Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Challenge appraisals'

Stress has long been conceptualized as consisting of two factors, eustress, or good stress, and distress, or bad stress (Selye, 1956). The occupational stress literature identifies challenge stressors as those associated with favorable outcomes, and hindrance stressors as those associated with negative outcomes (Cavanaugh, Boswell, Roehling, & Boudreau, 2000). The current study had three objectives: 1) to investigate occupational level stressor appraisal by K-12 teachers, 2) to explore how the perception of the availability of resources influences individual level stressor appraisal, and 3) to test differential outcomes of challenge and hindrance stress. Results indicate that K-12 teachers appraise workload as a hindrance stressor more than as a challenge stressor, which is contrary to existing management literature categorizing workload a challenge stressor. Perceived resources also accounted for significant variance in individual appraisal of stressors as a hindrance. Results pinpoint precise personal and organizational resources that contribute to stressor appraisals as a hindrance. Finally, hindrance stress significantly detracted from engagement while challenge stress did not affect work engagement.

Psychological resilience has been described as a multidimensional, context specific concept, and has been defined in numerous ways that attempt to encapsulate the process by which individuals positively adapt following stress or significant adversity. Research within competitive sport has highlighted several components that influence this process, which include; meta-cognitions and challenge appraisals, coping strategies, personal risk and protective factors, and sociocultural influences (Brown et al., 2015; Galli & Vealey, 2008; Fletcher & Sarkar, 2012; Sarkar & Fletcher, 2014a). Significantly, resilience is described as a dynamic process that is developed through exposure to challenge within the competitive environment (Galli & Vealey, 2008); however, little is known about the nature of psychological resilience at a junior level. The understanding of how resilience is conceptualised at this level is important as this knowledge can help to foster the appropriate protective and promotive factors required to thrive in a competitive junior environment, and best equip athletes for future periods of unrest. The aims of the current research program were to investigate the nature of psychological resilience within a junior sport context, and to explore appropriate measures or methodological approaches by which to achieve this. To achieve these, eight research objectives are presented. To address these objectives, five research investigations were proposed: Study 1. This study aimed to explore the psychometric qualities of the original 25-item CD-RISC (Connor & Davidson, 2003) amongst a sample of junior athletes. Three hundred and forty seven athletes (M age=15.42, SD=1.72) completed the original CD-RISC questionnaire. Participants represented a range of individual and team sports. Internal consistency and factor structure were analysed using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and exploratory factor analyses (EFA). CFAs did not support the original 5-factor or unitary factor structure of the 25-item CD-RISC, but did support a unidimensional shortened 10-item measure (Cambell-Sills & Stein, 2007). Subsequently, an EFA and CFA also supported a valid and reliable 2-factor sport specific version of the CD-RISC, which was favoured based on stronger conceptual and theoretical support. This study supports the contention that resilience is not consistent across all populations and context specific measures may be required e.g., sport specific. The emergent 2-factor measurement model suggests an underlying structure of resilience in sport that represents an individual's control through adversity and growth mindset. Study 2. The aim of this study was to explore the nature of resilience within junior sport, with a specific focus on sport type, gender and age differences, and the association between resilience and sensation seeking characteristics. Participants completed the modified version of the CD-RISC, which emerged in the previous study and the Brief Sensation Seeking Scale (BSSS; Hoyle at al., 2002), which measures dispositional risk taking behaviours. The results suggested that male and team athletes have significantly higher resilience scores than their female and individual sport counterparts. In general, protective factors associated with resilience positively relate to sensation seeking characteristics. Specifically, feelings relating to ‘control through adversity' more broadly relate to tendencies leading to greater risk exposure. These findings may suggest that those with a greater perception of control take more calculated risks and set goals that are more challenging. This may offer the opportunity to increase personal mastery through developed interpersonal relations, emotional expression, problem solving skills and coping resources. Nevertheless, our understanding of resilience seems limited by the capacity of a psychometric questionnaire to encapsulate such a complex construct. Study 3. This study aimed to provide a review of the literature concerning resilience in athletes, with a specific focus on identifying the differing methodological approaches to examine the nature of the construct in sport. Fourteen research articles that attempted to directly measure psychological resilience with an athlete sample were identified using both quantitative (n=8) and qualitative (n=6) approaches. Quantitative research has increased conceptual understanding of resilience in sport, relating to its positive associations with similar constructs (e.g., mental toughness), and its moderation qualities. This approach permits statistical analyses to track development, however is unlikely to offer sufficient depth to understanding given the complexities surrounding both the construct of psychological resilience and the nature of an elite sporting environment. Qualitative studies have helped to develop theoretical understanding of psychological resilience amongst athletes through adopting phenomenological methodologies, however, the application of knowledge relies on user generalisability alone and does not offer an objective measure of the construct. The review proposes an exploration of novel methodological approaches that consider the positive elements of both qualitative and quantitative research, but does not consolidate their pitfalls. Study 4. The purpose of this study was to develop a novel tool to measure psychological resilience using a Q-method approach. Specifically, this study aimed to construct a Q-set, by identifying the subjective viewpoints of junior rugby league players, associated with how they would respond to stress or adversity and their perceptions of the resilience process. Twenty-nine junior rugby league players (aged 13-14) were recruited to take part in one of two focus groups designed to generate statements relating to responses to adversity. Thirty statements emerged following inductive thematic analysis, and were retained for the Q-set. There are commonalities between these statements and characteristics of theoretical models and previous research concerning psychological resilience in sport. Study 5. The purpose of this study was to use the Q-set developed in the previous study to explore the nature of psychological resilience in the context of junior Rugby League, using a novel Q-sort method. Sixty junior rugby league players (aged 13-14) completed a standard Q-sort protocol, ranking the previously developed 30-item Q-set using a fixed quasi normal distribution, with anchors of +5 (most like me) to -5 (least like me). PQ Method statistical analysis software was used to analyse the data. Principle component analysis with varimax rotation identified four distinct subgroups that explained 72% of the total variance. These groups were distinguished through patterns relating to: social support, emotional control, unpleasant emotions, personal resources, and cognitive strategies. Shared qualities across the four subgroups were also identified, and included low ratings for evasion strategies, and seeking support, whilst generally high ratings for perseverance. The results from this study showed that junior rugby league players display a range of psychological responses when experiencing adversity and four subgroups with both defining and shared characteristics emerged. This study provides preliminary evidence for the potential usefulness of a Q-method approach for understanding the process of resilience in junior sport. Q-methodology provides an alternative to previous research designs attempting to understand the nature of resilience, and offers an engaging activity to participants, encouraging analytical reflections of their experiences. In summary, the data collected within the current research program has presented an original contribution to knowledge concerning the nature of psychological resilience in junior sport.
The thesis has delivered the first study of its kind, by employing Q-methodology to understand psychological resilience, revealing previously untapped complexities associated with the construct. This approach offers future researchers and practitioners the depth of insight and level of objectivity associated with qualitative and quantitative measures respectively, and recommends this as a viable alternative to psychometric measures of resilience.

