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1
Bishop, Robert C., and Harald Atmanspacher. The Causal Closure of Physics and Free Will. Oxford University Press, 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195399691.003.0005.
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Papineau, David. The Causal Closure of the Physical and Naturalism. Oxford University Press, 2009. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199262618.003.0003.
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Weslake, Brad. Difference-making, Closure, and Exclusion. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198746911.003.0011.
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This chapter discusses Peter Menzies’ work on mental causation and the causal exclusion argument. The author shares with Menzies the conviction that an interventionist account of causation can cast new light on this complex of issues, but his view diverges from Menzies at several points, including the role of proportionality considerations in the characterization of causation. This chapter seeks to clarify the role that proportionality considerations should play in the interventionist account of causation. The author develops a number of arguments for the claim that proportionality considerations belong not in the theory of causation but rather in the theory of explanatory value. These arguments help to situate the approach to mental causation favoured by Menzies in relation to the interventionist account of causation.
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Robb, David. Could Mental Causation be Invisible? Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198796299.003.0011.
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E. J. Lowe proposed a model of mental causation on which mental events are emergent, thus exerting a novel, downward causal influence on physical events. Yet on Lowe’s model, mental causation is at the same time empirically undetectable, and in this sense is ‘invisible’. Lowe’s model is ingenious, but I don’t think emergentists should welcome it, for it seems to me that a primary virtue of emergentism is its bold empirical prediction about the long-term results of human physiology. Here I’ll try to restore emergentism’s empirical status, but my broader aim is to use Lowe’s model to explore some central topics in the mental causation debate, including the ‘causal closure’ of the physical world and the nature of causal powers.
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Gordon, Bruce L. The Necessity of Sufficiency. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190842215.003.0026.
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There is an argument for the existence of God from the incompleteness of nature that is vaguely present in Plantinga’s recent work. This argument, which rests on the metaphysical implications of quantum physics and the philosophical deficiency of necessitarian conceptions of physical law, deserves to be given a clear formulation. The goal is to demonstrate, via a suitably articulated principle of sufficient reason, that divine action in an occasionalist mode is needed (and hence God’s existence is required) to bring causal closure to nature and render it ontologically functional. The best explanation for quantum phenomena and the most adequate understanding of general providence turns out to rest on an ontic structural realism in physics that is grounded in the immaterialist metaphysics of theistic idealism.
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Choi, Tina Young. Victorian Contingencies. Stanford University Press, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.11126/stanford/9781503629288.001.0001.
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Contingency is not just a feature of modern politics, finance, and culture—by thinking contingently, nineteenth-century Britons rewrote familiar narratives and upended forgone conclusions. This book shows how scientists, novelists, and consumers engaged in new formal and material experiments with cause and effect, past and present, that actively undermined routine certainties. The book traces contingency across a wide range of materials and media, from newspaper advertisements and children's stories to well-known novels, scientific discoveries, technological innovations. It shows how Charles Lyell and Charles Darwin reinvented geological and natural histories as spaces for temporal and causal experimentation, while the nascent insurance industry influenced Charles Babbage's computational designs for a machine capable of responding to a contingent future. The book pairs novelists George Eliot and Lewis Carroll with physicist James Clerk Maxwell, demonstrating how they introduced possibility and probability into once-assured literary and scientific narratives. And it explores the popular board games and pre-cinematic visual entertainments that encouraged Victorians to navigate a world made newly uncertain. By locating contingency within these cultural contexts, the book invites a deep and multidisciplinary reassessment of the longer histories of causality, closure, and chance.
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Measuring attributions in close relationships: An extension of the causal dimension scale. 1988.
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8
Buehner, Marc J. Space, Time, and Causality. Edited by Michael R. Waldmann. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199399550.013.29.
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This chapter explores how the understanding of causality relates to the understanding of space and time. Traditionally, spatiotemporal contiguity is regarded as a cue toward causality. While concurring with this view, this chapter also reviews some boundary conditions of this approach. Moreover, temporal information goes beyond merely helping to identify causal relations; it also shapes the types of causal inferences that reasoners draw. Recent developments further show that the relation between time and causality is bi-directional: not only does temporal information shape and guide causal inferences, but once one holds a causal belief, one’s perception of time and space is distorted such that cause and effect appear closer in space-time. Spatiotemporal contiguity thus supports causal beliefs, which in turn foster impressions of contiguity.
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Hoang, Jimmy, and Samuel David Yanofsky. Neural Tube Defects. Edited by Kirk Lalwani, Ira Todd Cohen, Ellen Y. Choi, and Vidya T. Raman. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190685157.003.0025.
