Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Chacma baboon'

Thesis (M.A.)--Georgia State University, 2006.
Title from title screen. Frank L'Engle Williams, committee chair; Aras Petrulis, Susan McCombie, committee members. Electronic text (69 p.) : digital, PDF file. Description based on contents viewed Apr. 26, 2007. Includes bibliographical references (p. 58-67).

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Includes bibliographical references (leaves 146-175).
This thesis contributes to our understanding of the role of climate and landscape change in structuring diversity within chacma baboons (Papio ursinus). The data set comprises molecular sequences from two mitochondrial DNA markers: the Brown region and the hypervariable D-loop. DNA was extracted from faecal samples of 261 free living chacma baboons across southern Africa. Phylogenetic and phylogeographic techniques, including coalescent modeling, were used to examine past and present population dynamics of chacma baboon populations. Bayesian tree constructions provide a timeline of diversification for the sample. Although the ecological drivers of ongoing differentiation remain unclear, it was shown that population contractions and expansions have also played a significant role in driving regional genetic structure within the species.

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Since the 15th century, human activity has altered and degraded nearly half of the available land of the Cape Peninsula, South Africa; this has resulted in significant restriction and fragmentation of the historic geographic range of the peninsula's Chacma baboon (Papio ursinus) population.

Chez les espèces sociales, les individus des deux sexes peuvent interférer avec la sexualité et les alliances sociales des femelles, ce qui peut influencer les stratégies reproductives des femelles. Un regain d'intérêt récent pour l'action de la sélection sexuelle chez les femelles a mis en évidence que la compétition entre femelles pour monopoliser les ressources reproductives, comme les partenaires sexuels ou les soins aux petits, est prévalente. Cependant, jusqu'à présent, la compétition reproductive entre femelles a reçu peu d'attention chez les espèces polygynes. Nous avons donc étudié les déterminants de la compétition reproductive entre femelles dans une société primate polygyne, dans une population naturelle de babouins chacma, en Namibie. Nos résultats montrent que l'agression est plus intense entre les femelles qui sont en synchronie reproductive et associées à un même mâle, avec qui elles entretiennent des liens sociaux et sexuels préférentiels, et qui est souvent le protecteur et le père de leur petit. De plus, les femelles gestantes et en lactation harcèlent les femelles qui copulent avec leur mâle, probablement afin d'empêcher de nouvelles conceptions avec celui-ci. La compétition pour les soins des mâles semble donc contribuer à façonner les stratégies reproductives des femelles chez les espèces polygynes où ceux-ci apportent d'importants bénéfices aux femelles. Nous avons ensuite étudié les contraintes exercées par les mâles sur la sexualité des femelles. Mâles et femelles ont souvent des optimaux reproductifs divergents, donnant lieu à l'expression d’un conflit sexuel. Chez certaines espèces, les mâles recourent à la coercition sexuelle en agressant les femelles régulièrement afin de les obliger à s'accoupler avec eux-mêmes, ou de les empêcher de s'accoupler avec leur rivaux. Nous avons testé si l'agression dirigée par les mâles vers les femelles a une fonction de coercition sexuelle chez le babouin chacma. Nos résultats indiquent que l'agression des mâles vise en particulier les femelles sexuellement réceptives, augmente le succès d'accouplement immédiat des mâles avec la femelle harcelée et ses chances de la monopoliser lors de l'ovulation, à l'appui de l'hypothèse de coercition. Dans l'ensemble, cette étude permet d'améliorer notre compréhension des déterminants, de l'intensité, et des conséquences évolutives des contraintes sociales qui s'exercent sur la sexualité des femelles dans une société primate polygyne. Elle montre également que les conflits reproductifs jouent un rôle primordial pour structurer les relations entre les femelles d’une part, et entre les sexes d’autre part
In group-living species, individuals of both sexes can interfere with the sexuality and social alliances of females, which may profoundly influence their reproductive strategies. Renewed attention in the operation of sexual selection on females shows that competition among females to secure reproductive resources, such as mates or allomaternal care, is common. However, to date, female reproductive competition has received little attention in polygynous species. In an attempt to fill this gap, we investigated the determinants of female reproductive competition in a polygynous primate society, the chacma baboon, focussing on a wild Namibian population. Our findings highlight that the frequency of aggression is most intense among females who are reproductively synchronous and who share the same male carer of their offspring. Females also harass sexually receptive females who attempt to mate with their offspring’s carer, likely to prevent further conceptions with him. Overall, competition to secure male carers seems to play an important role in shaping female reproductive strategies in polygynous species where males may provide females with important fitness benefits. We then examined constraints exerted by males on female sexuality. Males and females often have diverging reproductive optima, which underpins sexual conflict. In some species, males may use sexual coercion, in the form of repeated aggression before or during female sexual receptivity to induce females into mating or prevent them from mating with rivals. Here, we tested whether male aggression directed at females represents sexual coercion in chacma baboons. In support of the sexual coercion hypothesis, we found that male aggression against females is most intense when females are sexually receptive, increases male mating success with the harassed female on the short-term, and increases his chances to monopolize her around ovulation on the longer-term. Altogether, these results shed light on the determinants, intensity and evolutionary consequences of social constraints exerted on female sexuality in polygynous primates, and highlight that reproductive conflicts play a primary role in structuring female-female and male-female relationships

The primary objective of this research was to give insight into the spatial cognitive abilities of chacma baboons (Papio ursinus) and to address the question whether chacma baboons internally represent spatial information of large-scale space in the form of a so-called topological map or a Euclidean map. Navigating the environment using a topological map envisions that animals acquire, remember and integrate a set of interconnected pathways or route segments that are linked by frequently used landmarks or nodes, at which animals make travel decisions. When animals navigate using a Euclidean map, animals encode information in the form of true angles and distances in order to compute novel routes or shortcuts to reach out of view goals. Although findings of repeatedly used travel routes are generally considered evidence that animals possess topological-based spatial awareness, it is not necessarily evidence that they navigate (solely) using a topological map or lack complete Euclidean spatial representation. Therefore, three predictions from the hypothesised use of a topological map and Euclidean map were tested to distinguish between them. It was investigated whether there was a difference in travel linearity between the core area and the periphery of the home range, whether travel goals were approached from all directions or from one (or a few) distinct directions using the same approach routes and lastly, whether there was a difference between the initial leaving direction from a travel goal and the general direction towards the next goal. Data were collected during a 19-month period (04/2007-11/2008) at Lajuma research centre in the Soutpansberg (Limpopo Province, South Africa). A group of baboons were followed from their morning sleeping site to their evening sleeping site for 234 days, during which location records, behavioural data and important resource data were recorded. A statistical procedure termed the change-point test (CPT) was employed to identify locations at which baboons started orienting towards a goal and baboons showed goal-directed travel towards identified travel goals. Subsequently, hotspot analysis was employed to delineate clusters of such change-points, termed ‘decision hotspots’. Decision hotspots coincided with highly valuable resources, towards which baboons showed significantly faster travel. It thus seemed that they ‘knew’ when they were nearing their goals and adapted their speed accordingly. Decision hotspots were also located at navigational landmarks that delineated a network of repeatedly used travel routes characteristic of a topological map. Therewith, this method reveals an important utility to the study of decision-making by allowing a range of sites to be selected for detailed observations, which were previously limited to sleeping sites or ‘stop’ sites, which would be impossible if the decision hotspots had not been previously identified. Furthermore, baboons travelled as efficiently in the periphery as in the core area of their home range, which was suggested to be more consistent with Euclidean spatial awareness. However, comparatively low travel linearity throughout the home range revealed it is more likely that the baboons accumulated a similar knowledge of the periphery as of the core area, which allowed them to navigate with a similar efficiently through both areas. The mountainous terrain at the study site provided ample prominent landmarks to aid the baboons in navigation and allowed baboons to initiate navigation to a travel goal with the same direction as when they reached that goal. Baboons did not approach travel goals from all directions, but instead they approached their goals from the same direction(s). In conclusion, the findings of this research are more consistent with the use of a topological spatial representation of large scale space, where landmarks aid baboons to navigate efficiently through large scale space. A review of the literature shows that until date, evidence for the existence of Euclidean spatial representation in both animals and humans is extremely limited and often unconvincing. It is likely that a high level of experimental control is necessary to unambiguously demonstrate the existence of Euclidean spatial awareness in the future.