The purpose of this study is to investigate the moderating role of personal resources (individual differences) in appraising workplace stressors. Inconsistent results in the empirical research for occupational stress and work-related outcomes constitute further investigation into the stress appraisal process. Although some researchers argue that the relationship between stress and organizational outcomes is dependent on the type of stressors being appraised (Cavanaugh, Boswell, Roehling, & Boudreau, 2000; Podsakoff, LePine, & LePine, 2007; Webster, Beehr, & Christiansen, 2008) these same researchers have ignored the factors that predict how these types of stressors will be appraised. Instead, they have relied too heavily on presumed classification and uniformed appraisal of stressors (Cooper & Payne, 1992). Two-hundred and twelve participants were recruited from Southern Illinois University Carbondale to participate in the online experiment. A structural equation model was used to test the moderating role of resilience on the stressor appraisal process of a classified hindrance stressor (task ambiguity). More specifically, this study aimed to uncover the directional relationships between personal resources, appraisal, perceived stress, and various outcome-related factors. Findings from the current study indicate appraisal and perceived stress statistically significantly predicted negative affective thoughts. Additionally, perceived stress partially mediated the relationship between appraisal and negative affective thoughts. On-task effort also significantly predicted delegation behaviors in participants. Unfortunately, results from this study did not show a significant moderating effect for resilience on the relationship between ambiguity and appraisal. Although resilience has not specifically been found to have moderating effects regarding challenge hindrance appraisals, many types of personal resources have been found to act as moderators like coherence ( Antonovsky, 1991), self-efficacy (Beehr & Bowling, 2005), and locus of control (Buzzell & Primeau, 2001). This study’s findings help to broaden the theoretical and empirical foundations of the challenge-hindrance framework found in occupational stress, and more broadly, the applied psychology literature.

The objective of the study was to investigate how individual appraisal of high workload as a challenge or a hindrance stressor correlates with work engagement and burnout. The work environment is fraught with high workloads, resulting in stress for employees. The cost of employee stress and ill health to organisations and society is reported to be high due to lost productivity and healthcare costs. The current study used the challenge-hindrance stressor model to determine the impact of appraisal on the relationship between work overload and work engagement/burnout. The current study proposed that employees experience both work engagement and burnout concurrently depending on whether they appraise work overload as a challenge or a hindrance stressor. An explanatory quantitative design was used to survey employees from multiple organisations in South Africa, yielding 144 full-time, permanently employed respondents. Findings from the study indicated that stressors that were appraised as challenges were linked to work engagement, whereas stressors that were appraised as hindrances were linked to burnout. The study also found that employees appraise work overload as a hindrance not a challenge, resulting in a negative relationship between work overload and work engagement and a positive relationship between work overload and burnout. The implication is that when employees have high workloads, their engagement does not increase; their likelihood of burnout increases. The study determined no positive outcomes of high workloads, only the risk of highly engaged employees becoming fatigued and burnt out. Hence, it is recommended that organisations manage the workloads of their employees.

Previous research has shown that excessive cardiovascular reactivity may be important in the development of coronary heart disease. The present study examines the role of masculine cognitive appraisal of stress as a mediator of cardiovascular reactivity in men. The reactivity of men who differed on a measure of cognitive appraisal of masculine gender role stress (MGRS) was compared using the cold-pressor test under conditions of high and low masculine performance challenge. Under conditions of minimal challenge, it was predicted that high and low MGRS men would not differ on reactivity. Under high challenge, high MGRS men were expected to show greater reactivity than low MGRS men. Since coping responses are related to appraisal of stressful situations and impact on cardiovascular reactivity, subjects' coping responses were also assessed. Analysis of results for systolic blood pressure confirmed the major predictions. High MGRS men showed greater systolic blood pressure reactivity than low MGRS men under high challenge and equal or less reactivity under low masculine performance challenge. In general, the high and low MGRS groups did not differ in their use of coping strategies as a function of the high and low challenge condition. The implications of MGRS appraisal for men's health are discussed.