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Neural tube defects (NTDs) are congenital abnormalities that arise from the neural tube failing to close. These defects can affect the brain, spine, or spinal cord and generally happen within the first month of pregnancy. Cranial dysraphism is failure of cranial neural tube closure and includes anencephaly and encephalocele. Spinal dysraphism is failure of caudal neuropore closure and includes spina bifida cystica and occulta. Myelomeningocele is a type of spina bifida cystica where the membranous sac containing neural tissue protrudes through an opening in the back. It is the most common NTD and considered a surgical emergency due to the increased risk for infection, further neurologic damage, and dehydration. Advancements in medicine have allowed for the possibility of early diagnosis and even in utero surgical intervention. This chapter focuses more exclusively on the approach and management of myelomeningocele.
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Dalal, Priti G., and Shannon M. Grap. Patent Ductus Arteriosus. Edited by Kirk Lalwani, Ira Todd Cohen, Ellen Y. Choi, and Vidya T. Raman. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190685157.003.0006.
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The ductus arteriosus has a significant role in the fetal circulation connecting the main pulmonary artery to the aorta. Normally, after birth, it functionally closes within few hours but complete obliteration occurs at 2 to 3 weeks of age. Failure of the ductus arteriosus to close leads to the condition patent ductus arteriosus. This may be an isolated condition or associated with other congenital cardiac anomalies. Untreated patent ductus arteriosus may be a cause for failure to thrive and pose a risk for infective endocarditis. Management may include pharmacotherapy, nonsurgical closure, and surgical closure. Nonsurgical closure entails using the transcatheter technique. The surgical correction, via a left thoracotomy incision, may be done in the neonatal intensive care unit as a bedside procedure or in the operating room. The anesthetic management is challenging and may depend on the type of intervention.
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Clark, Katherine. Dysphagia, dyspepsia, and hiccup. Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199656097.003.0201.
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Dysphagia, or difficulty swallowing, is a complex problem that is identified as a common occurrence in palliative care. Although people may present with dysphagia as an issue that requires palliation, other people may develop dysphagia as a complication of progressive disease and increasing debilitation. The diagnosis of dyspepsia requires people to be experiencing one or more of the following four problems: epigastric pain, epigastric burning, postprandial fullness, or early satiety. Dyspepsia may occur either as a functional disorder where the cause is not clear or as a secondary disorder. Hiccup, or more correctly singultus, is a problem where people experience a sharp and involuntary contraction of the muscles of inspiration which causes a sudden sharp inspiration and closure of the glottis. Although this is often a short-lived experience, for some people, it may be more prolonged. This chapter discusses the definition, prevalence, pathophysiology, causes, presenting problems, investigations, and management of dysphagia, dyspepsia, and hiccup.
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Andeweg, Rudy B., and David M. Farrell. Legitimacy Decline and Party Decline. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198793717.003.0005.
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This chapter discusses the decline of political parties as a possible cause of the decline of legitimacy. Political parties constitute a link between the citizens and the political system, and therefore a loss of support could delegitimize the political system. However, the decline of political parties can only cause legitimacy decline if they are indeed in decline and if there is a causal relationship between citizens’ involvement in political parties and political support. The chapter argues that empirical evidence for party decline is limited, as parties may have undergone transformation rather than decline. Using ESS data from 2002 to 2010, the chapter finds only weak relations between political support and party membership and party closeness. However, being close to a particular party is more important than being a member of a political party, and is interpreted as a sign that the party system facilitates citizens in making meaningful political choices.
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Strahilevitz, Michal. A Closer Look at the Causes and Consequences of Frequent Stock Trading. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190269999.003.0012.
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This chapter examines the phenomenon of frequent stock trading. Specifically, it covers the ample research demonstrating the negative effects of frequent trading on investor returns, as well as several possible underlying causes for this irrational behavior. Possible causes of frequent trading discussed include overconfidence, risk seeking, gambling addiction, frequency of negative emotions, and emotional instability. The chapter also examines gender differences. Although the body of research showing that frequent trading is bad for returns is vast, many investors continue to trade too often for their own good. Therefore, besides discussing potential causes of frequent stock trading, this chapter also stresses the need for future research to identify effective methods of helping investors reduce this financially harmful behavior.
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Leuenberger, Stephan. Wolff’s Close Shave with Fatalism. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198786436.003.0003.
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Modality played a central role in Christian Wolff’s philosophy. In his extensive writings on the topic, he was unusually explicit about the definitions of modal notions and what sort of principles they satisfy. His alleged endorsement of fatalism prompted his expulsion from Prussia in 1723, an event that caused a major stir among Europe’s intellectual circles. This chapter examines whether Wolff was indeed committed to fatalism, despite his protestations to the contrary. It is argued that Wolff’s theory of propositions allows him to avoid the letter of view: there are truths that are not necessary. However, Wolff fails to make room for the kind of contingency in which his opponents were interested. On the interpretation proposed, Wolff’s view is in the spirit of fatalism.
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Aldrich, John H., James E. Alt, and Arthur Lupia. The Eitm Approach: Origins and Interpretations. Edited by Janet M. Box-Steffensmeier, Henry E. Brady, and David Collier. Oxford University Press, 2009. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199286546.003.0037.
