Journal articles on the topic 'Centrifugal brake'

Pallet flow rack is one of the high-density storage systems. One of the main safety elements of the systems is a brake roller. Centrifugal frictional brake is the widely used type of the brake rollers, which used as speed governor for the pallet. The known method of calculation of the pallet speed on the flow rack does not take into account the length of the friction lining. In reality, the contact of the friction lining and the roller shell occurs in an arc that reaches the full length of the lining during operation. The method of calculating the speed of movement of the pallet on a centrifugal friction roller is given, and a calculation formula is obtained that allows taking into account the uniform distribution of the force of the normal pressure along the length of the lining. The results of a comparative calculation are presented, which showed that the speed of the pallet movement when taking into account the length of the lining is lower than the values obtained without taking it into account. It is found that if the lining length is up to 70 mm, it can be ignored in the calculations using a simpler formula, and if the lining length is more than 70 mm, it is recommended to use the calculation formula obtained in the work.

Introduction. One of the main elements of the safe operation of gravity roller conveyors used in pallet racks is a brake roller. The most promising design is the brake roller magnetic (eddy current) type. The operation principle of such rollers is based on the laws of electromagnetic induction and involves the braking of a conductor moving in a magnetic field, due to the interaction of eddy currents (or Foucault currents) arising in the volume of the conductor with an external magnetic field. However, in the market of warehouse shelving equipment, brake magnetic rollers are not widely used due to their high cost, which is primarily due to the lack of domestic designs and methods for their calculation. The aim of the work is to develop a mathematical model of the moving pallets process on a magnetic type brake roller.Materials and methods. The paper presented the theoretical study results on the development of a mathematical model of the moving pallets process on a magnetic type brake roller, described in works on centrifugal friction rollers and eddy current brake devices.Results. The main parameter determining the functions of the brake magnetic roller and hence the speed of the pallet along the gravity roller conveyor is a magnetic viscosity coefficient. The speed dependence of the pallets on the brake magnetic roller for various values of a magnetic viscosity coefficient is determined, its analysis is carried out.Conclusions. A mathematical model of the moving pallets process on a brake magnetic roller is developed. The movement speed equation of the pallets on the brake magnetic roller is obtained. For a reasonable choice of the design parameters of the magnetic brake roller, experimental studies are required to determine a magnetic viscosity coefficient.

New guidelines for dimensional analysis remove traditional road-blocks to its widespread use in mechanical design. Cases, with or without prior formula given, are exposed as well as those with a governing differential equation. The examples include bevel gear, helical spring, centrifugal pump, journal bearing, vibration of turbine blades, and a disk brake. A matrix method to determine nondimensional groups is reviewed.

Aiming at the deficiencies of the commonly used AMT and DSG structure in the electric vehicles’ transmission, a kind of three-speed automatic transmission structured by the planetary gear trains is designed. It uses the centrifugal components to realize the gear shifting, while using the electromagnetic brake and the motor reversal to realize the reversing. Based on the design concepts proposed, we did some matching calculations on the transmission system of a three-wheel pure electric vehicle, and finally made the optimization design on the driving motor’s selection and transmission parameters. The designed electric vehicle’s centrifugal automatic transmission has the characteristics of simple structure, small size and shifting smoothness, which can not only meet the requirements of the automobile power, but also improve the efficiency of the driving motor.

This paper presents the numerical investigation of the effects that the pertinent design parameters, including the blade height, the blade number, the outlet blade angle, the blade width, and the impeller diameter, have on the steady state liquid flow in a three-dimensional centrifugal pump. Three cases were considered for this study: impeller, combined impeller and volute, and combined impeller and diffuser. The continuity and Navier-Stokes equations with the k-ε turbulence model and the standard wall functions were used by means of ANSYS-CFX code. The results achieved reveal that the selected key design parameters have an impact on the centrifugal pump performance describing the pump head, the brake horsepower, and the overall efficiency. To valid the developed approach, the results of numerical simulation were compared with the experimental results considering the case of combined impeller and diffuser.

This paper deals with the numerical investigation of a liquid flow in a first stage of a multistage centrifugal pump consisting of an impeller, diffuser with return vanes, and casing. The continuity and Navier-Stokes equations with the k-ε turbulence model and standard wall functions were used. To improve the design of the pump's first stage, the impacts of the impeller blade height and diffuser vane height, number of impeller blades, diffuser vanes and diffuser return vanes, and wall roughness height on the performances of the first stage of a multistage centrifugal pump were analyzed. The results achieved reveal that the selected parameters affect the pump head, brake horsepower, and efficiency in a strong yet different manner. To validate the model developed, the results of the numerical simulations were compared with the experimental results from the pump manufacturer.

In the present work, a centrifugal atomization was studied for producing zinc metal powder. The effect of rotating disc speed on median particle size, particle size distribution and standard deviation, production yield, and morphology of the atomized zinc powder was investigated. The atomization was carried out using graphite flat disc, melt pouring temperature, preheating disc temperature and melt feed rate of 40 mm, 550 °C, 300 °C and 50 kg/h, respectively. The atomizer disc speeds were varied from 10,000 to 30,000 rpm. It was evidenced from the experimental results that the median particle size and standard deviation of zinc metal powder decreased with increasing disc speed. The production yield tended to increase with increasing rotating speed. SEM images revealed that most zinc metal particles were irregular, elongated flakes. This kind of zinc power may be suitable for use as a friction material for manufacturing brake pad component in the automotive part industry

With the socio-economic development and increasingly higher buildings, public concern is growing over high-rise fire evacuation issues. Considering the shortcomings of the existing escape device and methods, such as difficult speed adjustment, high demand for escaping skill, difficult unification of speediness and security, poor recycling etc, an integrated speed limited escape method is proposed by analyzing kinetics of high-rise evacuation. On one hand, the escape acceleration is limited by using centrifugal mechanism, on the other, according to the building height and people's weight, the landing speed of people is restricted by controlling the break height and braking force of brakes. The developed escape machine use the micro-controller to monitor the height and speed real-timely, control the brake automatically and start rope recycling mechanism after the landing, which achieves quick and safe escape. The experiment shows that when heavy object weighing around 75kg drops from a height of 14. 6m, the maximum speed reaches 3m/s, the landing speed is less than 0.5m/s and the falling time is within 7.5s, which achieves better escaping effect.

Vehicle under braking in turn condition can easily cause lateral instability because of the centrifugal force. In this paper, the defects of ABS control methods of the vehicle under braking in turn condition were analyzed, a braking force control strategy by the integrated control of ABS and yaw moment control for vehicle cornering is presented. Based on ABS, a yaw moment controller using fuzzy control theory is designed, by controlling yaw moment of vehicle and regulating slip rate of wheels, the dynamic regulation of yaw moment in vehicle braking is realized, therefore, vehicle braking stability on turning lane is improved. A simulation is performed with it during two different conditions: step input and sinusoidal input, the results showed that the transient and steady response based on presented method is better than that of ABS only, and the presented method can effectively control the yaw rate and side slip angle synchronously, achieve good transient and steady response, lighten the burden of the driver and improve vehicle yaw stability.

There is an urgent demand to reduce compression power consumption in Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES) systems. Wet compression has been widely used in gas turbines to reduce compressor power consumption and improve thermal efficiency, but this technology has not been applied yet in the CAES field. In this paper, a centrifugal compressor for CAES was numerically studied to investigate the effect of wet compression on compressor and droplet motion. The results showed that wet compression makes the performance curve shift to a high-pressure ratio/efficiency. Meanwhile, wet compression lowers the stall margin and narrows the stable operation range, and the effect is enhanced with the increase of water injection ratio or the decrease of average droplet diameter. Wet compression can effectively save compressor power consumption during energy storage, and at the designed pressure ratio, the power consumption can be reduced by 1.47% with a water injection ratio of 3% and an average droplet diameter of 5 μm. Influenced by the inertia and secondary flow, the droplets migrate to the impeller pressure and shroud side, thus causing brake loss by impacting on blades. The migration of droplets strengthens with the increase in the average droplet diameter and flow coefficient.

