd edition) . . . . Diagnosis and Management of Lameness in the Horse . . . . Practical Field Guide to Horse Behavior: The Equid Ethnogram . . . . Epidemiology Kept Simple: An Introduction to Traditional and Modern Epidemiology (2nd edition) . . . . Animal Disease Surveillance and Survey Systems: Methods and Applications . . . . Zoonoses and Communicable Diseases Common to Man and Animals (3rd edition) . . . . Handbook of Laboratory Animal Science (2nd edition) . . . . Handbook of Laboratory Animal Management and Welfare (3rd edition) . . . . Natural Pathogens of Laboratory Animals: Their Effects on Research . . . . Veterinary Microbiology and Microbial Disease . . . . Canine Anatomy: A Systematic Study (4th edition) . . . . Dog Anatomy: A Coloring Atlas . . . . Neurology for the Small Animal Practitioner (Made Easy Series) . . . . Critical Care (Quick Look Series in Veterinary Medicine) . . . . Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine (5th edition) . . . . Snakes of the United States and Canada: Natural History and Care in Captivity . . . . Exotic Animal Medicine for the Veterinary Technician . . . . Anaesthesia for Veterinary Nurses:A Guide to Equine Joint Injection (3rd edition);Diagnosis and Management of Lameness in the Horse;Practical Field Guide to Horse Behavior: The Equid Ethnogram;Epidemiology Kept Simple: An Introduction to Traditional and Modern Epidemiology (2nd edition);Animal Disease Surveillance and Survey Systems: Methods and Applications;Zoonoses and Communicable Diseases Common to Man and Animals (3rd edition);Handbook of Laboratory Animal Science (2nd edition);Handbook of Laboratory Animal Management and Welfare (3rd edition);Natural Pathogens of Laboratory Animals: Their Effects on Research;Veterinary Microbiology and Microbial Disease;By Donald R. Adams . 448 pages; illustrated. Iowa State Press, 2121 State Ave, Ames, IA 50014-8300. ISBN 0-8138-1281-X. 2003 . Price $69.99.;Dog Anatomy: A Coloring Atlas;Neurology for the Small Animal Practitioner (Made Easy Series);Critical Care (Quick Look Series in Veterinary Medicine);Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine (5th edition);Snakes of the United States and Canada: Natural History and Care in Captivity;Exotic Animal Medicine for the Veterinary Technician;Anaesthesia for Veterinary Nurses." Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 224, no. 6 (March 2004): 852–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.2460/javma.2004.224.852.
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Arbabi, Mohsen, Elnaz Nezami, Hossein Hooshyar, and Mahdi Delavari. "Epidemiology and economic loss of fasciolosis and dicrocoeliosis in Arak, Iran." Veterinary World, December 2018, 1648–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.14202/vetworld.2018.1648-1655.
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Aim: Fasciolosis and dicrocoeliosis are important parasitic diseases worldwide, causing significant financial losses due to decrease in production and viscera condemnation in animals. We performed the current research to assess the epidemiology of these infections and determine their significance from an economic perspective in Arak, Iran. Materials and Methods: In total, we evaluated 118,463 sheep, 207,652 goats, and 43,675 cattle through necropsic analysis at the slaughterhouses. The average weight of sheep, goat, and cattle liver was 1000, 900, and 5000 g, respectively. The average price of liver in the market was 8 USD/kg. Moreover, the elimination of fundamental nutrients and vitamins was evaluated in infected livers. The prevalence of fasciolosis and dicrocoeliosis was determined. Analysis of variance test was applied for the statistical analysis, and the significance level was <0.05. Results: In total, Fasciola hepatica and Dicrocoelium dendriticum were detected in 0.56% (confidence interval CI, 0.54-0.59) and 0.77% (CI, 0.75-0.81) of the animals, respectively (p=0.1). The annual economic loss attributed to fasciolosis and dicrocoeliosis was 26698.4 and 30479.2 USD, respectively. The total economic loss was 10,880, 9079.2, and 10,520 dollars in sheep, cattle, and goats, respectively. On the other hand, financial loss resulting from fasciolosis was 7160, 6098.4, and 13,440 dollars in sheep, goats, and cattle, respectively. In addition, economic loss due to dicroceliasis was 10,880, 9079.2, and 10,520 dollars, respectively. Conclusion: Overall, fasciolosis and dicrocoeliosis in Iran always remain common in sheep, goats, and cattle that afford major economic loss of all the country also exist in Arak province. The present study could provide basic information for further examination of liver fluke infections in Iran.
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Barlozzari, G., M. Sala, F. Iacoponi, C. Volpi, N. Polinori, P. Rombolà, F. Vairo, G. Macrì, and M. Scarpulla. "Cross-sectional serosurvey of Coxiella burnetii in healthy cattle and sheep from extensive grazing system in central Italy." Epidemiology and Infection 148 (2020). http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0950268819002115.
