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Journal articles on the topic 'Charge detector'

Author: Grafiati

Published: 4 June 2021

Last updated: 1 February 2022

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1

Koch-Mehrin, Kjell A. L., Sarah L. Bugby, John E. Lees, Matthew C. Veale, and Matthew D. Wilson. "Charge Sharing and Charge Loss in High-Flux Capable Pixelated CdZnTe Detectors." Sensors 21, no. 9 (May 8, 2021): 3260. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s21093260.

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Cadmium zinc telluride (CdZnTe) detectors are known to suffer from polarization effects under high photon flux due to poor hole transport in the crystal material. This has led to the development of a high-flux capable CdZnTe material (HF-CdZnTe). Detectors with the HF-CdZnTe material have shown promising results at mitigating the onset of the polarization phenomenon, likely linked to improved crystal quality and hole carrier transport. Better hole transport will have an impact on charge collection, particularly in pixelated detector designs and thick sensors (>1 mm). In this paper, the presence of charge sharing and the magnitude of charge loss were calculated for a 2 mm thick pixelated HF-CdZnTe detector with 250 μm pixel pitch and 25 μm pixel gaps, bonded to the STFC HEXITEC ASIC. Results are compared with a CdTe detector as a reference point and supported with simulations from a Monte-Carlo detector model. Charge sharing events showed minimal charge loss in the HF-CdZnTe, resulting in a spectral resolution of 1.63 ± 0.08 keV Full Width at Half Maximum (FWHM) for bipixel charge sharing events at 59.5 keV. Depth of interaction effects were shown to influence charge loss in shared events. The performance is discussed in relation to the improved hole transport of HF-CdZnTe and comparison with simulated results provided evidence of a uniform electric field.

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2

Lacy, W. B., K. L. Rowlen, and J. M. Harris. "Quantitative Investigation of Charge-Trapping Effects on Raman Spectra Acquired Using Charge-Coupled-Device (CCD) Detectors." Applied Spectroscopy 45, no. 10 (December 1991): 1598–603. http://dx.doi.org/10.1366/0003702914335373.

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Changes in spectral band parameters (width, center frequency, intensity) which arise from charge-trapping artifacts in the Thomson TH 7882 charge-coupled-device (CCD) detector are reported. These parameters are measured for a Raman scattering band of carbon tetrachloride with respect to CCD geometry (parallel vs. serial binning), in the presence and absence of preflash, vs. changes in integration time (variation in detected light level). The dependence of the spectral parameters on detector temperature was also measured. The degree of charge trapping and the charge transfer efficiency were estimated from the change in peak width and intensity vs. integration time, respectively, and were found to vary with detector temperature according to an Arrhenius relationship for the serial-binning geometry; from these results, the energy barriers to charge trapping and loss in the serial register were estimated. Practical guidelines for acquisition of binned spectra with this detector are suggested.

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3

Wagenaar, D. J., F. A. DiBianca, C. R. Tenney, and D. Fritsch. "Space charge effects in a kinestatic charge detector." Physics in Medicine and Biology 36, no. 1 (January 1, 1991): 61–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/0031-9155/36/1/006.

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4

Liu, Alan, Brian Woo, and Robert W. Odom. "Ultrafast charge division imaging detector." Review of Scientific Instruments 71, no. 11 (2000): 4144. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1310339.

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5

Jaworek, A., and A. Krupa. "Charge detector for airbone particles." Journal of Electrostatics 25, no. 2 (October 1990): 185–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0304-3886(90)90026-r.

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6

Wagenaar, Douglas J., and Robert A. Terwilliger. "Effects of induced charge in the kinestatic charge detector." Medical Physics 22, no. 5 (May 1995): 627–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1118/1.597575.

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7

McCarthy, J. J., M. W. Ales, and D. J. McMillan. "High Purity Germanium Detectors for EDS." Proceedings, annual meeting, Electron Microscopy Society of America 48, no. 2 (August 12, 1990): 90–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0424820100134041.

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High purity germanium (HPGe) detectors offer multiple advantages for x-ray microanalysis in electron microscopes. These advantages include improved detection efficiency at energies above 20 keV, lower noise and higher energy resolution than can be obtained with a lithium drifted silicon detector. In the past, the use of HPGe detectors for EDS at energies below about 2 keV was impossible due to severe distortions of peak shapes and shifts in peak positions. These effects are the result of incomplete charge collection and are most pronounced at energies just above the energy of the germanium L absorption edges (1.2 to 1.4 keV). Using new processing techniques, we have manufactured 30 mm2 HPGe detectors that do not exhibit significant spectral distortion due to incomplete charge collection. Figure 1 presents a comparison of the peak shapes obtained from an HPGe detector produced by a previous method and a new detector produced with our current process. These detectors have been used for EDS applications in (S)TEM and SEM.