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This article describes the National Science Foundation (NSF)'s initiative to close the gap between theory and methods. It also deals with the Empirical Implications of Theoretical Models (EITM) as currently understood as a way of thinking about causal inference in service to causal reasoning. Additionally, it explores the approach's origins and various ways in which NSF's call to EITM action has been interpreted. It makes a brief attempt to explain why the EITM approach emerged, why it is valuable, and how it is currently understood. It then contends that EITM has been interpreted in multiple ways. It emphasizes a subset of extant interpretations and, in the process, offers views about the most constructive way forward. The idea of EITM is to bring deduction and induction, hypothesis generation and hypothesis testing, close together.
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Currie, Sean. Disaffiliation and New Religious Movements. Edited by James R. Lewis and Inga Tøllefsen. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190466176.013.4.
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In this chapter, I examine the academic literature on disaffiliation from an interdisciplinary perspective, most notably scholarship in sociology, psychology, and religious studies. I begin briefly with deconversion, due to its close—and often conflated—association with disaffiliation, followed by an overview of key disaffiliation literature, including the development of causal and role theory approaches. I then discuss the “cult controversy” phenomenon and post-involvement attitudes of former members that featured prominently in early NRM scholarship. I conclude with a discussion on methodological prospects for future research on disaffiliation and NRMs.
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Burns, Tom, and Mike Firn. Housing and homelessness. Edited by Tom Burns and Mike Firn. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198754237.003.0021.
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Mental illness is both a cause and sometimes a consequence of homelessness. The prevalence of mental illness in the homeless is greater than for the population as a whole. The chapter considers the evidence for whether the closure of long-stay psychiatric hospitals has added to the problem, and to what extent other factors are at play. Types of social housing and residential support are presented together with the legal framework for entitlement to housing. Programmes aimed at people with long-term homelessness and severe mental illnesses, such as Housing First, are presented with evidence for effectiveness.
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Plutynski, Anya. Explaining Cancer. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199967452.001.0001.
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Cancer is the second leading cause of death in the world. Almost everyone’s life is in some way or other affected by cancer. Yet, when faced with a cancer diagnosis, many of us will confront questions we had never before considered: Is cancer one disease, or many? If many, how many exactly? How is cancer classified? What does it mean, exactly, to say that cancer is “genetic,” or “familial”? What exactly are the causes of cancer, and how do scientists come to know about them? When do we have good reason to believe that this or that is a risk factor for cancer? These questions are (in part) empirical ones; however, they are also (in part) philosophical. That is, they are questions about what and how we come to know. They are about how we define and classify disease, what counts as a “natural” classification, what it means to have good evidence, and how we pick out causes as more or less significant. This book takes a close look at these philosophical questions, by examining the conceptual and methodological challenges that arise in cancer research, in disciplines as diverse as cell and molecular biology, epidemiology, clinical medicine, and evolutionary biology.
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Tsampra, Maria. Crisis and Austerity in Action: Greece. Edited by Gordon L. Clark, Maryann P. Feldman, Meric S. Gertler, and Dariusz Wójcik. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198755609.013.39.
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The chapter addresses uneven prosperity in Europe, based on the geographically divergent outcome of the 2008 global financial and eurozone crisis. Austerity-induced recession has led to dramatic output and employment decline in Greece, raising questions about the causes of territorial economic vulnerability, or resilience. Metropolitan Athens, the hub of Greece’s economy, has suffered even more severe employment losses and unemployment, massive business closures, increasing poverty, and homelessness. The factors defining the vulnerability of the national and regional economy to the downturn are traced in inherited and evolving industrial, entrepreneurial, and employment structures. However, the causes and nature of the crisis, as well as the policy addressing it, determine its place-specific impact as much; and raise critical issues concerning the recovery of economies severely affected by such shocks.
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Zoysa, Aruni De. Other bacterial diseasesDiseases caused by corynebacteria and related organisms. Oxford University Press, 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198570028.003.0019.
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The genus Corynebacterium contains the species Corynebacterium diphtheriae and the non-diphtherial corynebacteria. C. diphtheriae is the major human pathogen in this genus, but several species of nondiphtheria corynebacteria appear to be emerging as important pathogens.Zoonotic corynebacteria rarely cause disease in humans, but recent reports have indicated that the frequency and severity of infection associated with Corynebacterium ulcerans has increased in many countries. In the past most human C.ulcerans infections have occurred through close contact with farm animals or by consumption of unpasteurised dairy products. However, recently, there have been cases of human infection following close contact with household pets. Rhodococcus equi appears to be emerging as an important pathogen in immunocompromised patients, especially those with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). Human infections caused by Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis is still a very rare occurrence.Antibiotics in combination with surgery and vaccination are the treatment of choice for human infection. Control of human infection is best achieved by raising awareness in those at risk (e.g. domestic pet owners, sheep shearers, the immunocompromised), clinicians involved in treating these groups and by vaccination. Reducing prevalence in the animal population could be achieved by improving hygiene in farms and husbandry practices, reducing minor injuries (e.g. cuts and abrasions) during routine procedures, and by vaccination.