Objective: Study of the mechanism of forming compacted snow masses deposits on the surfaces of the undercar space and undercarriage of the rolling stock, study of forming microclimatic conditions in the niches of the undercarriage due to the interaction of air masses of the incoming flow with convective flows formed during the operation of the brake equipment. Methods: Solid models in the SolidWorks software package are developed, CFD analysis is implemented by the finite volume method in the FlowSimulation module based on the numerical solution of the Navier–Stokes equations. Results: By means of numerical modeling, the presence of a centrifugal-transverse zone of the fluid behind the surface of the wheel rim was established, as a result of which drops are carried out in the radial direction, adhering to the metal parts of the undercar space, creating a white type of ice formations that can increase in size due to the braking process. To redirect the flow containing snow inclusions, a deflector device is proposed. Diagrams of temperature fields in the plane of the bogie brake discs were obtained with and without a deflector, a comparative analysis was carried out, and a conclusion was made about the necessity of using the device. Practical importance: The performed numerical modeling made it possible to visually demonstrate the main zones of the ice build-up formation on the undercarriage of a moving rolling stock and to identify a variant of controlling the dimensions of these areas using the proposed device of a mechanical deflector.

A compound charging system that pairs a turbocharger with a supercharger seems to be a potential trend for future passenger car gasoline engines, as the strength of both could be enhanced and the deficiencies of each could be offset. The use of a fixed-ratio positive-displacement supercharger system on a downsized turbocharged gasoline engine has already appeared on the market. Although such systems can achieve enhanced low-end torque and improved transient response, several challenges still exist. An alternative solution to the fixed-ratio positive-displacement supercharger is the V-Charge variable ratio centrifugal supercharger. This technology utilizes a Torotrak continuously variable transmission (CVT) coupled to a centrifugal compressor for near silent boosting. With a wide ratio spread of 10:1 and rapid rate of ratio change, the compressor speed can be set independently of the engine speed to provide an exact boost pressure for the required operating points, without the need to recirculate the air through a bypass valve. A clutch and an active bypass valve can also be eliminated, due to the CVT capability to down-speed, thus improving the noise vibration and harshness performance. This paper will, for the first time, present and discuss the V-Charge technology optimization and experimental validation on a 1.0 L GTDI engine to achieve a better brake specific fuel consumption and transient response over the turbo-only and the fixed-ratio positive-displacement supercharger solution. The potential for the V-Charge system to increase the low-end torque and enable a down-speeding strategy is also discussed.

A new continuum-based liquid sloshing approach that accounts for the effect of complex fluid and tank-car geometry on railroad vehicle dynamics is developed in this investigation. A unified geometry/analysis mesh is used from the outset to examine the effect of liquid sloshing on railroad vehicle dynamics during curve negotiation and during the application of electronically controlled pneumatic (ECP) brakes that produce braking forces uniformly and simultaneously across all cars. Using a non-modal approach, the geometry of the tank-car and fluid is accurately defined, a continuum-based fluid constitutive model is employed, and a fluid-tank contact algorithm is developed. The liquid sloshing model is integrated with a three-dimensional multibody system (MBS) railroad vehicle algorithm which accounts for the nonlinear wheel/rail contact. The three-dimensional wheel/rail contact force formulation used in this study accounts for the longitudinal, lateral, and spin creep forces that influence the vehicle stability. In order to examine the effect of the liquid sloshing on the railroad vehicle dynamics during curve negotiation, a general and precise definition of the outward inertia force is defined, and in order to correctly capture the fluid and tank-car geometry, the absolute nodal coordinate formulation (ANCF) is used. The balance speed and centrifugal effects in the case of tank-car partially filled with liquid are studied and compared with the equivalent rigid body model in curve negotiation and braking scenarios. In particular, the results obtained in the case of the ECP brake application of two freight car model are compared with the results obtained when using conventional braking. The traction analysis shows that liquid sloshing has a significant effect on the load distribution between the front and rear trucks. A larger coupler force develops when using conventional braking compared with ECP braking, and the liquid sloshing contributes to amplifying the coupler force in the ECP braking case compared to the equivalent rigid body model which does not capture the fluid nonlinear inertia effects. Furthermore, the results obtained in this study show that liquid sloshing can exacerbate the unbalance effects when the rail vehicle negotiates a curve at a velocity higher than the balance speed.

The upstream wheelspace of an axial air turbine stage complete with nozzle guide vanes (NGVs) and rotor blades (430 mm mean diameter) has been tested with the objective of examining the combined effect of NGVs and rotor blades on the level of mainstream ingestion for different seal flow rates. A simple axial clearance seal was used with the rotor spun up to 6650 rpm by drawing air through it from atmospheric pressure with a large centrifugal compressor. The effect of rotational speed was examined for several constant mainstream flow rates by controlling the rotor speed with an air brake. The circumferential variation in hub static pressure was measured at the trailing edge of the NGVs upstream of the seal gap and was found to affect ingestion significantly. The hub static pressure distribution on the rotor blade leading edges was rotor speed dependent and could not be measured in the experiments. The Denton three-dimensional C.F.D. computer code was used to predict the smoothed time-dependent pressure field for the rotor together with the pressure distribution downstream of the NGVs. The level and distribution of mainstream ingestion, and thus the seal effectiveness, was determined from nitrous oxide gas concentration measurements and related to static pressure measurements made throughout the wheelspace. With the axial clearance rim seal close to the rotor the presence of the blades had a complex effect. Rotor blades in connection with NGVs were found to reduce mainstream ingestion seal flow rates significantly, but a small level of ingestion existed even for very high levels of seal flow rate.

Increasing interest has been given to swirl brakes as a means of reducing destabilizing rotordynamic forces due to leakage flows in new high speed rocket turbo-pumps. Although swirl brakes have been used successfully in practice (such as with the Space Shuttle HPOTP), no experimental tests until now have been performed to demonstrate their beneficial effect over a range of leakage flow rates. The present study investigates the effect of swirl brakes on rotordynamic forces generated by discharge-to-suction leakage flows in the annulus of shrouded centrifugal pumps over a range of subsynchronous whirl ratios and various leakage flow rates. In addition, the effectiveness of swirl brakes in the presence of leakage inlet (pump discharge) swirl is also demonstrated. The experimental data demonstrates that with the addition of swirl brakes a significant reduction in the destabilizing tangential force for lower flow rates is achieved. At higher flow rates, the brakes are detrimental. In the presence of leakage inlet swirl, brakes were effective over all leakage flow rates tested in reducing the range of whirl frequency ratio for which the tangential force is destabilizing.

Unsteady forces generated by fluid flow through the impeller shroud leakage path of a centrifugal pump were investigated. The effect of leakage path inlet swirl (pump discharge swirl) on the rotordynamic forces was re-examined. It was observed that increasing the inlet swirl is destabilizing both for normal and tangential rotordynamic forces. Attempts to reduce the swirl within the leakage path using ribs and grooves as swirl brakes showed benefits only at low leakage flow rate.

This article simulates crack propagation problem of aero-engine blades under aerodynamic loads and centrifugal loads. Blades are critical parts in the aero-engine, fatigue fracture failure is the major failure mode for aero engine blade, one broke blade will result in serious accidents for the whole engine with great economic losses. This article finds out the location of fatigue crack source firstly according to the blade stress distribution. Then the paper calculates the stress intensity factor at crack tip for different crack length which is based on the finite element method and fracture mechanics, simulates the crack propagation path, and figures out the crack growth rate with Pairs model and FNK model .Finally this article predicts the crack propagation life.

The turbine wheels of a turbocharger are operated at high revolution speed in high temperature inlet gas. Alloy 713LC blades of the turbine wheel broke in an hour the during a model test. Two failures and several cracks were found in the turbine blades. Failures in blades are suspected to occur as a result of thermal mechanical stresses or fatigue load and other cause such as creep-rupture and resonant vibration. The present study investigates the possible causes of the failure of these blades. FEM (Finite Element Method) was used to calculate the thermal centrifugal stresses and natural frequency to find the cause of failures. LCF (Low Cycle Fatigue) life of blades was roughly estimated by using the stress and strain level calculated by FEM. The investigation indicates that the failures were associated with resonant forces and HCF (High Cycle Fatigue).