The dominant vegetation type on the Cape Peninsula, South Africa, is an oligotrophic shrub land that supports low numbers of medium-sized and large terrestrial mammals. Of these, only the adaptable and dextrous chacma baboon (Papio ursinus) has learnt to supplement its diet with protein-rich foods from the marine intertidal zone. There are qualitative descriptions of this behaviour in the literature, but the relative contribution of marine foods to baboon diet, the influence of lunar cycles on exploitation and the impacts of marine foraging on ranging behaviour and activity budgets through different seasons have yet to be quantified. Furthermore, all previous studies included data from troops that had access to nutrient-rich exotic foods, which may have reduced their reliance on marine organisms. For this thesis I collected behavioural data on ranging patterns, activity budgets and diet of a free-ranging, natural-foraging troop through full lunar tidal cycles over consecutive seasons. I supplemented the behavioural data with estimates of the troop's diet composition modelled from stable isotope ratios of foods, faeces and hair samples. The troop ranged over 45.262km2 and travelled an average of 6.044 km per day over the study period. The troop's activity budget was dominated by walking and feeding behaviour, both of which peaked during the hot, dry summer months. Both spatial and behavioural data suggest that the study troop is nutrient-stressed relative to other troops in this population, and hence it was surprising that they only consumed small amounts of marine foods during all four seasons. Models incorporating δ13C and δ15N values of baboon faeces and hair confirmed that marine foods were not major dietary items for these baboons, whilst generalized additive models revealed that a range of abiotic factors negatively affect the exploitation of marine foods. Both the probability and intensity of marine foraging within a given hour declined with increasing tide height and swell height, and fluctuated depending on wind speed and direction. Intensity of marine foraging varied through seasons (it was highest in autumn and lowest in spring), and was higher on the east coast than on the west. Together, these results suggest that exploitation of nutrient-rich foods in the intertidal zone is limited by rapid, unpredictable changes inaccessibility. The levels of deviance left unexplained by these models however imply that other as yet unknown factors (e.g. alkaloids in mussels and limpets) may also limit the troop's exploitation of marine foods. In conclusion, this thesis represents the first in-depth study of marine foraging, a behaviour which exemplifies baboons' remarkable behavioural and dietary flexibility. That said, the temporal unpredictability of ease of access, and potential dangers associated with harvesting this resource, appear to limit how much of this high nutrient food resource baboons are able utilise.

Bibliography: leaves 124-140.
This dissertation deals with the dietary ecology of savanna-dwelling chacma baboons (Papio ursinus), and a number of fossil cercopithecoids, from modern and Pleistocene environments of South Africa, respectively, using principles of stable light isotope ecology. Previous studies of baboon ecology, based largely on direct observations, have not quantified spatial and temporal dietary variability. The dietary ecology of fossil cercopithecoids is even less clear.

In an ecological context, ‘flexibility’ refers to an animal’s ability to respond immediately to environmental stimuli through physiological and behavioural adjustments. Specifically, primates exhibit a high degree of ecological flexibility, which allows them to persist through environmental changes that vary in duration and predictability. To cope with the variability of conditions within their habitats, baboons have evolved flexibility in ranging behaviour, social behaviour, and diet. Natural disasters are predicted to increase across the globe, and many parts of the world are experiencing longer wildfire seasons and higher wildfire frequencies than ever before. The aim of this study is to use an existing data set to assess how baboons responded, behaviourally and physiologically, to an extensive wildfire. I compare home range use, activity budgets, faecal glucocorticoid concentrations, and urinary C-peptide concentrations three months after the fire to the same three months in the previous year for the same 16 adult females. In the months following the fire, the baboons had a larger spatial range compared to the same months in the year prior. The additional area incorporated unburnt areas into their home range, which were preferentially used over burnt areas. Behavioural adjustments included notably less time spent engaging in social behaviours than in the year prior. Perhaps most surprisingly, postfire physiological indicators did not suggest high levels of psychological, energetic, or nutritional stress, as glucocorticoid concentrations were significantly lower post-fire compared to the year prior, while C-peptide concentrations were not significantly different between the two periods. The troop appears to have benefited from a surfeit of exotic pine seeds that were released by pine trees as a result of the fire. This unexpected nutritional windfall, in addition to the inclusion of vineyards within their ranging patterns, may explain why there were no physiological indicators of nutritional stress despite the loss of most above ground biomass. Despite suffering the loss of 12 troop members in the fire and injury to a further 12 individuals, adult females in the Tokai troop were able to adjust to a severe and extensive change to their home range. Although primate ecological flexibility has been widely documented, this is the first study to explore the behavioural and physiological responses of baboons to extensive habitat changes resulting from a wildfire, and the potential implications for the management of wildlife on the urban edge.

Competition for space between humans and wildlife is prevalent worldwide. In the Cape Peninsula, South Africa, extensive land transformation has geographically isolated, fragmented and reduced the size of the local chacma baboon population and is perceived to be a major driver of human-baboon conflict. However, no data on baboon landscape use exist to verify this perception. I studied the spatial ecology of this population, identifying baboon land use patterns, determining the drivers of intrapopulation variation in spatial ecology and investigating how spatial variables could inform baboon management efforts to reduce human-baboon conflict.

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Previous studies from the HIV Vaccine Development Group at the University of Cape Town have reported that immunisation with recombinant modified vaccinia Ankara (SAAVI MVA-C) or DNA prime and Pr55 Gag virus-like particle (VLP) boost based on HIV-1 subtype C are able to successfully induce vaccine specific responses in Chacma baboons. The aim of the current study was to characterise the T cell memory phenotype distribution in peripheral mononuclear cells (PBMCs) isolated from Chacma baboons vaccinated with SAAVI MVA-C/VLP and DNA/VLP prime-boost vaccination regimens by flow cytometry.