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8

Bilhorn, R. B., J. V. Sweedler, P. M. Epperson, and M. B. Denton. "Charge Transfer Device Detectors for Analytical Optical Spectroscopy—Operation and Characteristics." Applied Spectroscopy 41, no. 7 (September 1987): 1114–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1366/0003702874447680.

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This article is the first in a two-part series describing the operation, characteristics, and application of a new class of solid-state multichannel UV-visible detectors. In this paper, charge transfer devices (CTDs) are described. Detector characteristics pertinent to spectroscopic application—including quantum efficiency, read noise, dark count rate, and available formats—are emphasized. Unique capabilities, such as the ability to nondestructively read out the detector array and the ability to alter the effective detector element size by a process called binning, are described. CTDs with peak quantum efficiencies over 80% and significant responsivity over the wavelength range of 0.1 nm to 1100 nm are discussed. Exceptionally low dark count rates, which allow integration times of up to many hours and read noises more than two orders of magnitude lower than those read by commercially available PDA detectors, contribute to the outstanding performance offered by these detectors.

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9

Pham, Dinh Khang, Tien Hung Dinh, Kim Chien Dinh, Van Hiep Cao, Xuan Hai Nguyen, and Ngoc Anh Nguyen. "Designing and setting up the scintillationdetector using CsI(Tl) crystals and avalanche photodiode for gamma-ray measurement." Ministry of Science and Technology, Vietnam 63, no. 3 (March 30, 2021): 46–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.31276/vjst.63(3).46-49.

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Localization of the scintillation detectors manufacturing process has many benefits because of the high detection efficiency of the detectors, user-friendly, and consistent with general research objectives. Using a photodiode instead of a photomultiplier tube (PMT) allows saving energy, shortening the detector volume, and removing high voltage power supply and amplifier. The combination of CsI(Tl) scintillator, avalanche photodiode, charge sensitive preamplifier, wide range amplifier, and power supply system has been integrated into the detector. This study presents new results in manufacturing a home-made scintillation detector using avalanche photodiode. The detectors of this type can be used in hospitals, in the nuclear laboratory of universities for the students training, etc.

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10

Hedin, J., J. Gumbel, and M. Rapp. "On the efficiency of rocket-borne particle detection in the mesosphere." Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 7, no. 14 (July 16, 2007): 3701–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-7-3701-2007.

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Abstract. Meteoric smoke particles have been proposed as a key player in the formation and evolution of mesospheric phenomena. Despite their apparent importance still very little is known about these particles. Important questions concern the smoke number density and size distribution as a function of altitude as well as the fraction of charged particles. Sounding rockets are used to measure smoke in situ, but aerodynamics has remained a major challenge. Basically, the small smoke particles tend to follow the gas flow around the payload rather than reaching the detector if aerodynamics is not considered carefully in the detector design. So far only indirect evidence for the existence of meteoric smoke has been available from measurements of heavy charge carriers. Quantitative ways are needed that relate these measured particle population to the atmospheric particle population. This requires in particular knowledge about the size-dependent, altitude-dependent and charge-dependent detection efficiency for a given instrument. In this paper, we investigate the aerodynamics for a typical electrostatic detector design. We first quantify the flow field of the background gas, then introduce particles in the flow field and determine their trajectories around the payload structure. We use two different models to trace particles in the flow field, a Continuous motion model and a Brownian motion model. Brownian motion is shown to be of basic importance for the smallest particles. Detection efficiencies are determined for three detector designs, including two with ventilation holes to allow airflow through the detector. Results from this investigation show that rocket-borne smoke detection with conventional detectors is largely limited to altitudes above 75 km. The flow through a ventilated detector has to be relatively large in order to significantly improve the detection efficiency.

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11

Kohagura, J., T. Cho, M. Hirata, T. Okamura, T. Tamano, K. Yatsu, S. Miyoshi, K. Hirano, and H. Maezawa. "New methods for semiconductor charge-diffusion-length measurements using synchrotron radiation." Journal of Synchrotron Radiation 5, no. 3 (May 1, 1998): 874–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1107/s0909049597017524.