Master of Science

Impact evaluations in development interventions has been growing in recent years. The increasing demand for evidence-based outcomes has led to a debate of what methodology is best to evaluate the impact of development interventions. Accordingly, Randomised Controlled Trial (RCT) has been labeled as a gold standard for impact evaluations. The RCT method functions in a unique way, as it removes the selection bias and ensure high validity of a study. The aim of this research study is to critically assess the RCT as an alternative approach for impact assessment in relation to post-conflict countries; whether this claim holds in a conflict-affected environment or that the context-specific factors of post-conflict countries challenge the implementation of an RCT. This study implements mixed method approach by using simple descriptive statistics and semi-structured interview to answer the research questions. The findings of this study indicate that context-specific factors of post-conflict environments pose challenges on the implementation of an RCT.  As a result, these challenges threaten the quality of the RCT method which lies in reliability, internal validity and external validity. The findings also indicate that feasibility of RCT which lies in ethics, logistics and security, cannot be addressed individually, as the feasibility has a direct impact on the quality of the RCT method.

This thesis addresses whether children with severe behavioural problems lack emotional competence in key areas and, if so, whether this is reflected in their ability to appraise emotions in others. Self-rated and objectively rated emotional competence of children in mainstream schooling was compared with 20 children aged seven to 11 excluded for severe social, emotional and behavioural difficulties. In Study 1 self-report questionnaires measured affect perception, empathy and expressivity in typically developing (N=203), special educational needs (N=36) and socially, emotionally and behaviourally disordered (N=30) children in mainstream schooling. Younger children were less perceptive of affect than older children and scored lower for cognitive empathy. Boys scored lower in cognitive and affective empathy than girls and were less intimate, and more covert, in their expression of emotion. Special educational needs children appeared less emotionally perceptive than their peers. In Studies 2a and 2b, affect appraisal and the ability to describe emotional change were examined using a new measure employing pictorial representations of children in ambiguous postures and facial representations of emotion. Typical patterns of appraisal of possibly threatening, depressive and innocuous postures were established (N=242). A developmental progression in reasons given for emotional change was seen with older children providing more socially based and mentalising answers than younger children. Study 3 developed an interactive computerised measure to examine the point at which children recognise the emergence of emotion from an interpolation of photographic facial expressions. Eighty-five typically developing children manipulated 26 emotional changes, including emotion/emotion and emotion/neutral transitions and chose a point of uncertainty in the transformation. A significant effect was found for facial representations of fear and anger, indicating a threat detection mechanism in response to emergent emotion. In Study 4 children with severe behavioural problems were compared across all measures with typically developing children from the first three studies. Behaviourally challenged children were deficient in cognitive and affective empathy and exhibited a hostile appraisal bias when assessing ambiguous postures of other children. No deficit was found in the ability to evaluate emotional change and provide age-appropriate reasons. However, anger was dominant in the perception even over fear stimuli when assessing emotional transition. Overall, children excluded from mainstream schooling with severe behavioural problems showed a very different profile to mainstream children with behavioural problems, suggesting a qualitative difference in cognitive functioning that could have a predictive function. This thesis not only supports the premise that severe SEBD children exhibit altered emotional functioning but has developed a series of tests that will have ongoing value in applied research.