Honeycomb seals are frequently used as replacements for labyrinth seals in high-pressure centrifugal compressors to enhance rotordynamic stability. A concern exists that this enhanced stability will be lost if the honeycomb cavities become clogged. Static and dynamic tests were conducted on a honeycomb and a smooth seal (representing the honeycomb seal with completely clogged cells) at the same constant clearances using air with a supply pressure of 70 bars. The test matrix included three speeds, three pressure ratios, and three inlet preswirl conditions. The results show increased leakage, decreased synchronous stiffness, and decreased dynamic stability for the smooth seal with preswirled flow. The results strongly support the use of swirl brakes at the entrance of a honeycomb seal if clogging is a concern. Comparisons between test results and predictions from a two-control-volume theory by Kleynhans and Childs showed excellent agreement in general.

The main codes of practice governing jack-up preloading presently do not consider the possibility of beneficial effects of soil resistance generated by leg chord and leg brace members as they move downwards through disturbed soil that has been squeezed past the spudcan to form part of the backfill. This paper argues that these effects can be significant for the special case of deep penetrations in soft clay. An approximate method of estimating the effects is proposed and discussed. Results are found to be broadly consistent with recent centrifuge model tests and numerical analyses. Further work is recommended to explore these potentially important and certainly complex effects.

The overall design of high-pressure centrifugal compressors is largely influenced by rotordynamic aspects. Rotor instability may restrict operating speed and/or maximum discharge pressure if the destabilizing effects have not been considered accurately during the design phase. A test rig for high pressures has been designed and operated successfully in order to achieve dynamic labyrinth seal coefficients through simulation of original conditions in every aspect. Details are given of the full-scale test rig, which uses active magnetic bearings as a key feature, as well as results from the comprehensive test program. Later on, these results are employed for the design of a compressor for very high pressures, demonstrating the complexity of this design task. Validation of the labyrinth test data and the rotor dynamic analysis is provided by the results from a PTC 10 class I test on a reinjection compressor. During shop testing, this machine has been run with and without swirl brakes and the test results agree very well with the predictions.

An experimental study was conducted to investigate the mixing processes downstream of a forced mixer. A forced mixer generates large-scale, axial (stirring) vorticity, which causes the primary and secondary flow to mix rapidly with low loss. These devices have been successfully used in the past where enhanced mixing of two streams was a requirement. Unfortunately, details of the mixing process associated with these lobed forced mixers are not well understood. Performance sensitivity to design variables has not been documented. An experiment was set up to investigate the mixing processes downstream of a mixer. Air flow was independently supplied to each side of the forced mixer by separate centrifugal blowers. Pressures were measured at the entrance to the lobes with a pitot-static probe to document the characteristics of the approaching boundary layer. Interior mean and fluctuating velocities were nonintrusively measured using a two-component laser-Doppler velocimetry (LDV) system for velocity ratios of 1:1 and 2:1. The wake structure is shown to display a three-step process where initially secondary flow was generated by the mixer lobes, the secondary flow created counterrotating vortices with a diameter on the order of the convolute width, and then the vortices broke down resulting in a significant increase in turbulent mixing. The results show that the mean secondary motion induced by the lobes effectively circulated the flow passing through the lobes. This motion, however, did not homogeneously mix the two streams. Turbulent mixing in the third step of the mixing process appears to be an important element in the enhanced mixing that has been observed with forced mixers. The length required for the flow to reach this third step is a function of the velocity ratio across the mixer. The results of this investigation indicate that both the mean secondary motion and the turbulent mixing occurring after vortex breakdown need to be considered for prediction of forced mixer performance.

Self-propelled jib cranes are most widely used in construction for loading and unloading operations, the main advantage of which, among other types of cranes, is high mobility. The share of self-propelled jib cranes in construction is more than 60%. An important element of the construction of self-propelled jib cranes is the boom, the strength of the structure of which largely depends on the safety of the crane and the prevention of accidents that lead to injuries and death of maintenance personnel. When calculating the crane boom for strength, power of electric motors for changing the departure of the boom and turn, the brakes of these mechanisms must take into account all types of loads acting on the rotary boom with load, including inertial, which account for a significant share among other loads. The paper considers the calculation of the following moments of inertia forces: created by vertical inertial forces during braking of the load lifting mechanism; arising from the mass of the load and the boom during the period of unstable movement of the mechanism of change of the boom departure during start-up and braking; the load created by centrifugal force which arises at rotation of a rotary part of the crane; arising from the mass of the load and the boom during the period of unstable movement of the crane rotation mechanism. When calculating these moments of inertia, the following initial data are taken into account: geometric dimensions of the crane, weight and length of the boom, weight and height of the load, angle of the self-propelled crane in the construction area, radius of the crane boom, boom and load speeds, start and braking times mechanisms for lifting the load, changing the departure of the boom and turning the crane. The obtained dependences for determining the inertial loads of the rotary boom of a self-propelled crane will allow more accurately taking into account multiple factors to calculate the values of these loads in order to perform strength calculations of the boom, selection of components for lifting, changing the boom and turning the crane.

Abstract Paroxysmal Nocturnal Hemoglobinuria (PNH) is characterized by a clonal population of hematopoietic stem cells with an acquired somatic mutation in the PIG-A gene, giving rise to populations of circulating mature cells that are unable to synthesize glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI). The disease is most readily diagnosed by flow cytometry analysis of red blood cells, using antibodies specific for the GPI-linked protein CD59, or analysis of granulocytes, using antibodies specific for the GPI-linked protein CD24, along with the FLAER reagent, a fluorescent protein that binds to the GPI structure and which is detected only on the surface of GPI (+) cells. However, other mature blood lineages can be derived from the PNH clone. Notably, thrombosis is a major life threatening complication of PNH and may be triggered by complement activation on platelets that belong to the GPI-negative stem cell clone. The PNH clone size generally predicts thrombosis, but sometimes the proportion of PNH red cells and granulocytes are highly discordant, in which case there might be a role for the determination of the proportion of PNH platelets. Historically, flow cytometry analysis of platelets in patients with PNH has been technically difficult. Here is described a method to do this that avoids technical challenges by using aspirin and sepharose gel filtration of platelets to prevent their activation as well as simultaneous determination of CD59 expression and uptake of the FLAER reagent. Red cells were analyzed based on CD59 expression and granulocytes based on CD24 and FLAER. We analyzed blood samples from 48 patients with PNH and or AA/PNH who provided informed consent, 16 of whom had a prior history of thrombosis. To separate platelet rich plasma (PRP), whole blood collected in EDTA tubes was centrifuged at 200g for 7 minutes at room temperature with the brake turned off. After this step, there was no further centrifugation or vortexing of the platelets. A solution of aspirin was made up immediately prior to use and was added to the PRP at a final concentration of 0.5mMolar. Aspirinated PRP was then loaded on top of a sepharose-2B column using Tyrode's buffer. The platelet-rich turbid drops were collected, to isolate platelets from red cells and coagulation proteins. 50 ul of platelet rich buffer was then incubated with FLAER-Alexa-488 (Pinewood, 1:20 dilution) and CD59-PE (Serotec, 1:10 dilution) in the dark for 30' at room temperature. To prevent doublet events from confounding the analysis, the platelet suspension was diluted 1:200 in Hanks with 0.1% BSA. The sample was passed through a 35 uM Falcon cell strainer, and platelets were identified by forward/side scatter acquired on a log-log scale on a BD Facscan. The median proportion of PNH red cells, granulocytes and platelets was 24%, 86%, 76% respectively in the group without a history of thrombosis and 23% ,82%, and 65% in the group with a history of thrombosis. The proportion of PNH platelets was highly correlated with the proportion of PNH granulocytes (r=0.84). In two patients with almost undetectable PNH red cells and over 90% PNH granulocytes, the proportion of PNH platelets was over 90%; both were on prophylaxis and neither had thrombosis. It is predicted that this technique may be useful for determining thrombosis risk, particularly when the results from the analysis of rbc's and granulocytes are discordant. Disclosures No relevant conflicts of interest to declare.