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The extension of a new theory on the X-ray energy response of semiconductor detectors is carried out to characterize the X-ray response of a multichannel semiconductor detector fabricated on one silicon wafer. Recently, these multichannel detectors have been widely utilized for position-sensitive observations in various research fields, including synchrotron radiation research and fusion-plasma investigations. This article represents the verification of the physics essentials of a proposed theory on the X-ray response of semiconductor detectors. The three-dimensional charge-diffusion effects on the adjoining detector-channel signals are experimentally demonstrated at the Photon Factory for two types of multichannel detectors. These findings are conveniently applicable for measuring diffusion lengths for industrial requirements.

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12

Jungmann-Smith, J. H., A. Bergamaschi, M. Brückner, S. Cartier, R. Dinapoli, D. Greiffenberg, T. Huthwelker, et al. "Towards hybrid pixel detectors for energy-dispersive or soft X-ray photon science." Journal of Synchrotron Radiation 23, no. 2 (February 10, 2016): 385–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1107/s1600577515023541.

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JUNGFRAU (adJUstiNg Gain detector FoR the Aramis User station) is a two-dimensional hybrid pixel detector for photon science applications at free-electron lasers and synchrotron light sources. The JUNGFRAU 0.4 prototype presented here is specifically geared towards low-noise performance and hence soft X-ray detection. The design, geometry and readout architecture of JUNGFRAU 0.4 correspond to those of other JUNGFRAU pixel detectors, which are charge-integrating detectors with 75 µm × 75 µm pixels. Main characteristics of JUNGFRAU 0.4 are its fixed gain and r.m.s. noise of as low as 27 e−electronic noise charge (<100 eV) with no active cooling. The 48 × 48 pixels JUNGFRAU 0.4 prototype can be combined with a charge-sharing suppression mask directly placed on the sensor, which keeps photons from hitting the charge-sharing regions of the pixels. The mask consists of a 150 µm tungsten sheet, in which 28 µm-diameter holes are laser-drilled. The mask is aligned with the pixels. The noise and gain characterization, and single-photon detection as low as 1.2 keV are shown. The performance of JUNGFRAU 0.4 without the mask and also in the charge-sharing suppression configuration (with the mask, with a `software mask' or a `cluster finding' algorithm) is tested, compared and evaluated, in particular with respect to the removal of the charge-sharing contribution in the spectra, the detection efficiency and the photon rate capability. Energy-dispersive and imaging experiments with fluorescence X-ray irradiation from an X-ray tube and a synchrotron light source are successfully demonstrated with an r.m.s. energy resolution of 20% (no mask) and 14% (with the mask) at 1.2 keV and of 5% at 13.3 keV. The performance evaluation of the JUNGFRAU 0.4 prototype suggests that this detection system could be the starting point for a future detector development effort for either applications in the soft X-ray energy regime or for an energy-dispersive detection system.

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13

Chatzakis, J., I. Rigakis, S. M. Hassan, E. L. Clark, and P. Lee. "Detection of pulsed neutrons with solid-state electronics." International Journal of Modern Physics: Conference Series 44 (January 2016): 1660229. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s2010194516602295.

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Measurements of the spatial and time-resolved characteristics of pulsed neutron sources require large area detection materials and fast circuitry that can process the electronic pulses readout from the active region of the detector. In this paper, we present a solid-state detector based on the nuclear activation of materials by neutrons, and the detection of the secondary particle emission of the generated radionuclides’ decay. The detector utilizes a microcontroller that communicates using a modified SPI protocol. A solid-state, pulse shaping filter follows a charge amplifier, and it is designed as an inexpensive, low-noise solution for measuring pulses measured by a digital counter. An imaging detector can also be made by using an array of these detectors. The system can communicate with an interface unit and pass an image to a personal computer.

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14

Hedin, J., J. Gumbel, and M. Rapp. "On the efficiency of rocket-borne particle detection in the mesosphere." Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics Discussions 7, no. 1 (January 25, 2007): 1183–214. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acpd-7-1183-2007.