Thesis (PhD)--Stellenbosch University, 2015.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The history and evolution of nursing ethics situate caring as a central value of nursing. Since ancient times, codes of conduct, developed by societies, have protected the vulnerable. The value system of nursing in South Africa and Namibia is derived from Christian missionaries who hailed from England and Europe. Florence Nightingale is recognised as the founder of modern nursing and established a firm ethical foundation for nursing. Nursing ethics education has various aims, i.e. promotion of ethical insight of nurses and protection of patients. Ethics education is confronted daily with many challenges with continuous efforts to address these challenges through innovations. Throughout its history, the nursing profession has responded to moral challenges by developing ethical codes with guiding principles for nursing practice. An ethic of care gained ground as an important approach in nursing practice. The values and obligations proclaimed in the codes of ethics of some countries and the International Council of Nurses reveal shared values and beliefs in nursing. These codes of ethics describe the obligation of nurses towards patients, the nursing profession, society, co-workers and themselves as individual nurses. Nurses ought to develop certain required character traits. Aristotle’s ideas on intellectual virtues and practical wisdom specifically may provide nursing ethics educators with a viable approach in the teaching-learning of nursing ethics. The status of nursing ethics education in South Africa and Namibia revealed variability in most aspects of undergraduate nursing ethics education in institutions of higher education. This lack of standardisation complicates assessment of the quality of nursing ethics education. Nursing ethics educators in South Africa and Namibia identified challenges regarding the teaching-learning environment, practising nurses, students and educators as well as challenges related to the regulatory authorities and political and legislative framework. Suggestions to address these challenges were also offered by the nursing ethics educators. The effective internalisation of nursing values requires the efforts of nursing educators, students, practising nurses as well as stakeholders beyond institutions of higher learning. A critical assessment of nursing ethics education in South Africa and Namibia highlighted certain deficiencies in relation to regulatory and managerial aspects in nursing education and various issues related to nursing education generally and nursing ethics education specifically. Improving nursing ethics education needs nursing ethics educator specialisation, standardisation of ethics education and innovative teaching-learning strategies, including the inculcation of practical wisdom in nursing students. Health care facilities need upgrading, and practising nurses and educators must support nursing students effectively. Managerial and regulatory aspects need improvement. The challenges identified in this study can be resolved by improved collaboration amongst institutions of higher learning, nursing councils and service providers. Nursing ethics educators remain hopeful that nursing ethics education has the potential to be significantly improved both in South Africa and Namibia.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die geskiedenis en ontwikkeling van verpleegetiek dui op versorging as die kernwaarde van verpleegkunde. Sedert die vroegste tye sien die gedragskodes wat deur samelewings ontwikkel word, na kwesbare lede van die gemeenskap om. Die waardestelsel van verpleegkunde in Suid-Afrika en Namibië kan teruggevoer word tot die Christen-sendelinge wat uit Engeland en Europa gekom het. Florence Nightingale word as die stigter van moderne verpleegkunde beskou en het ’n stewige etiese grondslag vir verpleegkunde gelê. Verpleegetiek onderrig het verskeie doelwitte, waaronder bevordering van die etiese insigte van verpleegkundigies en beskerming van pasiënte. Etiek onderrrig word daagliks gekonfronteer deur menige uitdagings met volgehoue pogings om hierdie uitdagings deur innovering aan te spreek. Oor die geskiedenis heen het die verpleegberoep op morele uitdagings gereageer deur etiekkodes met rigsnoere vir die verpleegpraktyk op te stel. Mettertyd het die etiek van versorging veld gewen as ’n belangrike benadering tot verpleegpraktyk. Die waardes en verpligtinge wat in die etiekkodes van sommige lande sowel as dié van die Internasionale Raad vir Verpleegkundiges vervat is, toon bepaalde gemeenskaplike beginsels en oortuigings. Hierdie etiekkodes beskryf verpleegkundiges se plig jeens pasiënte, die verpleegberoep, die samelewing, hul medewerkers én hulself as individuele verpleërs. Verpleegkundiges behoort sekere vereiste karaktereienskappe te ontwikkel. Veral Aristoteles se gedagtes oor intellektuele deugde en praktiese insig kan verpleegetiekopvoeders van ’n lewensvatbare benadering tot onderrig en leer op hul vakgebied voorsien. Tog bied hoëronderwysinstellings in Suid-Afrika en Namibië oënskynlik wisselende mates van voorgraadse verpleegetiekonderrig. Hierdie gebrek aan standaardisering maak dit moeilik om die werklike gehalte van verpleegetiekonderrig te bepaal. Die verpleegetiekopvoeders in Suid- Afrika en Namibië wat vir hierdie studie geraadpleeg is, maak melding van uitdagings met betrekking tot die onderrig- en leeromgewing, verpleegpraktisyns, studente en opvoeders, die reguleringsowerhede sowel as politieke en regskwessies. Die opvoeders het ook voorstelle gemaak oor hoe hierdie uitdagings hanteer kan word. Die doeltreffende internalisering van verpleegwaardes vereis toewyding van verpleegopvoeders, -studente en -praktisyns sowel as belanghebbendes buite hoëronderwysinstellings. ’n Kritiese beoordeling van verpleegetiekonderrig in Suid-Afrika en Namibië dui op bepaalde tekorte wat regulerings- en bestuursaspekte van verpleegonderrig betref, en ook verskeie uitdagings met betrekking tot verpleegonderrig oor die algemeen en verpleegetiekonderrig in die besonder. Die verbetering van verpleegetiekonderrig vereis spesialisering deur verpleegetiekopvoeders, die standaardisering van etiekonderrig, en innoverende onderrig- en leerstrategieë, onder meer die inskerping van praktiese insig by verpleegstudente. Gesondheidsorgfasiliteite moet opgeknap word en verpleegpraktisyns en -opvoeders moet verpleegstudente doeltreffend ondersteun. Ook bestuurs- en reguleringsaspekte moet verbeter word. Die uitdagings wat in hierdie studie na vore kom, kan die hoof gebied word deur beter samewerking tussen hoëronderwysinstellings, verpleegrade en diensverskaffers. Intussen bly verpleegetiekopvoeders vol hoop dat verpleegetiekonderrig in Suid-Afrika en Namibië verbeter kan word.