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Heyns, Chris. Tuberculosis and parasitic infestations involving the urogenital system. Edited by Rob Pickard. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199659579.003.0006.
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Urogenital tuberculosis is caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis, which evokes a granulomatous tissue reaction leading to caseous necrosis, fibrosis, and eventual calcification. It most commonly presents as cystitis with sterile pyuria but can show many other symptoms and signs requiring a high index of suspicion to make the diagnosis. Schistosomiasis (Bilharzia) affecting the urinary tract is caused by the flatworm Schistosoma haematobium. Humans are infested by contact with fresh water harbouring the intermediate snail host. Echinococcosis (hydatid disease), is caused by the tapeworm Echinococcus granulosis or multilocularis. Human infection results from close contact with the parasite host (usually dogs and sheep). Filariasis, caused by the roundworm Wuchereria bancrofti, is transmitted by mosquito bite
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Coffin, Charles Carleton. Drum-Beat Of The Nation: The First Period Of The War Of The Rebellion From Its Outbreak To The Close Of 1862. Kessinger Publishing, LLC, 2006.
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Coffin, Charles Carleton. Drum-Beat Of The Nation: The First Period Of The War Of The Rebellion From Its Outbreak To The Close Of 1862. Kessinger Publishing, LLC, 2007.
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Hawthorne, John, and Dani Rabinowitz. Knowledge and False Belief. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198724551.003.0020.
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Many treat it as theoretical bedrock that knowledge cannot be generated by false belief. Much of the impetus behind this view stems from the literature generated by Edmund Gettier’s influential paper. Nevertheless, some recent literature has undermined the alleged structural feature using compelling cases. Roughly, two groups have emerged: those proposing that knowledge is had via a true belief in the vicinity and those suggesting that a false belief provides the epistemic support required for knowledge. While we tentatively side with these authors, we are not at all sympathetic with the theories on offer as they prove problematic upon closer reflection. An alternative picture is suggested wherein falsehoods play a causal role in generating knowledge. In this sense knowledge can be generated by habits involving false beliefs.
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Craig, Sonya, and Sophie West. Obstructive sleep apnoea. Edited by Patrick Davey and David Sprigings. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199568741.003.0136.
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Obstructive sleep apnoea (OSA) is caused by the repetitive closure of the pharynx during sleep, leading to sleep fragmentation and, often, daytime somnolence. Traditionally, it is defined as either the number of apnoeas (complete cessation of breathing for longer than 10 seconds) or hyponoeas (reduction in air flow by >50%) per hour in an overnight sleep study. However, it must be remembered that this definition is arbitrary, and OSA is better viewed as a spectrum with trivial snoring at one end and severe, almost continuous obstruction at the other. In addition to the sleep-study findings, if the patient is sleepy during the day, as defined by the Epworth Sleepiness Scale, then this condition is termed ‘obstructive sleep apnoea syndrome’. This distinction is important, as patients with this syndrome usually warrant treatment.
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Gardner, John. It’s Not About the Money. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198818755.003.0004.
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This chapter turns to the case in favour of the wrongdoer repairing the losses that they caused to the person wronged. The literature on repair by wrongdoers often emphasizes reconciliation, although the chapter questions this emphasis. It asks if reconciliation is always desirable and, if so, why repair by the wrongdoer of losses that were caused by the wrongdoer is an effective way to achieve it. There must be an independent case for such repair that makes it a suitable strategy of reconciliation. The chapter advances such an independent case, namely the case that, by repairing the losses the wrongdoer caused, they come closer to doing what they should have done in the first place. More precisely they conform, as far as can still be done, to reasons that they did not conform to when they failed in their duty.
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Anderson, Elizabeth. The Problem of Equality from a Political Economy Perspective. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198801221.003.0003.
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This paper explores challenges to the creation of an egalitarian society from what we know about different types of human society across human history. All human beings originally lived in hunter-gatherer bands, which, along with tribal societies, are remarkably egalitarian. Inegalitarian social forms—rank societies and social stratification—are rooted in the following causes: (1) despotic tendencies rooted in human psychology; (2) esteem competition; (3) descent group closure and ingroup opportunity hoarding; (4) inegalitarian ideology; and (5) the increasing scale of societies, administration of which requires layers of hierarchically organized bureaucracy. Large-scale social organization can deliver dramatically reduced interpersonal violence and increased prosperity and opportunities. Securing the benefits of scale without oppressive social hierarchy requires the institution of checks and norms against bullies and narcissists, reworking the economy of esteem, ending descent group opportunity hoarding, integrating social groups, promoting egalitarian ideologies, and perfecting democratic practices.
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Gross, Michael L. The Deaths of Combatants. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198796176.003.0005.