The Chacma baboons (Papio ursinus) of the Cape Peninsula are established raiders of human food, leading to widespread conflict between this intelligent, adaptable species and humans. The modern Western diet that these baboons have become exposed to has many deleterious effects on health, including obesity and type 2 diabetes. The aim of this study was to investigate whether this population of baboons have lowered GLUT-­‐4 transporter protein levels in comparison to wild-­‐feeding baboons, as an indication of insulin abnormalities. GLUT-­‐4 levels were analysed via Western Blot and DXA scanning was used to compare physical characteristics between these two groups. No significant difference in GLUT-­‐4 levels was found, however the two groups differed in three physical variables, with the semi-­‐provisioned Peninsula group having higher total weight (kg)(p<0,05), total body lean mass (kg) (p<0,01) and bone mineral content (kg)(p<0,001) than the wild-­‐feeding controls. These results indicate that male individuals from the Peninsula population are bigger but not fatter than wild-­‐feeding male baboons from the Eastern Cape population. Although it could not be determined whether human food is causing insulin abnormalities in the Cape Peninsula’s population of Chacma baboons, this study indicates that this is a promising area of research, likely to affect the management strategies used on this population.

Conflicts between humans and baboons (Papio ursinus) have become a significant management challenge on Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University’s (NMMUs) George Campus, which is located in peri-urban George in the Garden Route, of the Western Cape of South Africa. Current management policy, although required to be ‘scientifically’ based, largely relies on studies done outside the Garden Route. This study addresses the question of how the management of human-baboon relations could be improved on the campus. A case study was undertaken which aimed at addressing the cohabitation of baboons and humans on the NMMU campus, specifically human-baboon resource selection and interaction. The research methodology and the related analytical tools were primarily quantitative but were supplemented by some qualitative data drawn from interviews. Data collected was used to determine landscape features acting as Keystone Resource Areas (KRAs) for both humans and baboons on the campus. Relationships between the frequency and location of negative interactions, and resident-baboon distribution on the campus were also determined. Two key findings emerged from the research. First, residences, non-residence buildings and waste disposal stations act as KRAs for both humans and baboons. Second, the frequency of negative interaction correlates with the time spent by residents and baboons at residences, where common negative interactions between baboons and humans are known to occur. It is postulated that cohabitation on the NMMU George Campus is causing the habituation of baboons, a loss of fear of humans and association of humans with high energy foods. As a result, present cohabitation contributes to negative human-baboon relations in the George area. To ensure sustainable co-existence between humans and baboons on the George Campus, management should implement zonation and wildlife monitoring to reverse the loss of baboon fear of humans and better limit the availability of human-derived foods. In addition, management should consider giving stakeholders co-management roles to foster and facilitate knowledge and responsibility partnerships, and subsequently correct any misunderstandings related to human-baboon relations on the campus. Recommendations for further research include sampling beyond campus boundaries to compensate for regional variations in baboon behaviour and the biophysical environment.

The prolonged juvenile period between infancy and reproductive maturity is the life history trait that best separates primates from other mammals. Juvenile primates are also the most neglected subjects of primatological research. The principal aim of my study was to examine the behaviour of juveniles and how they compare to older individuals, and in doing so, site this behaviour within the context of a social group of chacma baboons (Papio ursinus). I collected data on a group of baboons in the Soutpansberg Mountains of South Africa over a 19-month period. I took a multi-faceted approach, using data collected though scan samples, focal animal samples, and GPS data to examine age and sex differences in behaviour. I analysed these data using several methods, including methods novel to primatological studies. My results indicate that activity budgets and use of vertical space differ by age and sex. As a consequence of this variation in the time spent engaged in activities, I found that chacma groups exhibit low levels of behavioural synchrony as measured by the Kappa coefficient of agreement. My results also indicate that, despite being part of cohesive group, individuals also differ in their movements through the landscape. Individuals that received more agonism from other group members were found to be more constrained in their movements, travelling shorter, but more tortuous routes. My findings also show that young juveniles position themselves spatially in order to have more neighbours in proximity than older individuals, while social interactions amongst group members exhibit phenotypic assortativity, particularly amongst individuals of similar ages. The behavioural differences found in juveniles relative to older conspecifics arise as a consequence of juveniles’ priorities in not only surviving to adulthood, but also in ensuring future success as adults, with obligate group-living an important factor in the emergence of such differences.

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This study investigates whether anthropogenic changes in the Cape Peninsula, South Africa, have affected gastrointestinal parasite infections in a free-living population of chacma baboons (Papio ursinus). Data on parasite diversity and prevalence were obtained from 616 faecal samples collected from over 350 individuals in eight troops (six from the Cape Peninsula, one from Pringle Bay, and one from Wildcliff Nature Reserve) between July 2006 and August 2007.

Comprendre l'émergence et la propagation des maladies infectieuses chez les animaux sauvages est devenue une priorité en santé publique et en conservation. En combinant la collecte de données et le développement de modèles épidémiologiques, cette thèse s'est focalisée sur la compréhension de deux phénomènes clés: (i) étudier comment l'hétérogénéité au niveau des individus, des groupes, de la population et de l'environnement influence la propagation de parasites et (ii) quantifier la transmission de bactéries résistantes aux antibiotiques depuis l'homme vers les animaux sauvages dans trois aires protégées d'Afrique (Tsaobis NP- Namibie, Lopé NP-Gabon et Dzanga-Ndoki NP- République Centrafricaine). Les principaux résultats de ce travail montrent que : (1) De multiples facteurs incluant la température, la pluie, l'utilisation du territoire, le genre, l'âge et la condition physique influencent la richesse spécifique de parasites gastro-intestinaux chez le babouin chacma, (2) Les contacts entre animaux autour des points d'attractions de l'habitat peuvent influencer de manière importante la propagation spatio-temporelle d'une maladie, (3) La transmission d'entérobactéries résistantes semble avoir lieu depuis les humains ou le bétail vers les animaux sauvages dans des zones où le contact entre ces populations est élevé, (4) Le gradient de densité de gorilles produit par la chasse peut générer une augmentation de prévalence d'un parasite avec la distance au point d'introduction. Les conclusions de ce travail ouvrent de nouvelles possibilités pour l'étude des maladies émergentes chez les animaux sauvages
Understanding the emergence and spread of infectious disease in wild animal populations has become an important priority for both public health and animal conservation. Combining the collection of empirical data with the development of epidemiological models, this thesis focuses on understanding two key issues of wildlife epidemiology: (i) how heterogeneity at the individual, group, population and landscape level affects parasite spread (ii) investigating whether transmission of antibiotic resistant bacteria from humans to wildlife is occurring within three protected areas of Africa (Tsaobis NP-Namibia, Lope NP-Gabon and Dzanga-Ndoki NP-Central African Republic). The main findings of this work indicated that: (1) multiple-scale factors including temperature, rainfall, home range use, sex, age and body condition influence gastro-intestinal parasite richness among wild baboons; (2) animal contacts around ‘habitat hotspots' can substantially influence the spatio-temporal dynamics of a disease; (3) antibiotic resistant enterobacteria seem to be spreading from humans/livestock to wildlife when the territory overlap between these two populations is expected to be high; (4) gradients in gorilla density created by bushmeat hunting can reverse the expected pattern of decreasing parasite prevalence with distance to human-spillover. The conclusions of this work open new possibilities for studying the mechanisms explaining the spread of emerging infectious diseases among wild animals