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Abstract A cross-sectional survey was carried out to estimate the seroprevalence of Coxiella burnetii in extensively grazed cattle and sheep from central Italy and to identify the related risk factors. Data on notified human Q fever cases in the area were also collected and described. A two-stage cluster sampling was performed. A total of 5083 animals (2210 cattle; 2873 sheep) belonging to 186 farms (92 herds; 94 flocks) were tested for the presence of antibodies against C. burnetii using a commercial enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay kit. The prevalence at the animal-level resulted three times higher in sheep compared to cattle (37.8% vs. 12.0%; χ2 = 270.10, P < 0.001). The prevalence at the herd-level was also higher in sheep than in cattle (87.2% vs. 68.5%; χ2 = 9.52, P < 0.01). The multivariate analysis showed a higher risk of seropositivity for cattle aged 67–107 months (OR 2.79, 95% CI 1.86–4.18), cattle >107 months of age (OR 2.07, 95% CI 1.36–3.14) and mixed breed cattle (OR 1.74, 95% CI 1.11–2.72). A herd size >92 animals was recognized as herd-level risk factor in cattle (OR 6.88, 95% CI 1.67–28.37). The risk of being seropositive was double in sheep belonging to flocks >600 animals (odds ratio (OR) 2.04, 95% CI 1.63–2.56). Sheep were confirmed to be the most exposed species. Nevertheless, the prevalence observed in cattle also suggests the potential involvement of this species in the circulation of the pathogen in the area. Seven confirmed human Q fever cases were reported. In five out of seven cases there was at least one exposed herd within a 5 km buffer. Even though the source of the infection was not identified, the possibility of C. burnetii circulating in the livestock and human population in the study area cannot be overlooked. The integration between veterinary and human surveillance will be crucial to understand the spread of this zoonosis and to support the adoption of appropriate control measures.
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Alafiatayo, Ruth, Erika Galipo, Abel B. Ekiri, Mariana Dineva, Isabella Endacott, Tewodros Tesfaye, Gewado Gellebo, et al. "Training needs assessment of veterinary practitioners in Ethiopia." Tropical Animal Health and Production 54, no. 1 (January 22, 2022). http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11250-022-03075-0.
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Abstract Pastoral and agro-pastoral farming are extensively practised in Ethiopia, and the main livestock kept are cattle, goats, sheep, poultry, and camels. The livestock sector is faced with complex challenges including limited availability of well-trained and skilled animal health professionals. The objective of this study was to identify and prioritise areas for training with the goal of providing evidence to guide strategies to improve the skills, delivery, and governance of veterinary services across Ethiopia. A cross-sectional survey was developed and administered electronically to veterinary professionals in Ethiopia using the Qualtrics platform. Data were collected on select parameters including demographics, diseases of economic significance, diagnosis, disease prevention, biosecurity, disease control, treatment, epidemiology, One Health, disease reporting, and the participants’ opinions about training. The survey data was downloaded in Microsoft Excel and descriptive statistics performed. A total of 234 veterinary professionals completed the survey. Most participants were male (89.7%) and aged between 26 and 35 years (81.2%). Of the total respondents, 56.4% worked in government and 8.5% in private practice. Most participants perceived training on laboratory diagnostic testing, disease prevention, antimicrobial resistance, antibiotic sensitivity testing, basic epidemiology, and clinical procedures, as most beneficial. In addition, most respondents would like to receive training on diseases affecting cattle, poultry, and small ruminants. The findings from this study provide baseline information on priority training areas for veterinary professionals and could potentially contribute to national efforts to develop and implement a continuing professional development programme in the veterinary domain, in view of improving veterinary service delivery.
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Masih, Asif, Azhar Rafique, Farhat Jabeen, and Shabana Naz. "Molecular Epidemiology of Bovine Babesiosis in Punjab, Pakistan." Acta Scientiae Veterinariae 49 (May 11, 2021). http://dx.doi.org/10.22456/1679-9216.111565.
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Background: Babesiosis is endemic in Pakistan and is one of the most important bovine diseases that causes huge economic losses and high mortality in young animals. This disease is transmitted by a protozoan parasite babesia which belongs to genus Babesia (Apicomplexa: Piroplasmida: Babesiidae). This disease is very much prevalent in summers followed by rainy season because humid environment is favorable for the growth of these parasites. An epidemiological and molecular study was conducted to unveil the prevalence and associated risk factors of Babesia bigemina (B. bigemina) and Babesia bovis (B. bovis) in selected districts i.e., Faisalabad, Toba Tek Singh and Jhang of Punjab, Pakistan.Materials, Methods & Results: A total of 518 (Cattle = 360, Buffalo = 158) blood samples were collected. The samples were analyzed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and nested PCR (n-PCR) targeting apocytochrome b-genes (CYTb). Chi-square test for univariate analysis was used to analyze the data. The overall prevalence in summer based upon microscopic analysis was 20.55% (37/180) and 13.92% (11/79) in cattle and buffaloes respectively and in winter was 8.80% (16/180), 5.06% (4/79)) in cattle and buffaloes respectively. The samples were further analyzed through conventional PCR (c-PCR) and nested PCR (nPCR). The overall results of conventional PCR in summer showed that 72 cows and buffaloes were infected with babesiosis. The conventional PCR based results of summer showed that prevalence of babesiosis was 29.44% (53/180) in cows and 24.05% (19/79) buffaloes. The results of cPCR during the winter season showed that 12.77% (23/180) and 13.92% (11/79) buffaloes were positive for babesiosis. The overall results of conventional PCR in winter showed that 34/259 cows and buffaloes were infected with babesiosis. On the other hand, the nested PCR results of summer season showed that the prevalence of babesiosis in