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Although there are few restrictions on killing combatants, the contemporary law of war bans weapons that cause superfluous injury and unnecessary suffering. Because military necessity and humanitarian norms often conflict, no clear regulations have emerged. Instead, states sometimes ban weapons because they cause horrific wounds. But this determination is subjective and has led the Red Cross to seek objective medical guidelines on unnecessary suffering. A close look shows how it is often difficult to apply these guidelines to new non-lethal technologies, which include electromagnetic, pharmacological, and neurological weapons. These weapons do not cause obvious injury and suffering and may even reduce combatant and civilian injuries. Nevertheless, they can cause intense transient pain or impinge upon human dignity when they undermine cognitive capabilities. Weighing the costs of new technologies against their benefits remains an abiding challenge for humanitarian law.
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Lee, Ching Kwan, and Ming Sing, eds. Take Back Our Future. Cornell University Press, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.7591/cornell/9781501740916.001.0001.
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This book unveils the causes, processes, and implications of the 2014 seventy-nine-day occupation movement in Hong Kong known as the Umbrella Movement. The chapters ask, how and why had a world financial center known for its free-wheeling capitalism transformed into a hotbed of mass defiance and civic disobedience? The book argues that the Umbrella Movement was a response to China's internal colonization strategies—political disenfranchisement, economic subsumption, and identity reengineering—in post-handover Hong Kong. The chapters outline how this historic and transformative movement formulated new cultural categories and narratives, fueled the formation and expansion of civil society organizations and networks both for and against the regime, and spurred the regime's turn to repression and structural closure of dissent. Although the Umbrella Movement was fraught with internal tensions, the book demonstrates that the movement politicized a whole generation of people who had no prior experience in politics, fashioned new subjects and identities, and awakened popular consciousness.
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Loke, Yoon. Drug-induced cardiovascular disease. Edited by Patrick Davey and David Sprigings. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199568741.003.0122.
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Many drugs can cause or exacerbate cardiovascular disease, and clinicians should be vigilant when prescribing potentially cardiotoxic medication to patients at risk, so that preventive measures and close monitoring can be implemented. Conversely, the possibility of drug-related disease should always be considered in patients with cardiovascular symptoms, so that culprit drugs can be identified and alternative therapies considered.
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Einarsen, Ståle, Stig Berge Matthiesen, and Lars Johan Hauge. Bullying and Harassment at work. Edited by Susan Cartwright and Cary L. Cooper. Oxford University Press, 2009. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199234738.003.0020.
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Bullying is a complex and multi-causal phenomenon seldom sufficiently explained by one factor alone. A wide range of factors at different explanatory levels may influence why bullying develops and who will be targeted. This article reviews the literature and research findings in this field, which has blossomed during the last ten years. Here, the terms “harassment” and “bullying” are used interchangeably to refer to both these phenomena, namely as the systematic exhibition of aggressive behavior at work directed towards a subordinate, a superior or a co-worker, as well as the perception of being systematically exposed to such mistreatment while at work. The construct of social undermining bears close resemblance to bullying and harassment, involving behavior over time that is intended to hinder someone in their ability to establish and maintain positive interpersonal relationships, as well as damage their work-related success or favorable reputation.
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Cui, Zhao, Neil Turner, and Ming-hui Zhao. Alport post-transplant antiglomerular basement membrane disease. Edited by Neil Turner. Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199592548.003.0075.
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Alport antiglomerular basement membrane (anti-GBM) disease is a rare example of disease caused by allo-sensitization after renal transplantation, first described in 1992. Because the recipient lacks a specific glomerular basement membrane (GBM) protein, they can become sensitized to the normal molecule present in the GBM of the donor kidney. The disease is restricted to the allograft. Interestingly severe disease arises from this only arises rarely, certainly less than 1 in 20, probably closer to 1 in 50. It characteristically causes late graft loss in a first transplant with accelerated tempo in later allografts, and in its most extreme form recurs within days. However, inexplicably some subsequent transplants do not provoke aggressive recurrence. Treatment of the most aggressive disease is difficult and in most cases has been ultimately unsuccessful. Lower levels of immune response, marked by linear binding of immunoglobulin-G to GBM without glomerular disease, are not uncommon in Alport patients after transplantation and should not lead to altered treatment. Immunoassays for anti-GBM antibodies can be misleading as in most cases the target of antibodies is the α5 chain of type IV collagen, rather than the α3 chain which is the target in spontaneous anti-GBM disease. Overall the outcome of transplantation in Alport syndrome is better than average. This complication is more likely in patients with partial or total gene deletion rather than point mutations, but no other predictive features have been identified.
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Kroenig, Matthew. The Mechanisms of Nuclear Crisis Outcomes. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190849184.003.0005.