Testing on laboratory-housed primates has long been the standard for research in cognitive psychology and other areas. As an alternative to this, a group of socially housed chacma baboons (Papio hamadrayas ursinus) at the Centre for Animal Rehabilitation and Education near Phalaborwa in Limpopo Province, South Africa, were the subjects for a set of basic cognitive tests. The purpose of the tests was to explore the importance of analogical reasoning by means of testing perceptual and conceptual skills in baboons. The main aim of this research is to investigate the degree to which captive but socially housed baboons are useful as experimental subjects, and to develop an apparatus and protocol to perform these tests in situ in the baboons' home cages. Five baboons were chosen as the subjects for experimentation. All subjects completed three groups of tasks to a criterion of at least 80% success over four successive experiments. The tasks tested baboons' discrimination ability between two coloured tiles, a reversal of that same discrimination task, and a simple match to- sample task. As a result of time constraints, further tasks testing conceptual ability had to be abandoned. A record was kept of environmental and social factors that may have influenced the motivation of the subjects. The time taken to complete each experiment correlated in many cases with the number of distractions experienced by the subjects. There appeared to be no significant correlation between the score attained by a subject and the number of distractions experienced by that subject. The greater number of distractions experienced by the subjects was a result of the more engaged social world in which these baboons exist. Consequently, their motivation to perform repetitive cognitive tests was decreased, and needed to be countered in novel ways. An apparatus and a protocol for testing under these conditions were developed. Testing baboons' cognitive skills in these circumstances is both possible and desirable for ethical reasons, though the process takes longer than under laboratory conditions.
Thesis (M.Soc.Sc.)-University of Natal, Durban, 2004

Savannah baboons (Papio cynocephalus) have been studied in numerous sites throughout Africa. They have been found to display a wide variety of foraging and feeding behaviours. The aim of this study was to describe and quantify these for a troop in a southern woodland habitat and to determine what factors influence these in order to understand the choices made by baboons. This was done within an optimal foraging framework. The study included the development of random walk and optimal foraging simulation models of day journeys and a comparison of feeding and foraging before and after the troop divided into two daughter troops. The troop lived in a complex mosaic of habitat types with a high tree density. The troop's foraging strategies were found to be consistent with being time minimizers. Distance from the centre of the home range and distance from the nearest sleeping site had the most significant effect on utilisation of the home range. The effect of food availability on habitat use could only be distinguished by the use of simulation models. Comparison of food encountered by the troop and that encountered in the simulations demonstrated that the troop did better than could be expected if the day journey routes were random. The troop's results approximated those of a stochastic short-term optimisation model. The troop's diet consisted of a higher proportion of fruit than previous studies. The troop distinguished between commonly utilised foods and those only occasionally used on the basis of protein/fibre ratio, however food preference between main foods was not correlated with protein/fibre ratio. Any combination of the main foods would fulfil their protein requirement. Evidence is given that, without protein being limmiting, the troop's selection amongst the main foods is based on carbohydrate content. After troop fission the daughter troops had shorter day journeys, spent less time walking, more time socialising resting. They also spent more time in food-rich habitats and were more selective in their diet. These results reinforce the important influence in group size and suggest that troop fission may be seen as a time-minimising strategy.
Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 1994.

The focus of this study is the effect of environmental conditions on the social relationships among females in a free-ranging troop of chacma baboons (Papio cynocephalus ursinus), in a southern woodland habitat. The female dominance hierarchy, rank related differential costs and benefits to individuals, and the nature of special relationships between females, were followed. The study was conducted for a total of 18 months during three years, at Mkuzi Game Reserve, Zululand, South-Africa. The study troop occupy a rich woodland habitat with abundant food resources. Visibility under these conditions is poor and the baboons are subjected to leopard predation. Intra-troop competition for food among female primates and its effect on lifetime reproductive success, has been widely stressed to be a major cost for low ranking females. No evidence of competition for food was found among females at Mkuzi. It is suggested that the main cause for mortality may be predation by leopards, and that females compete mainly over a safe spatial position. The following characteristics of female sociality at Mkuzi may support this suggestion: 1. While no indication of rank related feeding behaviour, reproductive success, or 'attractiveness' to others was found, the higher ranking females had more access to central, and thus better protected, spatial positions in the troop. 2. The importance of social associations among females at Mkuzi seems to lie in mutual grooming and protection from predation by the vicinity to each other, and not in coalitionary support. Female associates were thus not necessarily adjacent ranking and probably not kin. 3. Although female dominance hierarchy was usually stable, the lowest ranking adult female has promoted her rank independently, following the disappearance of her only female associate and during her pregnancy, when she was probably subjected to high risk of predation. 4. Following troop fission, most females chose to improve their own rank position by adopting the AYS strategy (Abandon Your immediate Superior in rank), rather than joining associates. It is suggested that the resident males were responsible for the initiation of troop fission, in order to decrease the high cost of sexual competition to them, by reducing the number of males in each daughter troop. High intensity of competition between males was the result of the high female reproductive success. Risk of predation, and therefore the cost to individual females, increased after fission. This study may present an additional accumulating behavioural evidence on adaptations environmental conditions. the of flexibility primates example to of social and to various environmental conditions.
Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 1993.

The Blyde Canyon Nature reserve displays its natural beauty for most National and International visitors all over the World. The region is renowned for its high rainfall and misty weather, which enhances the natural beauty of the area. Because of the mist belt effect, the area is one of the largest commercial forestry areas in South Africa. Baboons also seek after the topography and vegetation type (Northeastern mountain sourveld) that is typical of this area and numerous baboon troops occur in this region. This combination is often the cause of conflict between baboons and humans. The need arise for these baboons to be studied and managed as a component of this very important ecosystem. The main aims of the study were firstly to identify a natural ranging baboon troop, to habituate them and gather data regarding home range sizes, troop sizes, densities and seasonal food selection and secondly to give a detailed habitat description and vegetation map of the troop's home range. The baboon activity data was collected in 15-minute intervals over a one year period on a troop at Bourke's Luck. This included all activities such as walking, social, foraging, and resting. The food parts selected as well as the species foraged on was identified. Numerous statistical methods were used on the baboon data such as; the Shapiro Wilk test, Spearman rank-order correlation, ANOVA, and the Kolmogarov-Smirnov two sample test. There was a positive correlation between home range areas and troop sizes and the baboons preferred certain habitats above others during different seasons. To give a detailed habitat description of the troop's home range, 50 sample plots was stratified-randomly distributed in order to include all the different stratification units. a TWINSPAN classification, refined by Braun-Blanquet procedures was carried out on the Bourke's Luck section that included the baboons home range. 13 Plant communities, which can be grouped into 7 major community types were identified. This study resulted in the ecological interpretation of baboon activities related to the ecological interpretation of the vegetation in the baboon troop's home range.
Agriculture, Animal Health and Human Ecology
M.Tech. (Nature Conservation)