cows was 32.22% (58/180) and 29.11% (23/79) in buffaloes. In total, 81 cows and buffaloes were infected with babesiosis during summer season. The nPCR results of winter showed that 15% (27/180) cows and 20.25% (16/79) buffaloes were infected with babesiosis. In total, 43 cows and buffaloes were infected with babesiosis. The results have shown that sensitivity of n-PCR is more as compared to conventional PCR. This study is the first molecular evidence of B. bigemina and B. bovis and its associated risk factors in Punjab province, Pakistan.Discussion: Dairy sector in Pakistan is one of the fastest growing sectors. Despite of remarkable growth, dairy industry is facing many problems one of them is tick borne diseases (TBDs). TBDs are more prevalent in tropical and subtropical areas of the world and leads to huge economic losses to dairy industry in terms of decreased milk, meat and wool production. Babesiosis is characterized by increased fever, decreased production, poor quality wool, anemia, hemoglobinuria, paleness of mucous membrane. The risk factors analysis of summer and winter data revealed that, adult animals were more prone to babesiosis (24.00%) [P = 0.032] and (8.50%) [P = 0.048]. In both seasons (summer and winter), females were more infected with babesiosis (20.19% and 8.17%) [P = 0.049 and P =0.021] as compared to males, high prevalence in females was might be due to that females were reared for longer period of time. Babesiosis was more occurred in non-cemented floor system (26.01% and 13.51%) [P = 0.028 and P = 0.044] in summer and winter, respectively. Disease was found more prevalent in closed housing system in summer and winter (27.27% and 10.93%) [P = 0.043 and P = 0.034] as compared to open housing. Weak animals were more infected with babesiosis (30.84%) [P = 0.045] and (12.80%) [P = 0.042] in summer and winter, as compared to healthy ones. The animals with high tick infestations were more suffered with babesia infection (25.49% and 13.34%) [P = 0.036 and P = 0.003] in both seasons as compared to less tick burden. Keywords: apocytochrome gene, babesiosis, bovine, nPCR, PCR, season.
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Muhammad, Ali, Rida Bashir, Majid Mahmood, Muhammad Sohail Afzal, Sami Simsek, Usman Ayub Awan, Mobushir Riaz Khan, Haroon Ahmed, and Jianping Cao. "Epidemiology of Ectoparasites (Ticks, Lice, and Mites) in the Livestock of Pakistan: A Review." Frontiers in Veterinary Science 8 (December 16, 2021). http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2021.780738.
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Ectoparasites, including lice, ticks, and mites, inhabit the host skin and depend on their host for sustenance, maturation, and multiplication. Among these, ticks are more prevalent in various regions of Pakistan because of favorable climatic conditions, lack of awareness of livestock keepers' regarding ectoparasite infestation rate, insufficient veterinary services, and inadequate control measures. Ectoparasitic infestation is a primary threat to cost-effective livestock production by damaging skin and transmitting multiple diseases between animals. This review aimed to determine the infestation rates of various ectoparasites in cattle, buffaloes, sheep, goats, camels, equids and to ascertain the prevalence and epidemiology of ectoparasites in different regions of Pakistan. This review could be useful in devising prevention and control strategies and identifying the risk factors associated with ectoparasites to enhance animal productivity. It provides directions for veterinary schools, researchers, and organizations aiming to collaborate with neighboring countries to eradicate these parasites. Future studies could support working veterinarians and administrators and contribute to human well-being.
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Pal, Pushkar, Adisorn Yawongsa, Rajesh Bhatta, Hiroshi Shimoda, and Theera Rukkwamsuk. "Animal rabies epidemiology in Nepal from 2005 to 2017." International Journal of One Health, October 13, 2021, 190–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.14202/ijoh.2021.190-195.
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Background and Aim: Animal rabies is endemic in Nepal, and it occurs in two forms. Although governmental and non-governmental agencies are working toward the control of rabies by mass dog vaccination and stray dog population management, there is still massive number of rabies incidence reported to the reference veterinary laboratory, Nepal. Therefore, this study aimed to assess animal species, temporal, regional, and agro-ecological distribution patterns of animal rabies in Nepal from 2005 to 2017. Materials and Methods: The epidemiological data on animal rabies from the period of 2005 to 2017 were obtained from the Central Veterinary Laboratory, Tripureshwor, Kathmandu, Nepal. The laboratory-confirmed rabies cases were analyzed according to animal species, temporal, regional (developmental zones), and agro-ecological distributions. In addition, descriptive statistics were used to evaluate the distribution patterns of rabies. Results: From 2005 to 2017, a total of 2771 suspected rabies cases in animals were reported to The Central Veterinary Hospital, Kathmandu. Of which, 1302 were found laboratory-confirmed cases. The rabies cases were most commonly reported and confirmed in dogs followed by other domestic animals. The high occurrences were recorded between 2005 and 2007. However, the incidence was increased during 2016 and 2017. The highest number of rabies cases was recorded in the eastern development zone, and the least number in the central zone at regional level. Likewise, it was highest in the Terai (plain) region and lowest in mountainous areas at agro-ecological zones. The findings also revealed that the occurrences of rabies significantly differed among seasons. Conclusion: Rabies is present in Nepal throughout the year and all seasons with seasonal variation. Among the animal species, dogs are the primary animals affected with rabies followed by cattle and other domestic animals. At the regional level, eastern development zone had the highest incidence and Central development zone recorded the least. Similarly, the Terai region had the highest incidence rates, and the least overall prevalence rate was observed in mountainous regions among agro-ecological zones. Therefore, the government should implement the strict enforcement of mass dog vaccination and dog population management through one health approach to control rabies incidence in the country.