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This chapter examines the effect of nuclear superiority on crisis outcomes in a series of short case studies of the most important nuclear crises of the nuclear era: the Cuban Missile Crisis, the Sino-Soviet Border War, the 1973 Arab-Israeli Crisis, and the Kargil Crisis. The analysis provides strong support for the argument of the book. It illustrates the effect of the nuclear balance of power in specific cases and demonstrates that the causal mechanisms predicted by the theory are in fact in operation. In these cases, it is clear that leaders paid close attention to the nuclear balance of power, nuclear superior states were willing to run greater risks, and nuclear superior states were more likely to achieve their basic goals. Alternative explanations, such as those that maintain nuclear weapons are irrelevant, or that they do not matter above and beyond a secure, second-strike capability, do not find support.
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Mehlhorn, Heinz. Flea infestations. Oxford University Press, 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198570028.003.0074.
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Fleas are wingless bloodsucking insects infesting a large variety of hosts. They can cause dermatological problems and act as zoonotic vectors transmitting very important agents of diseases in humans and in animals living close to humans. Among the agents of diseases occur: viruses, plaque bacteria or even worms etc. Thus flea control is an important target nowadays in order to protect human and animal health all over the world.
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Tritten, Tyler. On the Primacy of Matter: Neoplatonism Right-Side Up. Edinburgh University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.3366/edinburgh/9781474428194.003.0004.
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This chapter provides a close reading of Schelling’s early commentary on Plato’s Timaeus and then contrasts this reading with Neoplatonism’s, particularly Proclus’, understanding of this same text. While Neoplatonism views being according to a hierarchy of degradation or descent, with matter at the bottom, Schelling affirms that being potentiates itself into higher and greater degrees of order such that matter is not the last but the first. He is able to do this, however, only by rejecting the Platonic notion of participation. For Schelling, the participating acquires an independence from the participated so that an effect can be greater than its cause and, moreover, the effect exerts a retroactive after effect on the cause. The identity of a cause or antecedent is only constituted in and through its consequents. If matter is said to process from the One, then matter, in turn, is the consequent condition of the identity of the One as one rather than as many.
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Steiner, Lisa A. Infections of the Hand. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199976805.003.0047.
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Hand infections can be delineated by type and location of infection, by a polymicrobial vs single microbial colonization, and by the type of organism. They are most often caused by superficial injury or trauma. Early identification and timely treatment can significantly improve the morbidity associated with hand infections. In addition to determining the source and mechanism of infection, it is important to identify tetanus immunization status, prior injury to the affected area, immune status, occupation, and hand dominance. Some hand infections (eg, paronychia, felon, herpetic whitlow, and cellulitis) can be treated in the emergency department and discharged with close follow-up. Deep space abscesses and infections caused by bite wounds involving tendons will require either observation, admission, or surgery depending on their severity. Take into account a patient’s comorbidities—diabetes, immunosuppression, injection drug use, inability to follow up for re-evaluation, and ability to fill antibiotic prescriptions—upon disposition.
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Salmon, Roland L. Other bacterial diseasesRat-bite fevers. Oxford University Press, 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198570028.003.0022.
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Infection with Streptobacillus moniliformis, gives rise to Rat-Bite fever also known as Streptobacillary Fever, and, when epidemic Epidemic Arthritic Erythema (Haverhill Fever). It occurs worldwide. Only three outbreaks have been described. It is either caused by the bite of, or similar close contact with, a rat or other infected rodent, or, when epidemic, by the ingestion of water or milk contaminated by rats. Control requires limiting human contact with rats, traditionally by prevention of rat infestation although, of recent years, in developed countries, the keeping of rats as pets has played an important role.
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Haugaa, Kristina H., Francesco Faletra, and João L. Cavalcante. Cardiac rhythm disorders. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198726012.003.0063.
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Cardiac rhythm disorders require diagnostic, prognostic, and guidance of therapeutic procedures by echocardiography. The most common sustained cardiac arrhythmia is atrial fibrillation (AF) leading to an increased risk for mortality, heart failure, and thromboembolic events. Echocardiography is performed to assess the aetiology of AF which most commonly is associated with diseases leading to enlarged atria. Furthermore, echocardiography is crucial to evaluate thromboembolic risk by assessing the morphology and function of the left atrial appendage among other parameters. Non-invasive imaging modalities including two-dimensional transthoracic (TTE) and transoesophageal echocardiography (TOE) with three-dimensional imaging are often indicated. Finally, TOE can help in the preprocedural planning and providing guidance for interventions such as pulmonary vein ablation and percutaneous left atrial appendage closure. In patients with ventricular arrhythmias, TTE is the first-line diagnostic tool for assessing the aetiology of ventricular arrhythmias. Ischaemic heart disease, either acute or chronic fibrosis, is the most common causes of ventricular tachycardias. Left ventricular ejection fraction remains the most important parameter for indication of an implantable cardioverter defibrillator for primary prevention therapy, although newer strain echocardiographic measures may add incremental prognostic information.
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Sobey, Christopher. Orofacial Pain. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190217518.003.0023.