Members of the family Hepadnaviridae have been detected in both avian and mammalian species. They have a very limited host range, and among the nonhuman primates, have been found to occur naturally in chimpanzees, gorillas, gibbons, orang-utans and woolly monkeys. The human hepatitis B virus (HBV) has been shown to infect chimpanzees, Barbary macaques and tree shrews. During the course of a previous study, to determine the susceptibility of baboons (Papio ursinus orientalis) to HBV infection, HBV DNA was detected in the serum of 2 baboons prior to their inoculation with HBV-positive human serum, raising the possibility that baboons are naturally infected with a hepadnavirus. Therefore the aim of this study was to determine the prevalence of HBV in wildcaught baboons and to molecularly and functionally characterise the virus isolated from these baboons. DNA was extracted from the sera of wild-caught baboons and four separate regions of the HBV genome amplified by nested polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Samples were only considered to be positive for HBV if at least three of these regions amplified. DNA was extracted from the liver tissue of one of the HBV DNA-positive baboons using a proteinase K digestion followed by a phenolchloroform extraction and ethanol precipitation. From this extract, the complete HBV genome was amplified by nested PCR of eight overlapping subgenomic fragments, and sequenced. This sequence was analysed phylogenetically using both the PHYLIP and Simmonic software packages. A selective real time PCR using SYBR®-green detection was used to detect covalently closed circular (ccc) DNA. RNA was extracted from the baboon liver tissue using a guanidinium-acidphenol extraction method, reverse transcribed and portions of the HBV genome amplified by nested PCR. Transmissibility of the virus was tested by injecting four experimentally naïve baboons individually with serum from four HBV DNApositive baboons and followed for 26 weeks. HBV was detected in the serum of 5/69 (7,2%) wild-caught baboons by Southern hybridization and in 11/49 (22,4%) adult and 4/20 (20,0%) juvenile wild caught baboons. This gave an overall prevalence of 21,7% in the baboon population surveyed. Serologically, the baboon sera were negative for all markers of HBV infection and alanine aminotransferse (ALT) levels were normal. In the one baboon liver tissue available, HBcAg was detected by immunohistochemical staining in some of the hepatocyte nuclei, but HBsAg was not detected. Phylogenetic analysis of the complete genome of the HBV isolate found it to cluster with subgenotype A2, a surprising result considering that subgenotype A1 predominates in South Africa. However, unlike other subgenotype A2 isolates, the basic core promoter had the G1809T / C1812T double mutation characteristic of subgenotypes A1 and A3 and the precore region had the G1888A mutation unique to subgenotype A1. These mutations in the basic core promoter and precore regions have previously been shown to reduce the expression of the precore and core proteins. Four additional mutations in the polymerase, surface, X and core open reading frames (ORFs) further differentiated the baboon HBV strain form the majority of previously sequenced subgenotype A2 isolates. cccDNA was detected at low levels in the baboon liver tissue. Regions of the precore/core and surface ORFs were amplified off reverse transcribed cDNA. These results demonstrate HBV replication in the baboon liver. Transmission of the virus was shown by the detection of HBV DNA in the sera of the four inoculated baboons at various times throughout the 26 week follow-up period. These baboons also showed transient seroconversion for HBsAg and HBeAg during this period with intermittent fluctuations in ALT levels. Moreover, using DNA extracted from liver tissue obtained at necropsy from one of the injected baboons, the sequence of the HBV surface gene amplified was found to be identical to the sequence of the isolate from inoculum. The finding of subgenotype A2 in the baboon is paradoxical because subgenotypes A1 and A3 as well as genotypes D and E predominate in Africa. The possibility exists that subgenotype A2 is an older strain that has been overtaken by these other strains. There is however a scarcity of subgenotype A2 sequencing data from Africa and a higher circulation of this subgenotype could be uncovered with more extensive molecular epidemiological studies in more remote areas. Alternatively, a recent discovery of alternative compartmentalization of subgenotype A2 infections in the peripheral blood lymphocyte population of individuals from India, where subgenotype A1 also predominates, could explain the lack of detection of this subgenotype in Africa. Occult hepatitis B infection is defined as the presence of HBV DNA in the liver (with detectable or undetectable HBV DNA in the serum) of individuals testing negative for HBsAg by currently available assays. The detection of HBV DNA in the baboon liver and serum in the absence of serological markers therefore classifies this infection as occult. To our knowledge, this is the first study to demonstrate a naturally occurring occult HBV infection in non-human primates.

Glycine-N-acyltransferase (GLYAT, EC 2.3.1.13) has been characterised in a number of species including: humans, chimpanzees, rhesus monkeys and bovines. The characterisation of GLYAT from various species contributes to a better understanding of the diversity of the enzyme which in turn might help improve the current understanding of detoxification in mammals. The GLYAT enzyme of both the chacma baboon and vervet monkey has not been characterised. In this project, tissue samples were obtained from a chacma baboon (Papio ursinus) and a vervet monkey (Chlorocebus pygerythrus) to determine the nucleic acid sequence that encodes GLYAT in these two species to broaden our current understanding on the diversity of GLYAT in primates. A liver of a chacma baboon was used to extract total RNA. Complementary DNA (cDNA) was synthesised using an oligo (dT) primer. An open reading frame (ORF) encoding GLYAT of the chacma baboon was amplified with a PCR (polymerase chain reaction) using primers designed from a human GLYAT transcript. The PCR product containing an ORF encoding GLYAT of the chacma baboon was cloned, sequenced and expressed. The recombinant GLYAT of the chacma baboon expressed well in bacteria, but was insoluble and did not have enzyme activity. A crude cytoplasmic extract was prepared from the liver of a chacma baboon. The objective was to compare enzyme activity between the native and recombinant GLYAT. The prepared liver extract from the chacma baboon was assayed for enzyme activity and compared to the activity in a liver extract from bovine, previously prepared by Ms M Snyders. Both the chacma baboon and bovine liver extracts had GLYAT enzyme activity. To obtain sequence information on vervet monkey GLYAT, leukocytes were isolated from blood obtained from a living vervet monkey. A human GLYAT gene sequence was used as a reference DNA sequence in the design of PCR primers that were used to amplify the exons of GLYAT of the vervet monkey. All six GLYAT exons were individually amplified and PCR products were sequenced. The sequences were combined to reconstruct an ORF encoding GLYAT of the vervet monkey. The ORFs coding the GLYAT of both chacma baboon and vervet monkey were found to be 888 bp long (excluding stop codon) and encoded a protein of 296 amino acids. A fragment of 1256 bp of the chacma baboon GLYAT transcript was sequenced. The two GLYAT ORF sequences were translated to amino acid sequences and aligned to that of GLYAT of primates obtained from the Ensembl sequence database. The GLYAT amino acid sequences of the chacma baboon, vervet monkey and rhesus monkey formed a related group, distinct from other primates. The chacma baboon and vervet monkey sequences were 99 % identical to the rhesus monkey sequence and 92.6 % identical to the human sequence. There were 4 new variations introduced by GLYAT amino acid sequences from the chacma baboon and the vervet monkey. The vervet monkey introduced an isoleucine in place of a valine at position 32 and an arginine in place of a histidine or glutamine at position 224. The chacma baboon introduced a tyrosine in place of isoleucine at position 201 and an arginine in place of histidine or glutamine at position 240. The knowledge generated in this project will broaden the understanding of GLYAT diversity relating to GLYAT in primates.
Thesis (M.Sc. (Biochemistry))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2011