Abstract Background: Severe trauma and hemorrhage leads to an acute coagulopathy as exemplified by a decrease in clotting firmness and platelet aggregation. Because platelets contribute 70-80% of clot strength, evaluating the intracellular mechanisms that regulate aggregation in platelets may lead to strategies to mitigate the development of coagulopathy. It is known that platelet aggregation can be inhibited by a rise in intracellular cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) or cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP). Changes in cAMP/cGMP would necessitate a change in activity of those enzymes that either synthesize (adenylate cyclase/ guanylate cyclase) or breakdown (phosphodiesterases) these 2nd messengers. Objective: Determine if the intracellular levels of cAMP and cGMP in platelets rise in rats subjected to polytrauma and hemorrhage. And if so, if there is a change in cyclase or phosphodiesterase activity. Methods: Polytrauma was induced in isoflurane anesthetized Sprague-Dawley rats (n=10 per group) by damage to the small intestines, right and medial lobes of the liver, the right leg skeletal muscle, and by fracturing the right femur. 40% hemorrhage was then performed immediately after trauma. Rats were euthanized at 4hrs. Platelet intracellular intermediates were measured in whole blood before, and 0.5, 1, 2 and 4hrs after trauma. Blood samples were taken before, and 0.5, 2 and 4 hours after trauma. Platelet rich plasma (PRP) was generated by centrifugation of whole blood at 200g for 10min, no brakes. Cyclic AMP, cGMP, AMP and GMP were extracted from 100ul of PRP after adding 1ml of EtOH, 10mM ammonium formate, with 10ug/ml cGMP-Br as an internal control. IP3 and IP1 (metabolic breakdown product of IP3) were extracted from another 100ul PRP by addition of 50% EtOH, 500mM Formic Acid with 10ug/ml ATP-C13 as an internal control. Samples were centrifuged at 20K g for 10min, and supernatant dried. All Samples were brought up in 200ul of 0.1% formic acid for analysis by LC-MS/MS. Cyclase and phosphodiesterases were isolated from 100ul of rat PRP after sonication to lyse cells, centrifugation to release intracellular constituents, and Spin Column (Zeba, ThermoFisher) removal of small molecular weight constituents. Cyclase activity was measured for 15min after addition of either ATP or GTP and measuring cAMP or cGMP with inhibition of PDE activity (IBMX 1uM). Phosphodiesterase was measured by addition of cAMP or cGMP and measuring AMP or GMP. Data was generated by subtracting measurement from control. Results: Trauma and hemorrhage led to a significant rise in the intracellular cAMP and a fall in cGMP. Adenylate cyclase activity in platelets also significantly increase after trauma. However, trauma had no effect on guanylate cyclase activity. Phosphodiesterase activity was elevated after trauma for both conversion of cAMP and cGMP to AMP and GMP, but neither was significant. Conclusion: Trauma and hemorrhage leads to coagulopathy and platelet dysfunction. The platelet dysfunction is likely due to a rise in the intracellular cAMP, but not to cGMP as it fell precipitously after trauma. The rise in cAMP is likely due to an increase in adenylate cyclase activity induced by trauma. Although there was a rise in PDE activity, it was not significant, but may play a role in blunting the rise and cAMP, and contribute to the fall in cGMP. This study was funded by the US Army MRMC and conducted in compliance with the Animal Welfare Act, the implementing of Animal Welfare Regulations, and the principles of the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. Table Table. Disclosures No relevant conflicts of interest to declare.

A new concept for a mechanical antilock braking system (ABS) with a centrifugal braking device (CBD), termed a centrifugal ABS (C-ABS), is presented and developed in this paper. This new CBD functions as a brake in which the output braking torque adjusts itself depending on the speed of the output rotation. First, the structure and mechanical models of the entire braking system are introduced and established. Second, a numerical computer program for simulating the operation of the system is developed. The characteristics of the system can be easily identified and can be designed with better performance by using this program to studying the effects of different design parameters. Finally, the difference in the braking performance between the C-ABS and the braking system with or without a traditional ABS is discussed. The simulation results indicate that the C-ABS can prevent the wheel from locking even if excessive operating force is provided while still maintaining acceptable braking performance.

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to present study of thermal creep stresses and strain rates in a circular disc with shaft having variable density by using Seth’s transition theory. Design/methodology/approach Seth’s transition theory is applied to the problem of thermal creep transition stresses and strain rates in a thin rotating disc with shaft having variable density by finite deformation. Neither the yield criterion nor the associated flow rule is assumed here. The results obtained here are applicable to compressible materials. If the additional condition of incompressibility is imposed, then the expression for stresses corresponds to those arising from Tresca yield condition. Findings Thermal effect increased value of radial stress at the internal surface of the rotating disc made of incompressible material as compared to tangential stress and this value of radial stress further much increases with the increase in angular speed as compared to without thermal effect. Strain rates have maximum values at the internal surface for compressible material. Originality/value The model proposed in this paper is used in mechanical and electronic devices. They have extensive practical engineering application such as in steam and gas turbines, turbo generators, flywheel of internal combustion engines, turbojet engines, reciprocating engines, centrifugal compressors and brake disks.

Abstract The balance piston seal in multiple-stage centrifugal compressors and axial turbines sustains the largest pressure drop through the machines and therefore plays an important role in successful full load operation at high rotational speed. This is especially true for power dense turbomachines in supercritical CO2 power cycles that generate or expend higher fluid pressures (above the critical value 7.3 MPa) and density (close to water 1000 kg/m3), because the fluid forces generated by the balance piston seals are directly proportional to the fluid density and the pressure drop across the seal. This paper presents a comprehensive assessment and comparison on the leakage and rotordynamic performance of three types of annular gas seals for application in a 14 MW supercritical CO2 turbine. These three seals represent the main seal types used in high-speed rotating machines at the balance piston location in efforts to limit internal leakage flow and achieve rotordynamic stability, including a labyrinth seal (LABY), a fully partitioned pocket damper seal (FPDS), and a hole-pattern damper seal (HPS). These three seals were designed to have the same sealing clearance and similar axial lengths. To enhance the seal net damping capability at high inlet preswirl condition, a straight swirl brake was also designed and employed at seal entrance for each type seal to reduce the seal inlet preswirl velocity. Numerical results of leakage flow rates, rotordynamic force coefficients, cavity dynamic pressure, and swirl velocity developments were analyzed and compared for three seal designs at high positive inlet preswirl (in the direction of shaft rotation), using a proposed transient computational fluid dynamic (CFD)-based perturbation method based on the multiple-frequency elliptical-orbit rotor whirling model and the mesh deformation technique. To take into account of real gas effect with high accuracy, a table look-up procedure based on the National Institute of Standards and Technology reference fluid properties database was implemented, using an in-house code, for the fluid properties of CO2 in both supercritical and subcritical conditions. Results show that the inlet swirl brake can significantly reduce the preswirl velocity at seal entrance, lowering the effective damping crossover frequency fco (or even fco = 0) to maximize the full operational frequency range of the machines. In stability analysis phase of a MW-scale supercritical CO2 turbine/compressor, the seal stiffness effects on the rotor mode shape must be evaluated carefully, where the seal stiffness is sufficiently large (comparable to the bearing stiffness). From a rotordynamic viewpoint, the HPS seal with entrance swirl brake is a better seal concept for the balance piston seal in supercritical CO2 turbomachinery, which possesses the largest positive effective damping throughout the entire subsynchronous frequency range.

Abstract The accuracy with which experimental investigations of turbine performance need to be undertaken require either a semi- or fully-automated control of the operating point as any variation can compromise the reliability of the measurements. Fundamentally, both the mass flow rate through the turbine and the applied brake torque need to be adjusted in real-time so that the required operating point is maintained. This paper describes the development of a time accurate computational simulation of the unsteady dynamics of a largescale, low-speed turbine facility when its operating point is determined by a full-authority control system. The motivation for the development of the computational simulation was to be able to safely undertake parametric studies to refine the control system and to investigate the cause of monotonic excursions of the operating point which were observed after a major rebuild. The monotonic excursions of the turbine operating point could only be reproduced by the computational simulation after an unsteady aerodynamic coupling between the turbine exit flow and the downstream centrifugal fan had been incorporated. Based on this observation a honeycomb was installed upstream of the fan in the turbine facility. This eliminated the monotonic excursions and the fractional noise of the operating point was reduced by 37%. When combined with an earlier refinement of the control system the factional noise was reduced by a factor of three. This enables the number of repeated measurements to be reduced by nine and still obtain the same quality of data.