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Marsot, Maud, Benoit Durand, Wafa Ben Hammouda, Heni Hadj Ammar, Malek Zrelli, and Roukaya Khorchani. "Evaluation of human resources needed and comparison with human resources available to implement emergency vaccination in case of foot and mouth disease outbreaks in Tunisia." Epidemiology and Infection 148 (2020). http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0950268820001284.
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Abstract Foot and mouth disease (FMD) is a highly contagious viral disease that affects domestic and wild artiodactyl animals and causes considerable economic losses related to outbreak management, production losses and trade impacts. In Tunisia, the last FMD outbreak took place in 2018–2019. The effectiveness of control measures implemented to control FMD depends, in particular, on the human resources used to implement them. Tunisia has the ultimate objective of obtaining OIE status as ‘FMD-free with vaccination’. The aim of this study was to determine and compare the necessary and available human resources to control FMD outbreaks in Tunisia using emergency vaccination and to assess the gaps that would play a role in the implementation of the strategy. We developed a resources-requirement grid of necessary human resources for the management of the emergency vaccination campaign launched after the identification of a FMD-infected premises in Tunisia. Field surveys, conducted in the 24 governorates of Tunisia, allowed quantifying the available human resources for several categories of skills considered in the resources-requirement grid. For each governorate, we then compared available and necessary human resources to implement vaccination according to eight scenarios mixing generalised or cattle-targeted vaccination and different levels of human resources. The resources-requirement grid included 11 tasks in three groups: management of FMD-infected premises, organisational tasks and vaccination implementation. The available human resources for vaccination-related tasks included veterinarians and technicians from the public sector and appointed private veterinarians. The comparison of available and necessary human resources showed vaccination-related tasks to be the most time-consuming in terms of managing a FMD outbreak. Increasing the available human resources using appointed private veterinarians allowed performing the emergency vaccination of animals in the governorate in due time, especially if vaccination was targeted on cattle. The overall approach was validated by comparing the predicted and observed durations of a vaccination campaign conducted under the same conditions as during the 2014 Tunisian outbreak. This study could provide support to the Tunisian Veterinary Services or to other countries to optimise the management of a FMD outbreak.
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Tulu, Begna, Aboma Zewede, Mulugeta Belay, Miserach Zeleke, Mussie Girma, Metasebia Tegegn, Fozia Ibrahim, et al. "Epidemiology of Bovine Tuberculosis and Its Zoonotic Implication in Addis Ababa Milkshed, Central Ethiopia." Frontiers in Veterinary Science 8 (February 17, 2021). http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2021.595511.
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Bovine tuberculosis (bTB) continues to be one of the most widely distributed chronic infectious diseases of zoonotic importance, which causes a significant economic loss in animal production. A cross-sectional study was conducted to estimate the prevalence of bTB and its associated risk factors and type the Mycobacterium bovis isolated in central Ethiopia. A total of 65 dairy farms and 654 cattle were tested for bTB using a single intradermal comparative cervical tuberculin (SICCT) test. Data on farm management, animal-related characteristics, and the owner's knowledge of the zoonotic importance of bTB were collected using a structured questionnaire. In addition, a total of 16 animals from different farms were identified for postmortem examination. Lowenstein Jensen (LJ) culture was also conducted, and spoligotyping was used to type the M. bovis strains isolated. Chi-square test and logistic regression models were used to analyze the herd- and animal-level risk factors. Herd- and animal-level prevalence rates of bTB were 58.5% (95% CI: 46.2%−69.2%) and 39.3% (95% CI: 35.5%−43.5%), respectively. At the herd level, poor farm management was the predictor for bTB positivity (p < 0.05). Animal breed, poor BCS, farm type, and poor farm management conditions were significant predictors of bTB positivity (p < 0.05) at an individual animal level. All animals identified for postmortem examination were found to have gross TB-like lesions. A total of 14 M. bovis strains were identified from 12 animals that were positive for LJ culture. The strain with the largest number of clusters (five isolates) was SB1176, followed by SB0134 (three isolates), SB0192 (two isolates), and SB2233 (two isolates), and two new strains, each consisting of only one isolate. The majority (58.5%) of the respondents did not know the zoonotic importance of bTB. The result of this study showed a high prevalence of bTB in the Addis Ababa milkshed and a low level of consciousness of the owners on its transmission to humans. Therefore, the launching of acceptable control measures of bTB and the creation of public awareness about its zoonotic transmission and prevention measures are required.
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Alberti, Taina Dos Santos, Rosimeri Zamboni, Haide Valeska Scheid, Fabiano Da Rosa Venancio, Carolina Buss Brunner, Margarida Buss Raffi, Ana Lucia Schild, and Eliza Simone Viégas Sallis. "Spontaneous Poisoning by Sprouts of Xanthium spp. in Cattle in Southern Rio Grande do Sul." Acta Scientiae Veterinariae 48 (June 3, 2020). http://dx.doi.org/10.22456/1679-9216.99161.