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Management of orofacial pain in the general population can be a challenging and demanding undertaking due to the complex neurological anatomy and close proximity to vital structures. Differentiating various syndromes and origins of pain can prove difficult; thus, specific emphasis on establishing the correct diagnosis is of the utmost importance in formatting a successful treatment plan. The questions in this chapter delve into the presentations, physical exam findings, diagnostic testing, psychological effects, and evidence-based medical and interventional treatment algorithms of both common and less common craniofacial pain disorders. This chapter covers pathophysiology of the neurological, biomechanical, and central causes of facial pain.
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Cohn, Jr., Samuel K. Plague since 1894. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198819660.003.0015.
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The plague riots in India, which amassed crowds of up to 10,000, followed by strikes and shop closures, were larger than cholera’s, and arrests and executions could also surpass cholera-related repression. Occasionally, myths spread of doctors poisoning Indians or selling their body parts for cures, and some have concluded that plague and cholera riots were much the same. They were not. While cholera violence drove deep wedges into the fabric of societies, plague riots united communities, even Muslims and Hindus, in common cause against abusive military searches and colonial measures that violated religious customs, destroyed property, and humiliated women. In contrast to cholera riots, which showed few signs of pre-planning or leadership, petitions, peaceful demonstrations, and efforts to negotiate usually preceded the plague protests. Unlike cholera riots, plague protests did not turn on distrust of Western medicine. Instead, Indians lambasted governments for not pursuing the latest scientific findings.
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Randall, David. Sociabilitas. Edinburgh University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.3366/edinburgh/9781474430104.003.0008.
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Conversatio, mutual conduct, had possessed loose affiliations with sermo in ancient and medieval times. During the Renaissance, conversatio shifted far closer to sermo and its constellation of cognate concepts. Stefano Guazzo elaborated an influential theory of civil conversation in his eponymous late-sixteenth-century dialogue, which reconceived conversatio in secular terms as the realm of society. This Italian conception of civil conversation then received a universalizing spin from the natural law jurisprudential tradition of Grotius and Pufendorf, transforming it into an amoral disposition toward sociability shared by all humanity. The long parallel tracks of sermo and conversatio now finally converged: sermo became conversation as conversatio became sociability. The convergence of sermo and conversatio made possible the establishment of a causal connection between the two concepts. This connection appeared viadoux commerce, the application of sociability to the realm of economics: sociability, by the means of economic self-interest, became the conceptual and historical predicate to conversation—and, as the Enlightenment progressively tied together manners with the civic humanist tradition, the predicate in turn for both virtue and liberty. Sociability thus at last substituted for Platonic love an amoral, entirely human motivation for conversation—the discourse of reason found its base in human passions.
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Barkataki-Ruscheweyh, Meenaxi. Malugaon. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199472598.003.0005.
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Chapter 5 moves closer to the urban centres of Margherita and Ledo to the little Baptist Hakhun Tangsa basti of Malugaon perched on top of a hill right next to a coal mine. By focusing on the landscape and livelihood of the Tangsa living there, and by describing the problems caused by insurgent activities as well as the opportunities offered by the informal trade of coal and opium, I wish to understand the efforts made by the Hakhun to survive as well as to gain visibility by organizing festivals. The final section deals with various aspects of relations and networks my Tangsa interlocutors have with the wider world around them and the web of connections between me and the Hakhuns in Malugaon.
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Fratzscher, Marcel. The employment miracle. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190676575.003.0003.
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After reaching a low point of economic dynamism and employment in 2005, a state of affairs in which it came to be regarded as the “sick man of Europe,” Germany achieved impressive, indeed apparently miraculous growth in employment. In the process German society cut unemployment in half and created almost 5 million new jobs. In this chapter’s discussion, the primary focus is on the different elements and causes that have gone into the employment miracle in Germany since the start of the twenty-first century. In addition, the chapter highlights the underlying weaknesses and problems in Germany’s labor market as the century’s second decade nears its close.
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Meili, Stephen. The Constitutionalization of Human Rights Law. Oxford University PressOxford, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198868439.001.0001.
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Abstract The Constitutionalization of Human Rights Law analyzes how lawyers representing refugees use human rights provisions in national constitutions to close the gap between law on the books and how that law is implemented by focusing on five countries (Colombia, Mexico, South Africa, Uganda, the United States) and how lawyers adapt creatively to social, political, and legal contexts. Many refugee-receiving states openly reject or passively ignore their obligation under international law to protect refugees. Given that law’s growing irrelevance, cause lawyers have turned to constitutionalized human rights law. While many countries are likely to have included such provisions in their Constitutions without intending to fulfill their commitments, cause lawyers have seized on them as a more enforceable means of rights protection. This book proposes a theory of a continuum of ever-more ambitious methods through which cause lawyers use constitutionalized human rights law to benefit refugees. Lawyers use different tools as they move along this continuum, including strategic litigation, training governmental officials in the applicable law, and various forms of informal advocacy. As to the effectiveness of human rights treaties, this book provides qualitative evidence of how such treaties achieve greater significance when incorporated into national constitutions. As to refugee law, it analyzes how international protections for refugees become stronger when domestic lawyers enforce them through national constitutions. And as to cause lawyering, it shows how refugee lawyers use constitutionalized human rights law to protect their clients.