Tese de Doutoramento apresentada ao ISPA - Instituto Universitário
Esta tese procura clarificar os processos subjacentes às discrepâncias entre a direcção da resposta de androgénios à competição encontrada em estudos empíricos e as predicções das teorias para a modulação social de androgénios. Sugerimos que estes resultados imprevistos podem resultar de interacções com variáveis cognitivas e elegemos especificamente a avaliação cognitiva como um forte candidato a moderador da resposta de testosterona (T) aos desafios sociais. Várias experiências foram realizadas para testar esta hipótese. No Capítulo II e III, testou-se o efeito da familiaridade do oponente e da avaliação do resultado da competição como ameaça/desafio, na resposta de T a uma competição contra um membro do mesmo sexo. Nas mulheres foi encontrado um maior aumento dos níveis de T quando eram derrotadas por um oponente não familiar e quando o resultado era avaliado como ameaçador. Este efeito de moderação não foi detectado para os homens. Continuou-se a investigação sobre os efeitos da familiaridade do oponente e avaliação de ameaça no Capítulo IV, mas com um ciclídeo. Num paradigma de repetidas invasões territoriais por machos estranhos e familiares, encontrou-se uma maior resposta de androgénios no macho residente para as intrusões realizadas por um estranho, comparada com as de um macho familiar. O efeito do componente de expectativas da avaliação cognitiva, na resposta de T à competição em mulheres, foi testado através da manipulação das expectativas dos participantes em relação ao resultado da competição antes da tarefa competitiva (Capítulo V). Os vencedores inesperados baixaram os níveis de T depois da competição, mostrando uma inversão da resposta predicta pelos modelos teóricos. No Capítulo VI, testou-se o efeito directo das alterações afectivas nos níveis de T usando excertos de filmes emocionais. Um decréscimo significativo de T foi observado nos participantes da condição de tristeza, numa direcção congruente com as predicções da literatura. Finalmente, no Capítulo VII, abordou-se a função adaptiva das mudanças de androgénios induzidas pela competição proposta pelos modelos teóricos. Especificamente, testou-se o efeito do resultado da competição e dos níveis pós-competitivos de T na capacidade do individuo detectar faces emocionais ameaçadoras. Os nossos resultados sugerem que os vencedores foram mais rápidos e melhores a discriminar faces de raiva do que os perdedores. A discriminação de raiva foi também melhorada quando os níveis de T pós-competição eram elevados. No geral, estes resultados apoiam a hipótese de uma moderação cognitiva da resposta de T em mulheres. As implicações destes resultados para as teorias de modulação social de andrógenios são discutidas numa perspectiva comparada e integrativa.
ABSTRACT : This thesis aims to clarify the processes underlying the discrepancies between the direction of the androgen response to competition found in empirical studies and predictions of the theories for the social modulation of androgens. We suggest that these unpredicted results could result from interactions with cognitive variables and specifically select appraisal as a strong candidate to moderate the testosterone (T) response to social challenges. Several experiments were conducted to test this hypothesis. On Chapter II and III, we have tested the effect of opponent familiarity and the evaluation of the competition outcome as a threat/challenge on the T response to a competition with a member of the same sex. We have found that women show greater increases in T levels when they were defeated by an unfamiliar opponent and evaluated the outcome as threat. This moderation effect was not detected for men. We have continued the research on the effects of opponent familiarity and threat assessment on Chapter IV, but this time using a cichlid fish. In a paradigm of repeated territorial intrusions by stranger and familiar males, the resident male’s androgen response was higher for the intrusions performed by a stranger compared to those performed by a familiar male. The effect of the expectations component of appraisal on the T response to competition in women was tested by manipulating the expectations of the participants on the outcome of the competition before the competitive task (Chapter V). We have found that the unexpected winners decreased their T levels, showing a reversal of response predicted by the theoretical models. On Chapter VI, we have tested the direct effect of affective changes on T levels using emotional film clips. T significantly decreased for those participants assigned to the sadness condition, a direction that is congruent with predictions of the literature. Finally, on Chapter VII, we have addressed the adaptive function of the androgen changes elicited by the competition, as proposed by the theoretical models. Specifically, we have tested the effect of the competition outcome and post-competition T levels on the individual’s capacity to detect threatening emotional faces. Our findings suggest that winners were faster and better in discriminating angry faces than losers. Anger discrimination was also enhanced when post-competition T levels were high. Together these findings support the hypothesis of a cognitive moderation of the T response to competition in women. Results are discussed in terms of their implication to the theories for the social modulation of androgens in a comparative and integrative perspective.

As more and more local governments begin to understand that the great promises of e-service delivery are harder than expected to realize, efficient use of ICT-resources have become increasingly important. Since simply providing more e-services is not the solution, the need to understand what constitutes a suitable e-service has arisen. Public services reach beyond the market domain; therefore, the complexities of public value must be dealt with when services are appraised. Furthermore, due to the heterogeneous nature of local government services it is impossible to evaluate all the options in depth; thus, there is a clear need for early-stage appraisal. However, existing methods of appraisal are burdened by intricacy, and associated with high costs. In response, this paper presents a model capable of reducing this intricacy. The model was developed through a participatory design process involving members on both operational and strategic level in the municipality of Skellefteå. The model implements state of the art into the workspace context while taking measures to reduce intricacy such as: incremental filtering, moving high intricacy elements to the end of the process, and exploitation of available data. As a result the organization is enabled to capture not only the low hanging fruit, but also the long tail of services. Furthermore, the improved understanding of e-service delivery has the potential to open up opportunities for new ways of business development and private-public partnerships. Finally, whereas the model presented is highly context-dependent, the implications outlined in this paper are not limited to this narrow scope.

Models for Strategic Business Development in Public Service

To be a fat woman is to experience a prolonged, personal battle with the body. The battle is enacted in a social context which is the site of remarkable consensus about the personal culpability of fat people for their bodily largeness; for women in particular the sanctions are especially powerful. In this research nine large women have engaged in a prolonged dialogue about the experience of being 'obese'. In the course of a feminist research endeavour, with a researcher who is similarly positioned, they have both contributed to and gained from a project which illuminates the experience of largeness alongside a critical examination of the discourses which shape body size.This dissertation critiques a dominant medical discourse which ignores conflicting research and supports a narrow view of health by simplistically linking increased body weight with poor health outcomes. Such is the hegemonic power of medicine that an examination of both nursing and popular literature in the area of study, reveals wide-spread acceptance of the notion that to be thin is to be healthy and virtuous, and to be fat is to be unhealthy and morally deficient. For nursing, the unquestioning obedience to medical teaching, raises serious questions about nursing's autonomy and separateness from medicine. Nurses have perpetuated an unhelpful and reductionist approach to their care of large women, in direct contradiction to nursing's supposed allegiance to a holistic approach to health care. Current strictures on women's body size and continued support for reduction dieting leave large women with the choice between two binary opposites; to diet or not to diet. Either choice has consequences which are traumatic and not health promoting. The experience of largeness emerges as a socially constructed disability in which many women are denied the opportunity to be fully healthy.