This paper deals with a new type of damper seal developed for a high-pressure centrifugal compressor. Honeycomb seals and hole pattern seals are popularly used as damper seals and provide superior rotordynamic damping characteristics. Honeycomb seals are expensive because the manufacturing process is complex. Hole pattern seals are easier to manufacture, but they are still expensive. Use of a scallop pattern is one way to reduce manufacturing cost and time. A new seal that has a scallop pattern and small teeth on the stator surface is proposed. This pattern is cut on the stator surface using a disk type tool. To estimate the rotordynamic coefficients of this new seal, a bulk flow model code that is based on a two-control-volume model developed by Matsuda for labyrinth seals was newly developed. This model uses the Hirs model for the viscous shear stresses. The friction factor coefficients for the rotor surface, the stator surface, and the surface between the two-control-volumes were determined by computational fluid dynamics (CFD) steady analysis. The rotordynamic coefficients can also be obtained by using CFD perturbation analysis. The high accuracy of the bulk flow model was demonstrated by comparing its results with CFD perturbation analysis results. In the perturbation analysis, the whirling motion was treated as a steady-state problem by using a rotating frame of reference. For the damper seal, the rotor surface and its neighboring region were treated with a rotating frame of reference and the neighboring region of the stator was treated with a stationary frame of reference. The damping property of the new seal was evaluated by conducting rotor stability tests using a high-pressure compressor with an electromagnetic exciter. The new seal equipped with swirl brakes was used for the balance piston of the compressor. Stability was evaluated by exciting the rotor during operation and identifying the eigenvalues of the rotor. The experimental results showed that the new seal increases damping. Comparison of the damping effect with calculations based on the bulk flow analysis showed good agreement.

Abstract Turbochargers are widely used to help reduce the environmental impact of automotive engines. However, a limiting factor for turbochargers is compressor surge. Surge is an instability that induces pressure and flow oscillations that often damages the turbocharger and its installation. Most predictions of the surge limit are based on low-order models, such as the Moore–Greitzer model. These models tend to rely on a characteristic curve for the compressor created by extrapolating the constant speed lines of a steady-state compressor map into the negative mass flow region. However, there is little validation of these assumptions in the public literature. In this article, we develop further the first-principles model for a compressor characteristic presented in Powers, K., Brace, C., Budd, C., Copeland, C., & Milewski, P., 2020, “Modeling Axisymmetric Centrifugal Compressor Characteristics From First Principles,” J. Turbomachinery, 142(9), with a particular emphasis on reverse flow. We then perform experiments using a 58 mm diameter centrifugal compressor provided by Cummins Turbo Technologies, where we feed air in the reverse direction though the compressor while the impeller is spinning in the forward direction to obtain data in the negative mass flow region of the compressor map. This demonstrated experimentally that there is a stable operating region in the reverse flow regime. The recorded data showed a good match with the theoretical model developed in this article. We also identified a change in characteristic behavior as the impeller speed is increased, which, to the authors’ knowledge, has not been observed in any previously published experimental work.

An analysis is developed for a compressible bulk-flow model of the leakage path between a centrifugal-compressor impeller’s shroud and its housing along the impeller’s front and back sides. This development is an extension of analyses performed first by Childs (1989, ASME J. Vib. Acoust., Stress, Reliab. Des., 111, pp. 216–225) for pump impellers. The bulk-flow model is used to predict reaction force and moment coefficients for the impeller shroud. A labyrinth seal code developed by Childs and Scharrer ( 1986, ASME Trans. J. Eng. Gas Turbines Power, 108, pp. 325–331) is used to calculate the rotordynamic coefficients developed by the labyrinth seals in the compressor stage and also provides a boundary condition for the shroud calculations. Comparisons between the measured shroud moment coefficients by Yoshida et al. (1996, Proceedings of the 6th International Symposium on Transport Phenomena and Dynamics of Rotating Machinery, 2, pp. 151–160) and model predictions show reasonable agreements for the clearance flow and reaction moments. For the conditions considered, low Mach number flow existed in the shroud clearance areas and compressible-flow and incompressible-flow models produced similar predictions. Childs’ model predictions for the direct damping and cross-coupled stiffness coefficients of a pump impeller produced reasonable agreement; hence the present model was validated to the extent possible. A rotor model consisting of an overhung impeller stage supported by a nominally cantilevered rotor was analyzed for stability using the present bulk-flow model and an API standard Wachel–von Nimitz formula model (1981, J. Petrol. Technol., pp. 2252–2260). The bulk-flow model predicted significantly higher onset speeds of instability. Given that some compressors have been predicted to be comfortably stable using API standard Wachel–von Nimitz formula but have been unstable on the test stand, these results suggest that unidentified destabilizing forces and or moments are present in compressors. Seal rub conditions that arise from surge events and increase the seal clearances are simulated, showing that enlarged clearances increase the preswirl at the seals, thus increasing these seal’s destabilizing forces and reducing stability margins. These results are consistent with field experience. Predictions concerning the back shroud indicate that shunt-hole injection mainly acts to enhance stability by changing the flow field of the division wall or balance piston seals, not by influencing the back-shroud’s forces or moments. Effective swirl brakes at these seals also serve this purpose.

Pocket damper seals (PDSs) are used as replacements for labyrinth seals in high-pressure centrifugal compressors at the balance-piston location or center seal location to enhance rotordynamic stability. A concern exists that this enhanced stability will be lost at high positive inlet preswirl. Numerical results of frequency-dependent rotordynamic force coefficients and leakage flow rates were presented and compared for a fully partitioned PDS (FPDS) and a labyrinth seal at high positive and negative inlet preswirl, using a proposed transient computational fluid dynamics (CFD) method based on the multifrequency elliptical orbit whirling model. The negative preswirl indicates a fluid swirl in a direction opposite to rotor rotation at seal inlet. Both seals have identical diameter and sealing clearance. The full 3D concentric CFD model and mesh were built for the labyrinth seal and FPDS, respectively. The accuracy and availability of the present transient CFD numerical method were demonstrated with the experiment data of frequency-dependent rotordynamic coefficients of the labyrinth seal and FPDS at zero and high positive preswirl conditions. The numerical boundary conditions include two high positive preswirl, two high negative preswirl, and a zero preswirl. Numerical results show that the effect of inlet preswirl on the direct force coefficients is weak, but the effect on the cross-coupling stiffness and effective damping is dramatic. Both seals possess negative effective damping at lower excitation frequencies due to positive preswirl, and the crossover frequency of effective damping term increases with increasing positive preswirl. Negative preswirl produces negative cross-coupling stiffness and positive effective damping over the whole excitation frequency range. Increasing negative preswirl is a stabilizing factor for annular gas seals, which results in a significant increase in the effective damping and a decrease in the crossover frequency. It is desirable to reduce the inlet preswirl to zero or even negative through applications of negative-swirl brakes and negative injection devices.