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Background: Xanthium spp., the cockleburs, are invasive plants found on riverbanks, lakeshores, and floodplains. Ingestion of Xanthium sprouts or fruit causes cocklebur toxicosis, which is characterized clinically and pathologically by acute liver failure. The main lesion observed is an accentuation of the lobular pattern of the liver (nutmeg appearance), which is microscopically characterized by coagulation necrosis in the centrilobular region, hepatocyte degeneration in other regions of the hepatic parenchyma, and sinusoidal congestion. The objective of this study was to describe an outbreak of spontaneous cattle poisoning by ingestion of Xanthium spp. sprouts in the southern region of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil.Case: In September 2018, a beef cattle farm located in Rio Grande county, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, reported significant mortality of cattle in a short period of time. There were 700 cattle on the property, divided by class into three different herds, all kept under extensive conditions in native wetlands. All fields were heavily infested by cocklebur, with most plants in the budding stage. Twenty animals developed muscle tremors, salivation, aggression, and recumbency. The clinical course lasted 24 to 48 hours, with a lethal outcome in all cases. An 18-month-old male crossbreed bovine was sent to the Regional Diagnostic Laboratory of the Universidade Federal de Pelotas (UFPel) School of Veterinary Medicine for necropsy. Gross examination revealed ascites and accentuation of the lobular pattern of the liver. Organ fragments were harvested and fixed in 10% buffered formalin. Microscopically, the liver exhibited marked coagulation necrosis in the centrilobular region and vacuolization of the hepatocyte cytoplasm in the midzonal and periportal regions. In the brain, there was perineuronal edema, cytoplasmic shrinkage and basophilia, gliosis, and satellitosis.Discussion: In the present case, the diagnosis of cocklebur toxicosis was based on clinical and epidemiological data as well as macroscopic and microscopic histopathology findings, and was confirmed by the presence of Xanthium spp. in the grazing sites of the affected animals. The detection and identification of Xanthium spp. are essential for correct etiologic diagnosis, since the pathological lesions observed in cocklebur toxicosis are similar to those described in poisoning by other hepatotoxic plants (Cestrum parqui, Cestrum corymbosum, Cestrum intermedium, Dodonea viscosa, Trema micranta) and by Perreya flavipes larvae. Central nervous system (CNS) symptoms were the main clinical manifestation observed in this outbreak, and the CNS lesions observed on necropsy were similar to those described in previous cases of cocklebur toxicosis. The predominance of nervous signs in this condition often misdirects the clinical diagnosis toward diseases such as rabies and cerebral babesiosis, which are endemic in southern Rio Grande do Sul and important causes of mortality in cattle herds. In these cases, careful attention to epidemiology, necropsy findings, and histopathology are fundamental for establishing the definitive diagnosis of cocklebur toxicosis and thus preventing further cases from being missed. The description of this outbreak emphasizes the importance of cocklebur toxicosis as an underreported cause of acute mortality in cattle in southern Brazil.
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Baptista, Tatiany F. S., Marcelo C. Alves, Stela M. Pereira-Dourado, Geraldo M. Costa, Edna Lopes, Fabio R. P. Bruhn, Mirian S. Braz, and Christiane M. B. M. Rocha. "Spatial and temporal analyses of culls due to bovine tuberculosis in slaughterhouses of Minas Gerais state, Brazil, 2008 to 2012." Pesquisa Veterinária Brasileira 41 (2021). http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/1678-5150-pvb-6933.
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ABSTRACT: The application of spatial and temporal analysis in epidemiology aims to understand the causes and consequences of spatial and temporal heterogeneity in studies of infectious diseases. Bovine tuberculosis (bTB) is a chronic and progressive infectious disease caused by Mycobacterium bovis and is an important zoonosis worldwide. The aim of this study was to conduct spatial and temporal analyses of a secondary database of bTB-positive cases registered by the Federal Inspection Service in two slaughterhouses from the West of Minas mesoregion of Minas Gerais state, Brazil, from 2008 to 2012 and to suggest its use in epidemiological surveillance. The culled cattle with bTB macroscopic lesions during post mortem inspection were considered positive in this study. The data used were the positive cases registered on the “Sistema de Informações Gerenciais do Serviço de Inspeção Federal” (SIG/SIF - Management Information System of the Federal Inspection Service) of the “Ministério da Agricultura, Pecuária e Abastecimento” (MAPA - Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Supplies), the number of animals slaughtered monthly and their municipalities of origin, per slaughterhouse. The prevalence (%) of cases per cattle slaughtered was calculated, and the relationship between these cases of bTB and cases of human tuberculosis (hTB) and the GDP per capita of the mesoregions comprising the municipalities surveyed was evaluated. The prevalence was 1,030 cases of bTB (0.28%). The lowest case numbers and prevalence rates were obtained in 2010, while the highest rates were observed in 2011. Slaughterhouse 1 showed stationarity, while Slaughterhouse 2 showed an increasing annual trend for data since October 2009. A statistical correlation between the numbers of cases of bovine and human TB (p=0.006, r=0.148) was observed. The prevalence for Slaughterhouses 1 and 2 were not correlated (p>0.05). The municipalities of origin demonstrated randomness in their spatial distribution. SIG/SIF-MAPA may be used for the analysis of spatial and temporal distribution to contribute to the monitoring of animal health services with information on the prevalence of culling for bTB in the West of Minas, South/Southwest of Minas, Campo das Vertentes and Zona da Mata mesoregions of Minas Gerais, Brazil.
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Kanankege, K. S. T., G. Machado, L. Zhang, B. Dokkebakken, V. Schumann, S. J. Wells, A. M. Perez, and J. Alvarez. "Use of a voluntary testing program to study the spatial epidemiology of Johne’s disease affecting dairy herds in Minnesota: a cross sectional study." BMC Veterinary Research 15, no. 1 (December 2019). http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s12917-019-2155-7.