Elfving M, Ristimäki S, 2011. Environmental Education in Rural Development, A Case Study in Mecubúri District, Mozambique, Master’s Thesis in Peace and Development Work, Linnaeus University, Växjö, Sweden This masters’ thesis is a result of research conducted during three weeks in Mecubúri District, located in northern Mozambique. The study aims to explore environmental challenges and the environmental education in Mecubúri area. It strives to understand how rural farmers are able to use environmental education as a measure to act upon the environmental challenges in the area as well as to strengthen their livelihood assets. The target group of the study is the people living in Mecubúri. A basic understanding of environmental education and the socio-economic situation in Mecubúri was achieved by a systematic collection of empirical data through the use of a methodological approach called Participatory Rural Appraisal. Ethnographic methods such as participatory observation and semi-structured interviews built the base for the qualitative primary data collection and the secondary data was collected through literature reviews. The holistic and human centred theoretical framework Sustainable Livelihood Approach (SLA) laid the analytical base of the study. The most prominent environmental concerns identified by the inhabitants were agricultural issues, uncontrolled bushfires, changes in rainfall and the increased prevalence of strong winds and cyclones as well as sanitation and hygiene. Education was transmitted through both formal and informal communication channels, whereby conservation farming, education related to sanitation and hygiene as well as various educational channels were identified as the most important factors for the rural people in Mecubúri. As a concluding remark, it is argued that the society has a strong social capital which is effectively being used in environmental education. In contrast, an increased effort from the governmental level is advocated whereby a focus on conservation farming is recommended.

Dissertação de Mestrado Integrado em Psicologia apresentada à Faculdade de Psicologia e de Ciências da Educação
Embora diversos estudos tenham demonstrado o efeito positivo da aceitação no bem-estar e na ansiedade aos testes, a relação entre aceitação e as mensagens indutoras de medo (usadas pelos professores acerca da importância ou proximidade de um exame/teste), e o seu impacto na ansiedade aos testes, nunca foi estudado. Ademais, poucos estudos abordaram o impacto das mensagens indutoras de medo, e o modo como estas são interpretadas (como desafio ou ameaça) como possíveis preditores de ansiedade aos testes; sendo que, os estudos que o fizeram, apresentavam uma abordagem mais educacional, enquanto que o presente estudo apresentava uma abordagem clínica. Uma vez que não existiam estudos que correlacionassem todas estas variáveis, esse foi o objetivo do presente estudo, explorando, particularmente, as implicações das diferentes relações estabelecidas para o desenvolvimento e manutenção da ansiedade aos testes. Este estudo longitudinal compreendeu medidas recolhidas em dois tempos, separados por um mês e meio. A amostra era constituída por estudantes do 9.º ao 12.º ano (N = 458; Midade = 15.46; DP = 1.22). Correlações parciais revelaram associações positivas e significativas entre interpretações de ameaça e ansiedade aos testes, associando-se estas significativamente e negativamente com o bem-estar subjetivo e a aceitação (que se correlacionaram positivamente entre si). A frequência das mensagens indutoras de medo associou-se significativamente apenas com as interpretações de ameaça, enquanto que as interpretações de desafio se associaram apenas significativamente com o bem-estar subjetivo. Regressões lineares múltiplas permitiram concluir que a aceitação, as interpretações de ameaça, o bem-estar subjetivo e o género eram preditores significativos de ansiedade aos testes. Um modelo de mediação moderada foi estimado com o PROCESS, revelando que as interpretações de ameaça estavam direta e indiretamente associadas, através da falta de aceitação, com a ansiedade aos testes. Contudo, as análises de moderação revelaram que o bem-estar subjetivo não era moderador de nenhuma das relações do modelo. Em conclusão, os nossos resultados demonstram a importância das interpretações de ameaça e da falta de aceitação para a compreensão da ansiedade aos testes. Outros resultados são discutidos, tal como as contribuições do presente estudo e possíveis implicações clínicas.
Although several studies have provided evidence of the positive effects of acceptance on well-being and on test anxiety, the relationship between acceptance and fear appeals (fear-induced messages used by teachers about the importance or proximity of a test/exam) and its impact on test anxiety, have never been subject of research. Furthermore, few studies have focused on fear appeals, and how they are appraised (as a challenge or a threat), as possible predictors of test anxiety; and the studies that did, usually had a more educational approach, whereas our study had a more clinical approach. Since no prior studies addressed all these variables together, this was the general aim of the present study, as was to investigate the impact of these relationships in the development and maintenance of test anxiety. The exploratory longitudinal study used measures in two time points, one month and a half from each other. The sample was constituted by students from 9th to the 12th grade (N = 458; Mage = 15.46; SD = 1.22) from four high schools in Portugal. Partial correlations (controlling for gender) revealed that threat appraisals and test anxiety were positively and significantly associated with each other, while negatively and significantly associated with acceptance and subjective well-being. Multiple linear regressions allowed to conclude that acceptance, threat appraisals, subjective well-being and gender were significant predictors of test anxiety. A moderated mediation model, estimated using PROCESS, revealed that threat appraisals were directly and indirectly associated, through lack of acceptance, to test anxiety. However, moderator analyses revealed that subjective well-being was not a moderator of the relationships between threat appraisals and acceptance, threat appraisals and test anxiety, and acceptance and test anxiety. In conclusion, results show the importance of threat appraisals and lack of acceptance in understanding test anxiety. Other results are discussed, as well as contributions of the present study and possible clinical implications.