Postmodernism is supposed to identify the conditions of contemporary cultural production when human affairs in general, and the dissemination of prevailing ideas in particular, have become fully enmeshed in relations of commodity exchange. (Martin 2002, p. 30) The accumulation of capital within industrial economies keyed on the surplus value derived from the production of raw materials into mass manufactured products, and their subsequent exchange in the capitalist marketplace. Within what Poster (1990) described as the contemporary mode of information , surplus capital is generated from the manufacturing of product’s symbolic values, which in turn substantiate their use and ultimately exchange values within the consumer market. This, in essence, is the centrifugal process undermining the brand (Klein 1999), promotional (Wernick 1991), or commodity sign (Goldman and Papson 1996), culture that characterizes contemporary capitalism: Through the creative outpourings of “cultural intermediaries” (Bourdieu 1984) working within the advertising, marketing, public relations, and media industries, commodities—routinely produced within low wage industrializing economies—are symbolically constituted to global consuming publics. This postmodern regime of cultural production is graphically illustrated within the sporting goods industry (Miles 1998) where, in regard to their use value, highly non-differentiated material products such as sport shoes are differentiated in symbolic terms through innovative advertising and marketing initiatives. In this way, oftentimes gaudy concoctions of leather, nylon, and rubber become transformed into prized cultural commodities possessing an inflated economic value within today’s informational-symbolic order (Castells 1996). Arguably, the globally ubiquitous Nike Inc. is the sporting brand that has most aggressively and effectively capitalized upon what Rowe described as the “culturalization of economics” in the latter twentieth century (1999, p. 70). Indeed, as Nike Chairman and CEO Phil Knight enthusiastically declared: For years, we thought of ourselves as a production-oriented company, meaning we put all our emphasis on designing and manufacturing the product. But now we understand that the most important thing we do is market the product. We’ve come around to saying that Nike is a marketing-oriented company, and the product is our most important marketing tool. What I mean is that marketing knits the whole organization together. The design elements and functional characteristics of the product itself are just part of the overall marketing process. (Quoted in (Willigan 1992, p. 92) This commercial culturalization of Nike has certainly sparked considerable academic interest, as evidenced by the voluminous literature pertaining to the various dimensions of its practices of cultural production (Donaghu and Barff 1990; Ind 1993; Korzeniewicz 1994; Cole and Hribar 1995; Boje 1998; Goldman and Papson 1998; Lafrance 1998; Armstrong 1999; Denzin 1999; Penaloza 1999; Sage 1999; Lucas 2000; Stabile 2000). Rather than contribute to this body of work, our aim is to engage a sporting shoe company attempting to establish itself within the brand universe defined and dominated by Nike. For this reason we turn to German-based Puma AG: a dynamic brand-in-process, seeking to differentiate itself within the cluttered sporting landscape, through the assertion of a consciously fractured brand identity designed to address a diverse range of clearly-defined consumer subjectivities. Puma’s history can be traced to post-war Germany when, in 1948, a fraternal dispute compelled Rudolf Dassler to leave Adidas (the company he founded with his brother Adi) and set up a rival sports shoe business on the opposite bank of the Moselle river in Herzogenaurach. Over the next three decades the two companies vied for the leadership in the global sports shoe industry. However, the emergence of Nike and Reebok in the 1980s, and particularly their adoption of aggressive marketing strategies, saw both Adidas and Puma succumbing to what was a new world sneaker order (Strasser and Becklund 1991). Of the two, Puma’s plight was the more chronic, with expenditures regularly exceeding moribund revenues. For instance, in 1993, Puma lost US$32 million on sales of just US$190 million (Saddleton 2002, p. 2). At this time, Puma’s brand presence and identity was negligible quite simply because it failed to operate according to the rhythms and regimes of the commodity sign economy that the sport shoe industry had become (Goldman and Papson 1994; 1996; 1998). Remarkably, from this position of seemingly terminal decline, in recent years, Puma has “successfully turned its image around” (Saddleton 2002, p. 2) through the adoption of a branding strategy perhaps even more radical than that of Nike’s. Led by the company’s global director of brand management, Antonio Bertone, Puma positioned itself as “the brand that mixes the influence of sport, lifestyle and fashion” (quoted in (Davis 2002, p. 41). Hence, Puma eschewed the sport performance mantra which defined the company (and indeed its rivals) for so long, in favour of a strategy centered on the aestheticization of the sport shoe as an important component of the commodity based lifestyle assemblages, through which individuals are encouraged to constitute their very being (Featherstone 1991; Lury 1996). According to Bertone, Puma is now “targeting the sneaker enthusiast, not the guy who buys shoes for running” (quoted in (Davis 2002, p. 41). While its efforts to “blur the lines between sport and lifestyle” (Anon 2002, p. 30) may explain part of Puma’s recent success, at the core of the company’s turnaround was its move to diversify the brand into a plethora of lifestyle and fashion options. Puma has essentially splintered into a range of seemingly disparate sub-brands each directed at a very definite target consumer (or perceptions thereof). Amongst other options, Puma can presently be consumed in, and through: the upscale pseudo-Prada Platinum range; collections by fashion designers such as Jil Sander and Yasuhiro Mihara; Pumaville, a range clearly directed at the “alternative sport” market, and endorsed by athletes such as motocross rider Travis Pastrana; and, the H Street range designed to capture “the carefree spirit of athletics” (http://www.puma.com). However, Puma’s attempts to interpellate (Althusser 1971) a diverse array of sporting subjectivies is perhaps best illustrated in the “Nuala” collection, a yoga-inspired “lifestyle” collection resulting from a collaboration with supermodel Christy Turlington, the inspiration for which is expressed in suitably flowery terms: What is Nuala? NUALA is an acronym representing: Natural-Universal-Altruistic-Limitless-Authentic. Often defined as "meditation in motion", Nuala is the product of an organic partnership that reflects Christy Turlington's passion for the ancient discipline of Yoga and PUMA's commitment to create a superior mix of sport and lifestyle products. Having studied comparative religion and philosophy at New York University, model turned entrepreneur Christy Turlington sought to merge her interest in eastern practices with her real-life experience in the fashion industry and create an elegant, concise, fashion collection to complement her busy work, travel, and exercise schedule. The goal of Nuala is to create a symbiosis between the outer and inner being, the individual and collective experience, using yoga as a metaphor to make this balance possible. At Nuala, we believe that everything in life should serve more than one purpose. Nuala is more than a line of yoga-inspired activewear; it is a building block for limitless living aimed at providing fashion-conscious, independant women comfort for everyday life. The line allows flexibility and transition, from technical yoga pieces to fashionable apparel one can live in. Celebrating women for their intuition, intelligence, and individuality, Nuala bridges the spacious gap between one's public and private life. Thus, Puma seeks to hail the female subject of consumption (Andrews 1998), through design and marketing rhetorics (couched in a spurious Eastern mysticism) which contemporary manifestations of what are traditionally feminine experiences and sensibilities. In seeking to engage, at one at the same time, a variety of class, ethnic, and gender based constituencies through the symbolic advancement of a range of lifestyle niches (hi-fashion, sports, casual, organic, retro etc.) Puma evokes Toffler’s prophetic vision regarding the rise of a “de-massified society” and “a profusion of life-styles and more highly individualized personalities” (Toffler 1980, pp. 231, 255-256). In this manner, Puma identified how the nurturing of an ever-expanding array of consumer subjectivities has become perhaps the most pertinent feature of present-day market relations. Such an approach to sub-branding is, of course, hardly anything new (Gartman 1998). Indeed, even the sports shoe giants have long-since diversified into a range of product lines. Yet it is our contention that even in the process of sub-branding, companies such as Nike nonetheless retain a tangible sense of a core brand identity. So, for instance, Nike imbues a sentiment of performative authenticity, cultural irreverence and personal empowerment throughout all its sub-brands, from its running shoes to its outdoor wear (arguably, Nike commercials have a distinctive “look” or “feel”) (Cole and Hribar 1995). By contrast, Puma’s sub-branding suggests a greater polyvalence: the brand engages divergent consumer subjectivities in much more definite and explicit ways. As Davis (2002, p. 41) emphasis added) suggested, Puma “has done a good job of effectively meeting the demands of disparate groups of consumers.” Perhaps more accurately, it could be asserted that Puma has been effective in constituting the market as an aggregate of disparate consumer groups (Solomon and Englis 1997). Goldman and Papson have suggested the decline of Reebok in the early 1990s owed much to the “inconsistency in the image they projected” (1996, p. 38). Following the logic of this assertion, the Puma brand’s lack of coherence or consistency would seem to foretell and impending decline. Yet, recent evidence suggests such a prediction as being wholly erroneous: Puma is a company, and (sub)brand system, on the rise. Recent market performance would certainly suggest so. For instance, in the first quarter of 2003 (a period in which many of its competitors experienced meager growth rates), Puma’s consolidated sales increased 47% resulting in a share price jump from ?1.43 to ?3.08 (Puma.com 2003). Moreover, as one trade magazine suggested: “Puma is one brand that has successfully turned its image around in recent years…and if analysts predictions are accurate, Puma’s sales will almost double by 2005” (Saddleton 2002, p. 2). 