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Abstract Background One of the key steps in the management of chronic diseases in animals including Johne’s disease (JD), caused by Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (MAP), is the ability to track disease incidence over space and time. JD surveillance in the U.S. dairy cattle is challenging due to lack of regulatory requirements, imperfect diagnostic tests, and associated expenses, including time and labor. An alternative approach is to use voluntary testing programs. Here, data from a voluntary JD testing program, conducted by the Minnesota Dairy Herd Improvement Association, were used to: a) explore whether such a program provides representative information on JD-prevalence in Minnesota dairy herds, b) estimate JD distribution, and, c) identify herd and environmental factors associated with finding JD-positive cows. Milk samples (n = 70,809) collected from 54,652 unique cows from 600 Minnesota dairy herds between November 2014 and April 2017 were tested using a MAP antibody ELISA. Participant representativeness was assessed by comparing the number of JD-tested herds with the number of herds required to estimate the true disease prevalence per county based on official statistics from the National Agricultural Statistical Services. Multivariable logistic regression models, with and without spatial dependence between observations, were then used to investigate the association between herd status to JD (positive/negative), as indicated by milk ELISA results, and available covariates at the herd level. Results Within the study population, at least one test-positive cow was found in 414 of 600 (69%) herds. Results indicated that large herds that test frequently and herds located in loamy or silt soils are more likely to have at least one MAP test-positive cow. After adjusting for herd size, testing frequency, and soil type, there was no spatial dependence in JD risk between neighboring dairies within 5 to 20 km. Furthermore, the importance of collecting data on herd management, feed, and biosecurity for insightful interpretations was recognized. The study suggested that, although limited, the voluntary testing database may support monitoring JD status. Conclusions Results presented here help elucidate the spatial characteristics of JD in Minnesota and the study may ultimately contribute to the design and implementation of surveillance programs for the disease.
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Dhaygude, V. S., K. Kundu, B. P. Kamdi, U. R. Bagal, S. B. Bhosale, and Divya Sabharwal. "Investigations on First Confirmed Outbreak of Ovine Theileriosis (Theileria luwenshuni) from Maharashtra State, India." Indian Journal of Animal Research, Of (October 23, 2020). http://dx.doi.org/10.18805/ijar.b-4199.
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Background: Clinical theileriosis of small ruminants is tick-borne disease caused by Theileria lestoquardi, Theileria uilenbergi and Theileria luwenshuni. Theileria annulata, the causative agent of bovine tropical theileriosis in cattle, can also infect sheep but does not cause any significant illness. It is one of the economically important diseases. There are no reports of ovine clinical theileriosis from Maharashtra state and there is paucity of information on its epidemiology. This paper reports first confirmed outbreak of ovine theileriosis based on clinical signs, microscopic examination, PCR and sequencing in the Maharashtra State of India. Methods: Whole blood samples from 22 ailing sheep were collected and subjected to hematological examination. Blood smears stained with Leishman’s stain were examined under 100X objective of the microscope. The blood samples from sheep found positive by microscopic method were subjected to PCR detection of 18S rRNA gene of hemoprotozoa and then for nucleotide sequencing and sequence analysis.Conclusion: Samples from 14 out of 22 sheep were found positive for piroplasms of Theileria spp by light microscopy. All positive samples were further confirmed by PCR detection of 18S rRNA gene of hemoprotozoa. PCR amplification yielded expected product of 1750 bp for all samples. BLAST and phylogenetic analysis of one sample revealed high sequence homology with T. luwenshuni reported from India and other countries. Characteristic clinical signs like fever, progressive anaemia, laboured breathing, lymphadenopathy, debility and non-responsiveness to antibiotic therapy were recorded. The animals responded to specific treatment against theileriosis. It is the first ever confirmed report of ovine theileriosis in Maharashtra state of India and hence reported.
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Pavez-Muñoz, Erika, Camilo González, Bastián Fernández-Sanhueza, Fernando Sánchez, Beatriz Escobar, Romina Ramos, Verónica Fuenzalida, et al. "Antimicrobial Usage Factors and Resistance Profiles of Shiga Toxin-Producing Escherichia coli in Backyard Production Systems From Central Chile." Frontiers in Veterinary Science 7 (January 15, 2021). http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2020.595149.
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Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) is a zoonotic pathogen and important cause of foodborne disease worldwide. Many animal species in backyard production systems (BPS) harbor STEC, systems characterized by low biosecurity and technification. No information is reported on STEC circulation, antimicrobial resistance (AMR) and potential drivers of antimicrobial usage in Chilean BPS, increasing the risk of maintenance and transmission of zoonotic pathogens and AMR generation. Thus, the aim of this study was to characterize phenotypic and genotypic AMR and to study the epidemiology of STEC isolated in BPS from Metropolitana region, Chile. A total of 85 BPS were sampled. Minimal inhibitory concentration and whole genome sequencing was assessed in 10 STEC strain isolated from BPS. All strains were cephalexin-resistant (100%, n = 10), and five strains were resistant to chloramphenicol (50%). The most frequent serotype was O113:H21 (40%), followed by O76:H19 (40%), O91:H14 (10%), and O130:H11 (10%). The stx1 type was detected in all isolated strains, while stx2 was only detected in two strains. The Stx subtype most frequently detected was stx1c (80%), followed by stx1a (20%), stx2b (10%), and stx2d (10%). All strains harbored chromosomal blaAmpC. Principal component analysis shows that BPS size, number of cattle, pet and horse, and elevation act as driver of antimicrobial usage. Logistic multivariable regression shows that recognition of diseases in animals (p = 0.038; OR = 9.382; 95% CI: 1.138–77.345), neighboring poultry and/or swine BPS (p = 0.006; OR = 10.564; 95% CI: 1.996–55.894), visit of Veterinary Officials (p = 0.010; OR = 76.178; 95% CI: 2.860–2029.315) and close contact between animal species in the BPS (p = 0.021; OR = 9.030; 95% CI: 1.385–58.888) increase significantly the risk of antimicrobial use in BPS. This is the first evidence of STEC strains circulating in BPS in Chile, exhibiting phenotypic AMR, representing a threat for animal and public health. Additionally, we identified factors acting as drivers for antimicrobial usage in BPS, highlighting the importance of integration of these populations into surveillance and education programs to tackle the potential development of antimicrobial resistance and therefore the risk for ecosystemic health.