Three experiments integrated insights from achievement goal theory, social identity threat, and stress and coping research, to develop a theory-based strategy individuals can use to navigate social identity threat in high stakes achievement settings. In all experiments women were asked to adopt a mastery goal (focus on learning and building skills) or a performance goal (perform well; avoid errors) before a mock job interview. In Experiment 1, women expected their interviewer to be either sexist (creating identity threatening situation) or not sexist (a non-threatening situation). Women who focused on mastery rather than performance goals felt more challenged and less threatened while anticipating a job interview in an identity threatening situation; goals did not affect their appraisals of a non-threatening interview. Moreover, women who focused on mastery rather than performance intended to be more assertive (Experiment 2) and ultimately performed better in the interview (Experiment 3). Mediational analyses showed that a focus on mastery led women to appraise the identity threatening situation as a challenge they could overcome rather than a threat they were helpless to combat; challenge, in turn, enhanced performance.

abstract: Employees are directly involved in work tasks and processes which are necessary to accomplish unit or organizational goals, and accordingly, they may become aware of key mistakes, slips, and failures that are unbeknownst to the leader or supervisor responsible for the work unit or organization. Given that errors or deviations in work tasks or processes can have far-reaching effects within the organization, it may be essential for employees to share bad news with their leader or supervisor so that steps can be taken to address the issue or ameliorate negative consequences. However, although employees' sharing of bad news may be important to the organization and should be encouraged, supervisors may respond to the messenger in ways that discourage the behavior. Unfortunately, we lack an explanation of why and under what conditions supervisors respond positively or negatively to employees who share bad news. Thus, the purpose of this dissertation is to address this gap in our understanding. I draw from social exchange theory and the transactional theory of stress to develop a conceptual model of sharing bad news. I suggest that sharing bad news can be cast as a transaction between employees and supervisors that is mediated by supervisors’ appraisals of employees’ sharing the message. The quality of the relationship between an employee and supervisor, or leader-member exchange (LMX), is strengthened when supervisors appraise the sharing of bad news as challenging, or potentially rewarding; however, LMX is weakened when supervisors appraise the sharing of bad news as hindering, or potential harmful. In turn, LMX influences supervisor responses to the sharing of bad news in the form of evaluations of the employee’s effectiveness. In addition to these main effects, I also consider how aspects of the message delivery, such as the timeliness with which messages are conveyed and extent to which employees incorporate solutions when they share bad news, can influence supervisor appraisals of sharing bad news. Finally, I suggest that the extent to which the messenger is responsible for the bad news moderates the relationships between appraisals of sharing bad news and LMX. I test this model in three studies.
Dissertation/Thesis
Doctoral Dissertation Business Administration 2017

碩士
國立交通大學
多媒體工程研究所
100
How to define the difficulty of a problem? In the past, many scholars have invented a lot of ways to do it, mainly on how to solve the problem more effectively, and then according to the complexity of the method, to provide a way of assessing the degree of difficulty. However, different problems require different problem-solving skills. Therefore, it will affect the complexity of solving problems a lot. Moreover, not every computer problem-solving approach is suitable for human, in other words, it is not necessary for the average person using these skills to solve the problem. Therefore, this study attempts to think about a person in the problem solving process so as to define the difficulty of the problem from human perspective. Klein pointed out that ordinary people use common heuristic method to solve problems, such as means-end analysis and trial-and-error. For such concept, we design a Sudoku AI program to quantify the complexity of AI program. Then, we compare the actual rate of human solving time to find the formula that represents the difficulty of Sudoku. In the process of solving Sudoku, we find that branch of uncertain nodes in search tree and the times of guessing and backtracking have an impact on the difficulty of Sudoku.

DEd (Educational Management)
Department of Educational Management
The study examined challenges in the implementation of performance appraisal on educators in Shiluvana Circuit in Mopani District, Limpopo Province. The study focused on 5 principals, 5 deputy principals, 18 teachers, 1 IQMS circuit coordinator and 1 IQMS District coordinator who were selected purposively, as they were directly involved in teacher appraisal. The study is qualitative which used interpretive paradigm research and case study research design. Qualitative data was generated through face–to-face interviews, with the 5 principals, 5 deputy principals, 1 IQMS circuit coordinator and 1 IQMS district coordinator, focus group interviews with 18 teachers and documentary analysis. Thematic analysis was employed to analyse narrative data for the study. It was established that principals, deputy principals, teachers, IQMS circuit coordinator and IQMS district coordinator experienced challenges with teacher appraisal, challenges like inadequate commitment by teachers, inadequate trained principals, inadequate monitoring, lack of interest and backlog in teachers’ remuneration. The study recommends that principals, deputy principals and teachers be trained thoroughly for the effective implementation of the programme at schools, an expect official in IQMS to be permanently employed at circuit office for the successful implementation of the programme. Finally, informed by the conceptual framework of the study, it is recommended that the Accountability and Professional Development models for teacher appraisal be implemented in the circuit in order for all stakeholders to understand and effectively play their roles on teacher appraisal. To improve the current situation, cyclical stakeholders teacher appraisal model is suggested which suggests that IQMS structures to be set at national, provincial, district, circuit and school levels as substantive offices. IQMS structures to be trained by circuit on IQMS policy and implementation strategies using cascading approach.
NRF

A thesis submitted in fulfillment for the requirements of the degree of Doctor of phisophy in the Faculty of Arts, in the Department of IsiZulu naMagugu at the University of Zululand, South Africa, 2005.
This study will be focusing on visual and performance artists. It is the plight of artists that they work hard in their artistic disciplines, but do not benefit to the equivalence of their efforts. There are many reasons for this. Crafters are dependent on a sound tourists industry. The study will be looking at some of the reasons and concems then try to provide what could be some answers and solutions. Art is generally thought of as the development of performance skills and or craft manufacturing within a small minority of youth or community performers, usually selected on the basis of talent and motivation. The research leading to this study has been to a large extent, motivated by the need for a more comprehensive and holistic concept This will lend itselfto a fuller exploitation and will have potential for assisting larger numbers of artists to achieve a wide range of educational outcomes in art administration, instrument manufacturing, actual artistic performance and craft production. A large number of arts practitioners internationally feel that understanding a country occurs through its arts and culture. The arts of any country is actually the mirror of the country. This study will look at the arts of South Africa and the impact it has on the proudly SouthAfricans and the tourism industry at large.This study will have two primary purposes: a. to make justification for artists (visual and performance) and, b: to suggest ways in which artists can more prominently and profitably feature in the tourism industry and their sustainability as artists and proud members of South African communities. It is important to note that South African artists exist in highly diverse communities which are influenced by many factors such as: • heritage • cultural fabric • ethnic identity • experiences • different beliefs and convictions