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This article investigates the possibilities for understanding waste as a resource, with a particular focus on understanding food waste as a food resource. It considers the popular yeast spread Vegemite within this frame. The spread’s origins in waste product, and how it has achieved and sustained its status as a popular symbol of Australia despite half a century of Australian gastro-multiculturalism and a marked public resistance to other recycling and reuse of food products, have not yet been a focus of study. The process of producing Vegemite from waste would seem to align with contemporary moves towards recycling food waste, and ensuring environmental sustainability and food security, yet even during times of austerity and environmental concern this has not provided the company with a viable marketing strategy. Instead, advertising copywriting and a recurrent cycle of product memorialisation have created a superbrand through focusing on Vegemite’s nutrient and nostalgic value.John Scanlan notes that producing waste is a core feature of modern life, and what we dispose of as surplus to our requirements—whether this comprises material objects or more abstract products such as knowledge—reveals much about our society. In observing this, Scanlan asks us to consider the quite radical idea that waste is central to everything of significance to us: the “possibility that the surprising core of all we value results from (and creates even more) garbage (both the material and the metaphorical)” (9). Others have noted the ambivalent relationship we have with the waste we produce. C. T. Anderson notes that we are both creator and agent of its disposal. It is our ambivalence towards waste, coupled with its ubiquity, that allows waste materials to be described so variously: negatively as garbage, trash and rubbish, or more positively as by-products, leftovers, offcuts, trimmings, and recycled.This ambivalence is also crucial to understanding the affectionate relationship the Australian public have with Vegemite, a relationship that appears to exist in spite of the product’s unpalatable origins in waste. A study of Vegemite reveals that consumers can be comfortable with waste, even to the point of eating recycled waste, as long as that fact remains hidden and unmentioned. In Vegemite’s case not only has the product’s connection to waste been rendered invisible, it has been largely kept out of sight despite considerable media and other attention focusing on the product. Recycling Food Waste into Food ProductRecent work such as Elizabeth Royte’s Garbage Land and Tristram Stuart’s Waste make waste uncomfortably visible, outlining how much waste, and food waste in particular, the Western world generates and how profligately this is disposed of. Their aim is clear: a call to less extravagant and more sustainable practices. The relatively recent interest in reducing our food waste has, of course, introduced more complexity into a simple linear movement from the creation of a food product, to its acquisition or purchase, and then to its consumption and/or its disposal. Moreover, the recycling, reuse and repurposing of what has previously been discarded as waste is reconfiguring the whole idea of what waste is, as well as what value it has. The initiatives that seem to offer the most promise are those that reconfigure the way waste is understood. However, it is not only the process of transforming waste from an abject nuisance into a valued product that is central here. It is also necessary to reconfigure people’s acculturated perceptions of, and reactions to waste. Food waste is generated during all stages of the food cycle: while the raw materials are being grown; while these are being processed; when the resulting food products are being sold; when they are prepared in the home or other kitchen; and when they are only partly consumed. Until recently, the food industry in the West almost universally produced large volumes of solid and liquid waste that not only posed problems of disposal and pollution for the companies involved, but also represented a reckless squandering of total food resources in terms of both nutrient content and valuable biomass for society at large. While this is currently changing, albeit slowly, the by-products of food processing were, and often are, dumped (Stuart). In best-case scenarios, various gardening, farming and industrial processes gather household and commercial food waste for use as animal feed or as components in fertilisers (Delgado et al; Wang et al). This might, on the surface, appear a responsible application of waste, yet the reality is that such food waste often includes perfectly good fruit and vegetables that are not quite the required size, shape or colour, meat trimmings and products (such as offal) that are completely edible but extraneous to processing need, and other high grade product that does not meet certain specifications—such as the mountains of bread crusts sandwich producers discard (Hickman), or food that is still edible but past its ‘sell by date.’ In the last few years, however, mounting public awareness over the issues of world hunger, resource conservation, and the environmental and economic costs associated with food waste has accelerated efforts to make sustainable use of available food supplies and to more efficiently recycle, recover and utilise such needlessly wasted food product. This has fed into and led to multiple new policies, instances of research into, and resultant methods for waste handling and treatment (Laufenberg et al). Most straightforwardly, this involves the use or sale of offcuts, trimmings and unwanted ingredients that are “often of prime quality and are only rejected from the production line as a result of standardisation requirements or retailer specification” from one process for use in another, in such processed foods as soups, baby food or fast food products (Henningsson et al. 505). At a higher level, such recycling seeks to reclaim any reusable substances of significant food value from what could otherwise be thought of as a non-usable waste product. Enacting this is largely dependent on two elements: an available technology and being able to obtain a price or other value for the resultant product that makes the process worthwhile for the recycler to engage in it (Laufenberg et al). An example of the latter is the use of dehydrated restaurant food waste as a feedstuff for finishing pigs, a reuse process with added value for all involved as this process produces both a nutritious food substance as well as a viable way of disposing of restaurant waste (Myer et al). In Japan, laws regarding food waste recycling, which are separate from those governing other organic waste, are ensuring that at least some of food waste is being converted into animal feed, especially for the pigs who are destined for human tables (Stuart). Other recycling/reuse is more complex and involves more lateral thinking, with the by-products from some food processing able to be utilised, for instance, in the production of dyes, toiletries and cosmetics (Henningsson et al), although many argue for the privileging of food production in the recycling of foodstuffs.Brewing is one such process that has been in the reuse spotlight recently as large companies seek to minimise their waste product so as to be able to market their processes as sustainable. In 2009, for example, the giant Foster’s Group (with over 150 brands of beer, wine, spirits and ciders) proudly claimed that it recycled or reused some 91.23% of 171,000 tonnes of operational waste, with only 8.77% of this going to landfill (Foster’s Group). The treatment and recycling of the massive amounts of water used for brewing, rinsing and cooling purposes (Braeken et al.; Fillaudeaua et al.) is of significant interest, and is leading to research into areas as diverse as the development microbial fuel cells—where added bacteria consume the water-soluble brewing wastes, thereby cleaning the water as well as releasing chemical energy that is then converted into electricity (Lagan)—to using nutrient-rich wastewater as the carbon source for creating bioplastics (Yu et al.).In order for the waste-recycling-reuse loop to be closed in the best way for securing food supplies, any new product salvaged and created from food waste has to be both usable, and used, as food (Stuart)—and preferably as a food source for people to consume. There is, however, considerable consumer resistance to such reuse. Resistance to reusing recycled water in Australia has been documented by the CSIRO, which identified negative consumer perception as one of the two primary impediments to water reuse, the other being the fundamental economics of the process (MacDonald & Dyack). This consumer aversion operates even in times of severe water shortages, and despite proof of the cleanliness and safety of the resulting treated water. There was higher consumer acceptance levels for using stormwater rather than recycled water, despite the treated stormwater being shown to have higher concentrations of contaminants (MacDonald & Dyack). This reveals the extent of public resistance to the potential consumption of recycled waste product when it is labelled as such, even when this consumption appears to benefit that public. Vegemite: From Waste Product to Australian IconIn this context, the savoury yeast spread Vegemite provides an example of how food processing waste can be repurposed into a new food product that can gain a high level of consumer acceptability. It has been able to retain this status despite half a century of Australian gastronomic multiculturalism and the wide embrace of a much broader range of foodstuffs. Indeed, Vegemite is so ubiquitous in Australian foodways that it is recognised as an international superbrand, a standing it has been able to maintain despite most consumers from outside Australasia finding it unpalatable (Rozin & Siegal). However, Vegemite’s long product history is one in which its origin as recycled waste has been omitted, or at the very least, consistently marginalised.Vegemite’s history as a consumer product is narrated in a number of accounts, including one on the Kraft website, where the apocryphal and actual blend. What