Die Fitness-limitierende Ressource für die meisten männlichen Primaten ist die unteilbare Befruchtung von Weibchen. Daher herrscht in der Regel ein aggressives Konkurrenzverhalten unter Männchen, um sich den Zugang zu fertilen Weibchen zu sichern. Jedoch zeigen Männchen unterschiedlicher Arten eine erhebliche Variation in ihrer Aggressivität. In manchen Arten kann sogar ein kooperatives Verhalten zwischen Männchen beobachten werden, das meist mit weniger angespannten und toleranteren Sozialbeziehungen verbunden ist. Die proximaten und ultimaten Ursachen für diese interspezifische Variation werden durch verschiedene Aspekte des Sozialsystems einer Art bedingt, jedoch sind die zugrundeliegenden Ursachen noch nicht vollständig geklärt. Paviane (Papio spp.) stellen ein gut geeignetes Modell dar, um die Grundlage von männlicher Aggressivität und Toleranz zu untersuchen, da die unterschiedlichen Arten dieser Gattung eine erhebliche Variation in männlichem Konkurrenzverhalten und in anderen Aspekten ihrer Sozialsysteme zeigen. Männliche Bärenpaviane (P. ursinus) im südlichen und männliche Guineapaviane (P. papio) im westlichen Afrika scheinen dabei entgegengesetzte Extrema von Aggressivität und Toleranz darzustellen. Das Ziel meiner Promotion war daher, verschiedene Aspekte der männlichen Dominanzbeziehungen in den beiden Arten zu untersuchen und zu vergleichen. Bärenpaviane leben in stabilen Gruppen mit mehreren Männchen und mehreren Weibchen, in denen geschlechtsreife Männchen in benachbarte Gruppen abwandern. Dort versuchen sie mit Hilfe von aggressivem Verhalten einen hohen Rang zu erlangen, da ihnen dieser ein Vorrecht („Priority of access“) auf fertile Weibchen verschafft und über den reproduktiven Erfolg eines Männchens bestimmt. Im Gegensatz dazu leben Guineapaviane in einer mehrschichtigen (“multi-level“) Gesellschaft, in der nahverwandte Männchen häufig in der gleichen Gruppe verbleiben. Die Sozialbeziehungen zwischen Männchen scheinen dabei vor allem durch eine niedrige Frequenz agonistischer Interaktionen und eine hohe räumliche Toleranz sowie Kooperation gekennzeichnet zu sein. Daher stellen Aggressionen in dieser Art scheinbar nicht das primäre Mittel in der Konkurrenz um den Zugang zu Weibchen dar. Bisher gab es noch keine vergleichbaren Daten, um diese Vermutung über Verhaltensunterschiede zwischen den beiden Arten zu überprüfen. Daher war ein Ziel meiner Dissertation die Aggressivität und räumliche Toleranz zwischen männlichen Bärenpavianen im Moremi Game Reserve, Botsuana, und männlichen Guineapavianen im Parc National de Niokolo Koba, Senegal, zu vergleichen. Unterschiede in männlicher Konkurrenz spiegeln sich auch in unterschiedlichen altersabhängigen Verläufen des Reproduktionserfolgs wider. Bei Primaten ist dieser Verlauf wiederum mit Variation im Testosteronspiegel verbunden. Neben diesen Langzeitverläufen wurde gezeigt, dass zusätzliche, kurzfristige Anstiege in Testosteronspiegeln ein aggressives Verhalten während der Konkurrenz um Paarungspartner fördern (‚Challenge hypothesis‘). Das zweite Ziel meiner Dissertation war daher, den Zusammenhang zwischen Testosteron und dominanzbezogener Aggression zu untersuchen, indem ich die Variation in Testosteronspiegeln in Bezug auf Alter, Aggression, und Dominanzbeziehungen analysiert habe. Die Art und Weise, wie Individuen konkurrieren, beeinflusst auch, wie physiologische Kosten (oder ‚allostatic load‘) zwischen Individuen unterschiedlichen Dominanzstatus verteilt sind. Diese Kosten spiegeln sich in inter-individuellen Differenzen in Glucocorticoidspiegeln wider. Das dritte Ziel meiner Arbeit war daher die Effekte von männlichen Sozialbeziehungen auf physiologische Kosten zu untersuchen, indem ich die Variation in Glucocorticoidspiegeln in Relation zu Dominanzstatus zwischen Bären- und Guineapavianen analysiert habe. Inter-individuelle Unterschiede in Aggressivität sind stark erblich bedingt. Daher ist zu vermuten, dass auch Unterschiede zwischen Arten eine genetische Grundlage haben. Die beiden Längenpolymorphismen 5-HTTLPR - im Gen des Serotonintransporters - und MAOALPR - im Gen der monoaminen Oxidase A - beeinflussen die Aktivität des serotonergen Neurotransmittersystems und wurden mit Variation von Aggressivität in Verbindung gebracht. Verschiedene Allele dieser beiden Loci könnten daher auch mit Artunterschieden bei Pavianen gekoppelt sein. Das vierte Ziel meiner Dissertation war daher, Allele dieser beiden Loci zwischen fünf Pavianarten zu vergleichen. Durch die Erhebung der ersten unmittelbar vergleichbaren Verhaltensdaten für männliche Bären- und Guineapaviane konnte ich zeigen, dass männliche Bärenpaviane häufiger in agonistische Interaktionen verwickelt sind als Guineapaviane. Im Gegensatz dazu zeigen Guineapaviane eine höhere räumliche Toleranz gegenüber anderen Männchen und tauschen manchmal sogar affiliatives Verhalten aus. Des Weiteren zeigten männliche Bärenpaviane konsistente Dominanzbeziehungen und eine lineare Hierarchie, während die Linearität der Hierarchien von Guineapavianen allgemein niedriger war. Diese Beobachtungen stimmen mit vorherigen Beobachtungen über männliche Sozialbeziehungen in beiden Arten überein. Dies bedeutet, dass die beiden Arten sich tatsächlich in der Intensität von männlicher Wettbewerbskonkurrenz („contest competition“) unterscheiden. In keiner der beiden Arten konnte ein Zusammenhang zwischen Testosteronspiegel und Alter oder Dominanzrang gefunden werden. Es gab jedoch einen statistischen Trend, dass in Bärenpavianen der Testosteronspiegel mit Aggressivität korreliert. Dies wurde zuvor nur in Perioden beobachtet, in denen Männchen hoher Dominanzränge von anderen Männchen herausgefordert wurden (d.h. „unstabile Perioden“). Dies war in der vorliegenden Studie nicht der Fall. Jedoch könnten eine kurz zuvor beobachtete Teilung der Gruppe und darauf folgende regelmäßige Begegnungen der beiden neu entstandenen Gruppen eine ähnliche Situation verursacht haben. In Guineapavianen waren Testosteronspiegel nicht mit der Häufigkeit von agonistischen Verhalten korreliert. Dies könnte daran liegen, dass solche Verhalten in dieser Art keine bedeutende Rolle in der Konkurrenz um Paarungsmöglichkeiten spielen. Hochrangige männliche Bärenpaviane zeigten höhere Glucocorticoidspiegel als niedrigrangigere Männchen. Auch dies wurde bei Bärenpavianen bisher nur während „unstabiler Perioden“ beobachtet und weist wieder darauf hin, dass die unübliche Teilung der Gruppe eine ähnliche Situation hervorgerufen haben kann. In Guineapavianen korrelierten Glucocorticoidspiegel nicht mit Dominanzpositionen, was die Vermutung unterstütz, dass Dominanzränge in dieser Art wenig oder keine Bedeutung haben. Ein Vergleich von 5-HTTLPR und MAOALPR Allelen zwischen fünf Arten von Pavianen lässt vermuten, dass der 5-HTTLPR-Genotyp nicht mit interspezifischer Variation im Verhalten in Verbindung steht; dieser Locus war in fast allen Arten monomorph. Ein erweiterter Vergleich zwischen mehreren Arten von Pavianartigen (Papionini) deutete aber an, dass dieser Locus während der historischen Ausbreitung von Makaken nach Asien sehr wahrscheinlich unter Selektionsdrücken stand. Die Bedeutung dieser Variation muss noch untersucht werden, könnte aber eventuell mit Unterschieden in der Umwelt der jeweiligen Arten zusammenhängen. Im Gegensatz dazu war der Locus MAOALPR polymorph und das Muster verschiedener Allele passte überwiegend mit den vermuteten Verhaltensunterschieden zwischen Pavianarten zusammen. Die beobachtete Variation in diesem Locus bietet daher eine gute Möglichkeit, um genetisch bedingte Verhaltensunterschiede zwischen verschiedenen Pavianen genauer zu untersuchen und dadurch die genetischen Grundlagen der Variation in Aggressivität bei Primaten besser zu verstehen. Zusammengefasst hat meine Dissertation grundlegende Einblicke in die proximaten Ursachen und Kosten der Unterschiede in männlicher Dominanzbeziehungen zwischen Pavianarten geliefert. Erste Daten weisen darauf hin, dass Verhaltensunterschiede in Bezug auf Aggressivität zwischen Pavianen mit dem MAOALPR-Genotyp verbunden sind. Eine Untersuchung dieses Locus im Zusammenhang mit Neurotransmitter-Aktivität und Verhalten könnte daher weitere Aufschlüsse über die proximaten Mechanismen geben, die unterschiedlichen Aggressivitätsmustern in Primaten unterliegen. Verhaltensbeobachtungen und Glucocorticoid-Messungen lassen vermuten, dass die reproduktive Strategie von männlichen Guineapavianen mit weniger „offensichtlichen“ Kosten verbunden ist. Daher könnten eine Untersuchung der Mechanismen, die den Zugang zu Weibchen bei Guineapavianen regeln, und ein Vergleich des reproduktiven Erfolgs zwischen unterschiedlichen Männchen weitere Einblicke in die Evolution von reproduktiven Strategien und damit von Aggressivitäts- und Toleranzunterschiede zwischen männlichen Primaten liefern.