The purpose of this study was to appraise the meaning and challenges of the principal’s school governance role in the Gert Sibande Region of the Mpumalanga Province. This was premised on the inherent challenges of the principal’s role as prescribed in the South African Schools Act, which locates the principal in the school governing body (SGB) as a member who promotes the best interests of the school; as well as an ex officio member who represents and promotes the interests of the employer – the Department of Education. It was found, through the literature review, that the challenges of the principal’s school governance role were largely symptoms of different emphases on the various functions of the SGB as listed in the South African Schools Act. As such, the concept of school governance was contextualised into an understanding of the essence of the school governance mandate as concerned with three main roles of the SGB, namely, providing the school with a strategic direction, the SGB being critical friend to the school and holding the school to account. Through qualitative interviews of purposely selected school principals, educator-governors and parent-governors, it was found that the principal’s role was influenced by, among others, challenges pertaining to the principals’ ex officio role, parent governors’ low education level, parent governors perceptions about being in the SGB, the perceptions about the principals’ role in the SGB by other members and miscellaneous challenges pertaining to perceptions and structural factors about the school governance role. This was found to be a result of the listed nature of the Schools Act’s governance roles and responsibilities and pointed to the need for giving context to them through an approach that focuses on the meaning and implications of the school governance mandate. For that reason, this study proposes a Three-step Approach to school governance. The Three step-Approach to school governance takes the school governance mandate as a point of departure and models the school governance process from the intention to establish SGBs through elections of a new and incoming SGB while the outgoing SGB is in the final stages of its term of office; to training of SGB members over stages that focus on the relevant content and components of school governors; and culminates into the start of the process of functioning of the incoming SGB. The emphasis of this approach is on fostering a clear understanding of the school governance mandate; how it contextualises the listed functions in the Schools Act; and the need for the SGB to start functioning with members already trained and in full understanding of their roles as they relate to the school governance mandate of promoting the best interests of the schools through the provision of quality education for all learners at the school.
PhD (Education Management)--North-West University, Vaal Triangle Campus, 2015.

The writer's doctoral thesis has placed its emphasis on a critical appraisal of the activities encountered by multinational corporations during the last ten years of the pre-WTO phase of China. The cental argument running through all five studies is that investment in China is complex but comprehensive. Although China shows unique features, the general problems of planning and executing investment are similar to those found in any case of a firm moving across international boundaries. The individual studies complement each other, moving from the way in which Chinese government policy frames the operating environment, to the modes of analysis required of firms considering investing in China, to the more specific issues encountered by foreign firms in China, to the special problems facing Hong Kong, and finally a more abstract re-formulation of the issues of foreign investment in the Chinese context. These general arguments are well substantiated in these studies, and they serve as a useful counter to the more simplistic and enthusiastic treatments on the one hand, and the excessively pessimistic evaluations on the other. Naturally, the world did not stop just after China entered into the WTO. As it moves forward, new competitive elements have emerged and as more variables develop in response to the evolving environment the writer will be shifting his attention to the post-WTO phase of China's economic development- a challenge which could be as interesting and intriguing to pundits, entrepreneurs, governments and indeed to all players involved.
Doctor of Business Administration

The Public Participation Process (PPP) for Environmental Assessment (EA) is a mandatory procedure to facilitate participation of Interested and Affected Parties (IAAPs) in decision making for proposed development projects. Participation of the vulnerable IAAPs in the PPP is affected by complex challenges. These challenges make it difficult or impossible for Environmental Assessment Practitioners (EAPs) to successfully conduct and complete PPPs. This study investigated the nature and impact of the challenges in the decision making process. The study sought to develop an understanding of the challenges and suggest better approaches. Based on purposive sampling, a case study approach was adopted to analyse five PPP cases conducted in rural KwaZulu-Natal. Five key challenges: lack of EA legislation awareness; imbalanced power relations; negative past experience; threat to environmental autonomy; and poor project planning affected the PPP cases analysed in this study. These challenges emanate from internal and environmental factors. The study argues that internal challenges such as a lack of EA legislation awareness can be managed better during the PPPs. However, external challenges such as imbalanced power relations are usually impossible to resolve during the PPP. The modes of communication play a key role in public participation. Word of mouth is appropriate to facilitate participation of the vulnerable IAAPs. A key finding was the combined impact of the challenges and appropriateness of communication mode determines the PPP outcome, with the challenges being significant determining factor. The study maintains that a good understanding of potential challenges associated with development project sites will enable EAPs to design better and more responsive PPP approaches. To achieve this, the study recommends a Dual Approach Planning Model (DAPM). This approach recommends designing the PPP through preplanning information appraisal and prediction of potential challenges to create awareness about potential challenges. The DAPM argues that this awareness will assist EAPs to better estimate the time and to mobilise tools and resources required to manage the challenges, while focusing on successful completion of the PPP. This approach is also adaptive in nature.
Thesis (M.Env.Dev.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2008.