all these narratives agree on is that in the early 1920s Fred Walker—of Fred Walker and Company, Melbourne, canners of meat for export and Australian manufacturers of Bonox branded beef stock beverage—asked his company chemist to emulate Marmite yeast extract (Farrer). The imitation product was based, as was Marmite, on the residue from spent brewer’s yeast. This waste was initially sourced from Melbourne-based Carlton & United Breweries, and flavoured with vegetables, spices and salt (Creswell & Trenoweth). Today, the yeast left after Foster Group’s Australian commercial beer making processes is collected, put through a sieve to remove hop resins, washed to remove any bitterness, then mixed with warm water. The yeast dies from the lack of nutrients in this environment, and enzymes then break down the yeast proteins with the effect that vitamins and minerals are released into the resulting solution. Using centrifugal force, the yeast cell walls are removed, leaving behind a nutrient-rich brown liquid, which is then concentrated into a dark, thick paste using a vacuum process. This is seasoned with significant amounts of salt—although less today than before—and flavoured with vegetable extracts (Richardson).Given its popularity—Vegemite was found in 2009 to be the third most popular brand in Australia (Brand Asset Consulting)—it is unsurprising to find that the product has a significant history as an object of study in popular culture (Fiske et al; White), as a marker of national identity (Ivory; Renne; Rozin & Siegal; Richardson; Harper & White) and as an iconic Australian food, brand and product (Cozzolino; Luck; Khamis; Symons). Jars, packaging and product advertising are collected by Australian institutions such as Sydney’s Powerhouse Museum and the National Museum of Australia in Canberra, and are regularly included in permanent and travelling exhibitions profiling Australian brands and investigating how a sense of national identity is expressed through identification with these brands. All of this significant study largely focuses on how, when and by whom the product has been taken up, and how it has been consumed, rather than its links to waste, and what this circumstance could add to current thinking about recycling of food waste into other food products.It is worth noting that Vegemite was not an initial success in the Australian marketplace, but this does not seem due to an adverse public perception to waste. Indeed, when it was first produced it was in imitation of an already popular product well-known to be made from brewery by-products, hence this origin was not an issue. It was also introduced during a time when consumer relationships to waste were quite unlike today, and thrifty re-use of was a common feature of household behaviour. Despite a national competition mounted to name the product (Richardson), Marmite continued to attract more purchasers after Vegemite’s launch in 1923, so much so that in 1928, in an attempt to differentiate itself from Marmite, Vegemite was renamed “Parwill—the all Australian product” (punning on the idea that “Ma-might” but “Pa-will”) (White 16). When this campaign was unsuccessful, the original, consumer-suggested name was reinstated, but sales still lagged behind its UK-owned prototype. It was only after remaining in production for more than a decade, and after two successful marketing campaigns in the second half of the 1930s that the Vegemite brand gained some market traction. The first of these was in 1935 and 1936, when a free jar of Vegemite was offered with every sale of an item from the relatively extensive Kraft-Walker product list (after Walker’s company merged with Kraft) (White). The second was an attention-grabbing contest held in 1937, which invited consumers to compose Vegemite-inspired limericks. However, it was not the nature of the product itself or even the task set by the competition which captured mass attention, but the prize of a desirable, exotic and valuable imported Pontiac car (Richardson 61; Superbrands).Since that time, multinational media company, J Walter Thompson (now rebranded as JWT) has continued to manage Vegemite’s marketing. JWT’s marketing has never looked to Vegemite’s status as a thrifty recycler of waste as a viable marketing strategy, even in periods of austerity (such as the Depression years and the Second World War) or in more recent times of environmental concern. Instead, advertising copywriting and a recurrent cycle of cultural/media memorialisation have created a superbrand by focusing on two factors: its nutrient value and, as the brand became more established, its status as national icon. Throughout the regular noting and celebration of anniversaries of its initial invention and launch, with various commemorative events and products marking each of these product ‘birthdays,’ Vegemite’s status as recycled waste product has never been more than mentioned. Even when its 60th anniversary was marked in 1983 with the laying of a permanent plaque in Kerferd Road, South Melbourne, opposite Walker’s original factory, there was only the most passing reference to how, and from what, the product manufactured at the site was made. This remained the case when the site itself was prioritised for heritage listing almost twenty years later in 2001 (City of Port Phillip).Shying away from the reality of this successful example of recycling food waste into food was still the case in 1990, when Kraft Foods held a nationwide public campaign to recover past styles of Vegemite containers and packaging, and then donated their collection to Powerhouse Museum. The Powerhouse then held an exhibition of the receptacles and the historical promotional material in 1991, tracing the development of the product’s presentation (Powerhouse Museum), an occasion that dovetailed with other nostalgic commemorative activities around the product’s 70th birthday. Although the production process was noted in the exhibition, it is noteworthy that the possibilities for recycling a number of the styles of jars, as either containers with reusable lids or as drinking glasses, were given considerably more notice than the product’s origins as a recycled product. By this time, it seems, Vegemite had become so incorporated into Australian popular memory as a product in its own right, and with such a rich nostalgic history, that its origins were no longer of any significant interest or relevance.This disregard continued in the commemorative volume, The Vegemite Cookbook. With some ninety recipes and recipe ideas, the collection contains an almost unimaginably wide range of ways to use Vegemite as an ingredient. There are recipes on how to make the definitive Vegemite toast soldiers and Vegemite crumpets, as well as adaptations of foreign cuisines including pastas and risottos, stroganoffs, tacos, chilli con carne, frijole dip, marinated beef “souvlaki style,” “Indian-style” chicken wings, curries, Asian stir-fries, Indonesian gado-gado and a number of Chinese inspired dishes. Although the cookbook includes a timeline of product history illustrated with images from the major advertising campaigns that runs across 30 pages of the book, this timeline history emphasises the technological achievement of Vegemite’s creation, as opposed to the matter from which it orginated: “In a Spartan room in Albert Park Melbourne, 20 year-old food technologist Cyril P. Callister employed by Fred Walker, conducted initial experiments with yeast. His workplace was neither kitchen nor laboratory. … It was not long before this rather ordinary room yielded an extra-ordinary substance” (2). The Big Vegemite Party Book, described on its cover as “a great book for the Vegemite fan … with lots of old advertisements from magazines and newspapers,” is even more openly nostalgic, but similarly includes very little regarding Vegemite’s obviously potentially unpalatable genesis in waste.Such commemorations have continued into the new century, each one becoming more self-referential and more obviously a marketing strategy. In 2003, Vegemite celebrated its 80th birthday with the launch of the “Spread the Smile” campaign, seeking to record the childhood reminisces of adults who loved Vegemite. After this, the commemorative anniversaries broke free from even the date of its original invention and launch, and began to celebrate other major dates in the product’s life. In this way, Kraft made major news headlines when it announced that it was trying to locate the children who featured in the 1954 “Happy little Vegemites” campaign as part of the company’s celebrations of the 50th anniversary of the television advertisement. In October 2006, these once child actors joined a number of past and current Kraft employees to celebrate the supposed production of the one-billionth jar of Vegemite (Rood, "Vegemite Spreads" & "Vegemite Toasts") but, once again, little about the actual production process was discussed. In 2007, the then iconic marching band image was resituated into a contemporary setting—presumably to mobilise both the original messages (nutritious wholesomeness in an Australian domestic context) as well as its heritage appeal. Despite the real interest at this time in recycling and waste reduction, the silence over Vegemite’s status as recycled, repurposed food waste product continued.Concluding Remarks: Towards Considering Waste as a ResourceIn most parts of the Western world, including Australia, food waste is formally (in policy) and informally (by consumers) classified, disposed of, or otherwise treated alongside garden waste and other organic materials. Disposal by individuals, industry or local governments includes a range of options, from dumping to composting or breaking down in anaerobic digestion systems into materials for fertiliser, with food waste given no special status or priority. Despite current concerns regarding the security of food supplies in the West and decades of recognising that there are sections of all societies where people do not have enough to eat, it seems that recycling food waste into food that people can consume remains one of the last and least palatable solutions to these problems. This brief study of Vegemite has attempted to show how, despite the growing interest in recycling and sustainability, the focus in both the marketing of, and public interest in, this iconic and popular product appears to remain rooted in Vegemite’s nutrient and nostalgic value and its status as a brand, and firmly away from any suggestion of innovative and prudent reuse of waste product. 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