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Acevedo-Nieto, Emilio C., Paulo Sérgio A. Pinto, Letícia F. Silva, Rafaella P. M. Guimarães-Peixoto, Tatiane O. Santos, Camilla T. D. Duarte, Artur K. Campos, and Paula D. Bevilacqua. "Taeniasis-cysticercosis complex in the agrarian reform rural settlements, Brazil." Pesquisa Veterinária Brasileira 42 (2022). http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/1678-5150-pvb-7028.
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ABSTRACT: Thousands of families live in agrarian reform rural settlements, these existing in Brazil since the 1980s. Factors such as agglomerations of families living in the same environment and the production of domestic animals can promote the transmission and maintenance of zoonosis in these areas. The epidemiology and geographic distribution of zoonotic diseases in settlement communities need to be highlighted. The present study aimed to investigate the prevalence, risk factors and spatial distribution of the teniasis-cysticercosis complex in the agrarian reform rural settlements in the state of Minas Gerais. A total of 497 family farming properties, distributed in 52 settlements, were randomly selected and sampled. Biological samples of humans, cattle and pigs were collected and processed. Survey questionnaires were applied in each family farming property to collect data on animal production as well as sanitary, hygienic and social conditions of each family. Human fecal samples were analyzed for detection of teniasis infection, while animal blood samples were collected and subjected to serological testing to detect the cysticercosis infection. A total of three (0.35%) positive cases of human teniasis were identified, 64 (4.2%) of bovine cysticercosis and 17 (3.3%) of swine cysticercosis. Prevalence per family farming unit was 0.6% (3/497) of taeniasis through fecal test, 5.8% (17/294) for swine cysticercosis and 11.1% (52/469) for bovine cysticercosis. The spatial profile for human teniasis and swine cysticercosis were clustered in two different regions, while bovine cysticercosis showed a dispersed geographical distribution. Two risk factors were associated with the occurrence of bovine cysticercosis: stream as source of water (p=0.009) and the environment as destination of sewage (p=0.031), while burning of garbage was shown to be a significant protective factor (p<0.001). Risk factor for swine cysticercosis was associated with the presence of free range pigs (p=0.008) and the environment as the destination of sewage (p≤0.024). The low number of positive human taeniasis did not allow statistical analysis. These zoonotic diseases represent a significant risk to public health because of their occurrence in livestock which are produced for both beef consumption and for commercialization. Significant endemic areas in the state of Minas Gerais have been determined in this study, and these discoverments suggest the importance of further investment in public health education about teniasis-cysticercosis transmission, the improvement of sanitary facilities for the settlements such as source and treatment of water and adequate destination of sewage. Integrated actions between the human, animal and environmental health sectors, at local and regional levels are needed, aiming at the adoption of effective public policies for the control and eradication of the teniasis-cysticercosis complex where the disease occurs.
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Vydayko, Nataliya, and Yuriy Novohatniy. "Current assessment of risks of anthrax outbreaks in Ukraine." Online Journal of Public Health Informatics 9, no. 1 (May 2, 2017). http://dx.doi.org/10.5210/ojphi.v9i1.7741.