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O’Brien, Alastair. Management of acute or chronic hepatic failure in the critically ill. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199600830.003.0200.
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Acute on chronic liver failure is characterized by an acute deterioration of liver function in a patient with previously compensated cirrhosis secondary to a precipitating event. It is most commonly associated with a very poor prognosis and early identification of the precipitating cause is essential to successfully attempt to reverse decompensation. The most common precipitant is infection and a high index of suspicion is required. Other management is largely supportive with close attention to renal dysfunction being particularly important. All patients admitted to the intensive care unit with complications of cirrhosis warrant consultation with a transplant centre to determine whether they fulfil the criteria for transplantation and for expert advice.
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Wijdicks, Eelco F. M., and Sarah L. Clark. Osmotic Therapy. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190684747.003.0005.
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Osmotic drugs are ubiquitously used in neurocritically ill patients. Mannitol and hypertonic saline are readily available in emergency departments and intensive care units to reduce intracranial pressure. Mannitol depletes and hypertonic saline expands the volume status. Hyperosmolar fluids increase the intravascular osmolality, draw water from the brain, reduce or temporize shift, and reduce globally increased intracranial pressure from any cause. These osmotic fluids change fluid compartments and cannot be used indiscriminately. Particularly when they are administered regularly, close monitoring is needed and target goals should be set. This chapter discusses triggers for the use of these osmotic agents, how to judge their effect, and how to dose adequately.
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Kalantzakos, Sophia. How China Came to Dominate the Rare Earth Industry. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190670931.003.0005.
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Once a leader in the production and trading of rare earths, the United States relinquished the reins to China in the 1990s. The People’s Republic of China declared rare earths “protected and strategic materials” and proceeded to control production and processing, introduced export quotas, and sought to dominate the supply chain for crucial applications. It also made investments in mines worldwide. The 2010 crisis caused a parabolic rise in prices, leading the United States, the European Union, and Japan to file a complaint against China at the World Trade Organization, in 2012, and to launch trilateral cooperation workshops, starting in 2011, to promote recycling, substitution, and innovation. China lost its WTO appeal and removed the export quotas in May 2015. The market corrected itself, and it may seem today that China lost an initial battle; but closer examination indicates that it may not have lost the war.
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Sharma, Deepak, and Julia Metzner. Nontraumatic Intracranial Hemorrhage. Edited by Matthew D. McEvoy and Cory M. Furse. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190226459.003.0062.
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Nontraumatic subarachnoid, intraventricular, or intraparenchymal hemorrhage can be caused by either rupture of an aneurysm or arteriovenous malformation or by coagulopathy, hypertension, or vasculitis. Pituitary apoplexy results from spontaneous hemorrhage or infarction into a pituitary tumor. Additionally, anesthesiologists must be prepared to manage intraoperative bleeding during craniotomies. Successful management of nontraumatic intracranial hemorrhage requires (1) careful preoperative evaluation and preparation considering extracranial manifestations of intracranial bleeding; (2) administration of balanced anesthesia to facilitate surgical exposure and neurophysiological monitoring; (3) maintenance of cerebral perfusion by preserving circulating volume, judicious use of blood product transfusion and vasopressors, and avoidance of excessive hyperventilation; and, when possible, (4) providing timely emergence from anesthesia to allow neurological assessment. Close communication between the surgical and anesthesia teams is critical for optimizing the potential for good patient outcomes.
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Robertson, Fiona. Transatlantic Engagements. Edited by David Duff. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199660896.013.46.
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Literary works in the Romantic period were fashioned and interpreted in transatlantic contexts. On both sides of the Atlantic during the decades following the ratification of the United States constitution in 1787, a new and pervasive cultural relativism accompanied changes in national, political, and social identity. This chapter considers a cultural relationship which was simultaneously close and fraught. It examines the rift in literary history caused by the independence of the United States; the politics of emigration and the significance of this for literary expression; the literature of the anti-slavery movement in Britain; the transatlantic literary marketplace; and the impact of copyright legislation in the United States. It also explores the stylistic and ideological allure of American Indian cultures and the emergence of new cultural identities on both sides of the Atlantic
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Songster, E. Elena. The Winding Road to Wanglang. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199393671.003.0004.
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This study moves to the local level to offer a close investigation of just how the national nature protection policy, examined in Chapter 2, was implemented on the ground. The Wanglang Reserve, in Pingwu county of northern Sichuan province, became the first space demarcated as a panda reserve and thus the first experiment in engaging local people in the national cause of panda protection. Local bureaucrats, villagers of the Baima ethnic group, and scientists grappled over their individual interpretations of the panda’s elevated status as a protected species. By studying the actions of these groups, I demonstrate the interactive nature of their efforts to define China’s natural environment and the panda’s role in society during the 1960s.