A research report submitted to the Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science Johannesburg, 2012
This experiment was designed to evaluate whether an allogeneic fibrin-fibronectin protein concentrate (AFFP) can not only prevent ankylosis and root resorption of autotransplanted roots during healing but contribute to regenerate a periodontal attachment as well. In two adult male baboons (Papio ursinus), four horizontal alveoli, 2 to 3 mm deep, were prepared bilaterally in the buccal alveolar and basal bone adjacent to the first and second mandibular molars to receive the roots of the adjacent two molars. Following hemisection, the first and second mandibular molars were extracted, the coronal two-thirds of the roots were planed to remove the remnants of the periodontal ligament and cementum and a notch was placed at the junction between the planed and non-planed surfaces. The planed surfaces were demineralised with citric acid at pH 1 for 3 min. Before transplantation, the crowns were resected and the experimental roots and alveoli were coated with the AFFP prepared from pooled fresh-frozen baboon plasma. The animals were killed 55 days after the transplantations. Histometrical evaluation was performed on serial sections cut in a bucco-lingual direction parallel to the long axis of the transplanted roots. An analysis of variance, in relation to the extent of ankylosis and root resorption, revealed minimal differences between the treatments of experimental and control roots both in the planed and non-planed sections. In this primate autotransplantation model, the treatment with AFFP did not prevent ankylosis and root resorption and did not result in the establishment of a new periodontal attachment.

A research report submitted to the Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Medicine in the branch of Chemical Pathology. Johannesburg, 2004
In the course of a previous study (Kedda, et al., 2000), it became evident that the baboons had been inoculated with a mixture of HBV genotypes, namely, genotypes A and non-A. Therefore, a follow up study was undertaken to determine whether either A or non-A HBV genotypes predominated over the other during the time course of 52 weeks post-inoculation of HBV into baboons. HBV DNA extracted from sera obtained from one of the four HBV positive baboons, at two time points during a 52 week post-HBV inoculation period, was amplified using primers specific for the HBV core region that is well conserved in all genotypes.
IT2019

Foraging behaviour describes the mechanisms and decisions animals use to maximise energy gain. Baboons are a successful and widespread primate species in Africa, largely because of their ability to modify their broad omnivorous diet and foraging behaviour under changing environmental and climatic conditions. The population size of baboons found in the Suikerbosrand Nature Reserve, South Africa, has risen at a constant rate over the past few years, resulting in growing concerns of insufficient resources in the reserve to sustain the population. The aim of my study was to investigate foraging behaviour and diet in relation to the spatio-temporal fluctuations of resources in this isolated population of baboons. For my study, one individual in each of 10 different troops was fitted with a cell phone collar so that troops could be located daily using GPS data. Diet, which was assessed by faecal analysis, showed a wide variety of components in the dry season (e.g. fruit and seed 48%, plant matter 29%, invertebrates 5%, maize 8%). In contrast, diet in early and late rain seasons was restricted to fewer components: plant matter (61%) in early rain and fruit and seeds (55%) in late rain season. Contrary to my predictions, foraging behaviour, assessed through direct observation indicated that baboons foraged conservatively in the dry season when food resources are lower, spending more effort manipulating food and consuming comparatively less food. In the early and late rain seasons when food resources were greater, baboons spent more effort actively searching, manipulating and consuming food. Similarly, GPS data revealed that baboons travelled further in the early and late rain seasons than in the dry season. Baboons in the Suikerbosrand Nature Reserve appear to increase foraging effort by travelling more and selecting habitats where food resources are both abundant and energy rich. When resource availability was low, baboons tended to reduce energy expenditure by travelling less, selecting habitats with more reliable resource availability and consuming whatever foods were available. Home range size remained constant, showing no seasonal or spatial pattern but seasonal habitat use in troops varied, depending on habitat type. For example, in the dry season, troops preferred woodland and shrubland habitat over grassland but in the early rain season, habitat use in grasslands increased. This is most likely due to the increase in plant growth in grasslands. In conclusion, my study set out to investigate various aspects of foraging behaviour in a widespread and well researched primate species. My findings not only confirm our knowledge of the adaptability of baboon foraging behaviour and diet but provide new insight into foraging strategies in a seasonal environment as well as the underlying mechanisms influencing behavioural responses in baboons. The influence of changing spatial factors (e.g. habitat availability and resource quality) is less clear at a population scale and further studies are needed to better understanding of the influence of spatial changes in resources on foraging behaviour and troop dynamics. From my findings, I provide management advice, which can be used as an aid to manage the baboon population.