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IntroductionAnthrax is an acute especially dangerous infectious disease ofanimals and humans.Bacillus anthracisis a potential bioterrorismtool. In Ukraine, there are favorable natural conditions for the spreadof anthrax. There are 13.5 thousand of constantly anthrax-troubledpoints. Anthrax epidemic situation in Ukraine could be characterizedas unstable. Because of the continuing reform of Ukrainian humanhealth entities, the State Sanitary Epidemiological Service (SSES) haslost its control functions and is remaining in an uncertain state, whichincreases possible risks.MethodsEpidemiological analysis of official data has been performedusing information from the following sources: State SanitaryEpidemiological Service of Ukraine (SSES), State Veterinary andPhytosanitary Service of Ukraine, and analytical materials fromSI UCDCM. Collected papers Distribution and EpidemiologicalCharacteristics of Major Human Infectious Diseases in Ukraine(Kyiv Research Institute of Epidemiology, Microbiology andParasitology, 1976) were also used during the study. Materials werecompiled for the period from 1945 to 2015.ResultsIn the early XX century, more than 10,000 cases of anthrax inhumans were annually registered in tsarist Russia. In 1913, 1,473cases of anthrax in animals were recorded only in Kherson province(currently, Kherson oblast of Ukraine). The morbidity among humansincreased again during the WWII. In the late 40s, massive epizooticanthrax among animals was eliminated and morbidity among peoplesignificantly reduced because of planned government measures,strengthened veterinary, sanitary, and epidemiological surveillance.Since 1950, significant reduction of incidence of human anthrax hasbeen being recorded in Ukraine.Since 1964, certification and mapping of persistent anthrax-troubled points in Ukraine have been being performed.Compulsory vaccination of people against anthrax was cancelledand compulsory vaccination of all livestock was introduced in 1990.The period from 1976 to 1993 is characterized as epidemically safe.Single cases of the disease in human were registered with intensityrates of 0.01 – 0.002 per 100,000 population (excluding 1985).No human cases were registered during the certain years: 1978, 1982,1987, 1988.The epidemic situation complicated during the period 1994-2001. The following outbreaks were registered:Table 1. Total number of disease cases/ including the numberof cases during outbreaks within regionsThe main reason for the complication of the epidemiologicalsituation was weakening of epidemiological and veterinarysurveillance during the economic crisis characterizing this period.Epizootiological outbreaks arose from incomplete anti-anthraxvaccination of agricultural animals and from violation of veterinary-sanitary rules for their keeping as well. More than 80% of humaninfection cases happened resulting compelled cattle slaughtering,while the rest 20% resulted from meat product distribution andconsumption without corresponding sanitary-veterinary expertise.Six human cases of anthrax were registered during 2002-2015.Fig. 1. Dynamics of anthrax cases in humans in Ukraine during1945 – 2015 (absolute numbers)Table 2. Chronology of anthrax epidemiological surveillancemilestones in UkraineConclusionsRelative wellbeing regarding anthrax in Ukraine persists owing tothe implementation of ruled veterinary-sanitary activities and statesanitary epidemiological surveillance in meat- and leather-processingindustries as well as because of active food control.The main risks, which could trigger complication in the currentepidemiological situation with anthrax, are the following:1) Uncertainty in the system of sanitary-epidemiological andveterinary surveillance, which resulted from the reformation of theState Sanitary-Epidemiological and State Veterinary services.2) Existence of favorable conditions for anthrax agent circulation(considerable number of persistent anthrax-troubled points in allregions).3) Economic instability in the country.4) Uncontrolled epidemic situation in the zone of the Anti-terroristoperation (Donetsk and Luhansk oblasts).
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Adebayo, Joyce, Victor Ojo, Gabriel Ogundipe, and Patrick Mboya Nguku. "Evaluation of Animal Rabies Surveillance System, Ekiti State, Nigeria, 2012-2017." Online Journal of Public Health Informatics 11, no. 1 (May 30, 2019). http://dx.doi.org/10.5210/ojphi.v11i1.9784.
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ObjectiveThe objectives of this study are to evaluate the current animal rabies surveillance system in the state and suggest recommendations.IntroductionRabies is a zoonotic, neglected viral disease. Every 10 minutes, the world loses a life, especially children, to dog-mediated rabies. Yet it is 100% preventable. Africa, including Nigeria, has major share of the disease. Eradication of human rabies relies majorly on control of rabies in animals and this cannot be achieved without good surveillance system of the disease in animal, especially dogs. There is little or no information as to whether the surveillance system in Nigeria is effective.MethodsWe reviewed the medical records of all rabies cases reported in the 10 government and 5 registered private veterinary health facilities in the 16 LGAs of the state. We extracted 44 cases of rabies in all, between review period of 2012-2017. We also interviewed 25 key stakeholders in the system using Key Informant Interview (KII) and questionnaires. We followed the steps stated in CDC guideline for evaluation of public health surveillance system to assess the key attributes and components of the system, and analysed the data using Microsoft Excel.ResultsTwo (20%) of the government and only one in five private veterinary health facilities had records on rabies cases. All reported cases of suspected rabies involved dog bites. The confirmatory status of 32 (72.7%) of the suspected cases were unknown. Six (37.5%) LGAs did not have access to any veterinary health facility. Average of 1 technical staff per veterinary facility was seen. Overall, the system was useful and flexible. It was fairly simple, acceptable and representative. Both sensitivity and predictive Value Positive (PVP) were less than 1% while the timeliness, data quality and stability were poorConclusionsThe surveillance system was performing below optimal level. There is need for improvement in the animal rabies surveillance system to achieve elimination of human rabies in Nigeria.ReferencesAdedeji, A. O., Okonko, I. O., Eyarefe, O. D., Adedeji, O. B., Babalola, E. T., and Ojezele, M. O. (2010). An overview of rabies - History , epidemiology , control and possible elimination. African Journal of Microbiology Research, 4(22), 2327–2338.Aliyu, T. (2010). Prevalence of Rabies Virus Antigens in Apparently Healthy Dogs in Yola , Nigeria. Researcher, 2(2), 1–14.Ameh, V. O., Dzikwi, A. A., and Umoh, J. U. (2014). Assessment of Knowledge , Attitude and Practice of Dog Owners to Canine Rabies in Wukari Metropolis , Taraba State Nigeria. Global Journal of Health Science, 6(5), 226–240.Burgos-Cáceres, S., and Sigfrido. (2011). Canine Rabies: A Looming Threat to Public Health. Animals, 1(4), 326–342.Dutta, J. K., and Dutta, T. K. (1994). Rabies in endemic countries. BMJ (Clinical Research Ed.), 308(6927), 488–9.Ehimiyein, A. M., and Ehimiyein, I. O. 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