A view long held by evolutionary biologists is that individuals within a population should modify their behaviour to suit the current physical and social environment. However, recent empirical studies challenge this view, suggesting that persistent between-individual differences in behaviour - animal personalities - are not 'noise', but can be adaptive. Despite a surge of recent interest in the study of animal personalities, the field is proving to be fraught with conceptual and methodological difficulties. I investigated a number of fundamental problems facing the field of animal personality. In the first part of the thesis, I focus on methodological considerations, which I review in detail, suggesting tools that can be used to overcome current difficulties. Subsequently, I describe a behavioural syndrome in wild Namibian rock agamas Agama planiceps that shows a link between risk-taking behaviour and three other variables: time spent conspicuous, home range size and predation risk. This suggests different costs and benefits for boldness in this species. I then demonstrate that bolder agamas were more trappable than shyer agamas. Using a simulation model, I show that sampling bias may lead to underestimation of the effect sizes of correlations between behavioural traits. These results have important implications for studies where individuals are caught in the wild and taken into captivity. Next, I tested assumptions about commonly used personality assays by measuring boldness in wild baboons Papio ursinus in three ways: using subjective ratings by experienced observers, individual responses to a novel food, and responses to a threat. I show that subjective ratings and novel food responses were correlated but that responses to a novel food and a threat did not correlate. My findings suggest that two commonly employed assays of boldness (responses to novel objects and a threatening stimulus) may not measure the same trait, which may have significant implications for animal personality research. In the second part of my thesis, I address conceptual problems of animal personality theory. I investigated whether Namibian rock agamas were constrained by personality types or showed behavioural plasticity when their environmental conditions changed dramatically between the dry and rainy seasons. Behaviour was differentially affected by variation among individuals, variation in the environment and the interaction between the individual and environment suggesting that the relevance of the behaviour to the change in season was important. Next, I investigated social foraging decisions in baboons. I found no evidence that personality affected producer-scrounger decisions when information was reliable, but that personality was important when information was unreliable. In both agamas and baboons, I suggest that where there are reliable environmental cues, individual plasticity will be favoured over consistency in the relevant behaviours, challenging the current conceptualization of animal personality. Overall, my research suggests that animal personality research is currently facing methodological and conceptual obstacles that may hinder its continued progress. I recommend the use of multiple assays for measuring personality traits, and encourage more studies of free-living populations. I also urge that more consideration be given to interpreting the outcome of empirical tests of the subject. -- provided by Candidate.

MSc (Med), Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand
I investigated the relationship between abdominal temperature, physical activity, anogenital swellings, and faecal and urine ovarian steroid hormonal concentrations over the menstrual cycle in baboons in an attempt to devise a reliable non-hormonal physiological indicator to detect ovulation. Using a miniature thermometric data logger surgically implanted in the abdominal cavity and an activity data logger implanted subcutaneously on the trunk, I measured, continuously over six months at a 10 min interval, abdominal temperature and physical activity patterns in four female adult baboons, Papio hamadryas ursinus (12.9-19.9 kg), unrestrained in cages in an indoor animal facility (22-25°C). I monitored menstrual bleeding, and anogenital swelling changes using digital photography, and collected urine and faeces, daily, to ascertain the stage and length of the menstrual cycle. The length of the menstrual cycle, determined from daily observations of menstrual bleeding and anogenital swellings, was 36 ± 2 days (mean ± SD). Baboons exhibited a cyclic change in anogenital swellings, abdominal temperature, physical activity, urine and faecal steroid hormones over the menstrual cycle. Mean 24-h abdominal temperature during the luteal phase was significantly higher (ANOVA, p = 0.04; F (2,9) = 4.7) than during the ovulatory phase, but not different to the follicular phase. Physical activity also followed a similar pattern, with mean 24 h physical activity almost twice as high in the luteal than in the ovulatory phase (ANOVA, p = 0.58; F (2,12) = 5.8). As expected, urine and faecal oestradiol was higher in the follicular than in the luteal phase, while progesterone was higher in the luteal than the follicular phase. Cortisol in both urine and faecal samples did not show any vi recognisable menstrual cycle related pattern. I have characterised correlates of the menstrual cycle in baboons and shown, for the first time, a rhythm of physical activity over the baboon menstrual cycle. I have also shown, from the measurements of abdominal temperature, physical activity, ovarian steroid hormonal concentrations and anogenital swellings, that ovulation in captive unrestrained baboons, and probably also free-living baboons, can be estimated from anogenital swellings or possibly abdominal temperature and physical activity, without the need for hormone measurements.

Conflict between baboons and humans is a common occurrence in many places where baboons exist in close proximity to cultivated land. This study examines patterns of raiding by baboons, farmer retaliation, and potential behavioural responses of baboons to that retaliation in and around the Suikerbosrand Nature Reserve, South Africa. Recent years have seen a rising baboon population and increasing complaints from farmers in the area about baboons raiding their farmland, leading to concerns that the population may have outgrown the resources available within the reserve. This study consists of three parts: an examination of patterns of space use by baboons, using data from GPS collars fitted to one baboon in each of 10 troops in the reserve; an examination of the behaviour of baboons in 9 of these troops, using data gained though direct observation of troops within the reserve; and an examination of patterns of raiding and farmer retaliation, using data from questionnaires sent to land owners surrounding the reserve. The data revealed that the troops appeared to be responding to resource scarcity and the opportunity to raid in a variety of ways. Some troops appeared to be raiding farmland intensively on short forays out of the reserve, while using the reserve as a refuge, indicated by small amounts of time spent outside the reserve, high levels of overlap between troops and low levels of foraging within the reserve. Other troops appeared to be shifting their home ranges out of the reserve to forage on fallow land, while also raiding farmland to some extent, indicated by large amounts of time spent outside the reserve, low levels of overlap between troops, and low levels of foraging within the reserve. Two of the troops studied apparently did not raid, as they never left the reserve. Data from the questionnaires suggest that, while raiding is stimulated by food scarcity in the dry season, baboons raid maize and beans whenever available, seemingly preferring these crops over natural forage. While some farmers are responding to raiding with lethal retaliation against baboons, the effects of this on the social structure of the troops are unclear due to low sample sizes of behavioural data. This study demonstrates some of the behavioural responses of baboons to raiding and farmer retaliation, and some of the different responses available to baboon troops facing a scarcity of natural food together with the opportunity to raid farmland. Based on my findings, I also provide recommendations to farmers and the Suikerbosrand management aimed at reducing baboon human conflict in the area.