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Abstract. Meteoric smoke particles have been proposed as a key player in the formation and evolution of mesospheric phenomena. Despite their apparent importance still very little are known about these particles. Sounding rockets are used to measure smoke in situ, but aerodynamics has remained a major challenge. Basically, smoke particles are so small that they tend to follow the gas flow around the payload rather than reaching the detector if aerodynamics is not considered carefully in the detector design. So far only indirect evidence for the existence of these smoke particles has been available in the form of measurements of heavy charge carriers. Important questions concern the smoke number density and size distribution as a function of altitude as well as the fraction of charged particles. Therefore, quantitative ways are needed that relate the measured particle population to the atmospheric particle population. In particular, we need to determine the size-dependent, altitude-dependent and charge-dependent detection efficiency for a given instrument design. In this paper, we investigate the aerodynamics for a typical electrostatic detector design. We first quantify the flow field of the background gas, then introduce particles in the flow field and determine their trajectories around the payload structure. We use two different models to trace particles in the flow field, a Continuous motion model and a Brownian motion model. Brownian motion is shown to be of basic importance for the smallest particles. By defining an effective relative cross section we compare different model runs and quantitatively investigate the difference between the two particle motion models. Detection efficiencies are determined for three detector designs, two with ventilation holes to allow airflow through the detector, and one without such ventilation holes. Results from this investigation show that rocket-borne smoke detection with conventional detectors is largely limited to altitudes above 75 km. The flow through a ventilated detector has to be relatively large for there to be an increase in the detection efficiency.

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15

Woody, Craig, Babak Azmoun, Richard Majka, Michael Phipps, Martin Purschke, and Nikolai Smirnov. "A Prototype Combination TPC Cherenkov Detector with GEM Readout for Tracking and Particle Identification and its Potential Use at an Electron Ion Collider." EPJ Web of Conferences 174 (2018): 01001. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/epjconf/201817401001.

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A prototype detector is being developed which combines the functions of a Time Projection Chamber for charged particle tracking and a Cherenkov detector for particle identification. The TPC consists of a 10×10×10 cm3 drift volume where the charge is drifted to a 10×10 cm2 triple GEM detector. The charge is measured on a readout plane consisting of 2×10 mm2 chevron pads which provide a spatial resolution ∼ 100 μm per point in the chevron direction along with dE/dx information. The Cherenkov portion of the detector consists of a second 10×10 cm2 triple GEM with a photosensitive CsI photocathode on the top layer. This detector measures Cherenkov light produced in the drift gas of the TPC by high velocity particles which are above threshold. CF4 or CF4 mixtures will be used as the drift gas which are highly transparent to UV light and can provide excellent efficiency for detecting Cherenkov photons. The drift gas is also used as the operating gas for both GEM detectors. The prototype detector has been constructed and is currently being tested in the lab with sources and cosmic rays, and additional tests are planned in the future to study the detector in a test beam.

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16

Giakos, George C., Frank A. Dibianca, Robert J. Endorf, Douglas J. Wagenaar, Sreenivas Devidas, Herbert Zeman, Joseph Laughter, Senthilkumar Nagarajan, Azad Mahmud, and Shashidhar Kollipara. "Engineering Aspects of a Kinestatic Charge Detector." Journal of X-Ray Science and Technology 5, no. 2 (1995): 181–201. http://dx.doi.org/10.3233/xst-1995-5202.

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17

Ishi, Hiromitu, Takashi Ono, Masanori Nishimoto, and Norio Muroi. "Photoelectric Smoke Detector of Charge Strage Type." JOURNAL OF THE ILLUMINATING ENGINEERING INSTITUTE OF JAPAN 70, Appendix (1986): 42. http://dx.doi.org/10.2150/jieij1980.70.appendix_42.

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18

Park, I. H., N. H. Park, S. W. Nam, H. S. Ahn, P. Allison, M. G. Bagliesi, S. J. Baek, et al. "Silicon charge detector for the CREAM experiment." Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment 570, no. 2 (January 2007): 286–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nima.2006.09.056.

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19

Rashevsky, A., G. Batigne, S. Beole, S. Coli, E. Crescio, P. Deremigis, G. Giraudo, et al. "Charge injectors of ALICE Silicon Drift Detector." Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment 572, no. 1 (March 2007): 125–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nima.2006.10.181.

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20

Mori, Masanobu, Yongjing Chen, Shin-Ichi Ohira, and Purnendu K. Dasgupta. "Characterization of a constant current charge detector." Talanta 102 (December 2012): 44–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.talanta.2012.07.058.

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21

Sakamoto, N. "Current detector for detecting battery charge remaining." Journal of Power Sources 70, no. 1 (January 30, 1998): 163. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0378-7753(97)84110-9.

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22

GIAKOS, G., F. DIBIANCA, R. ENDORF, D. WAGENAAR, S. DEVIDAS, H. ZEMAN, J. LAUGHTER, S. NAGARAJAN, A. MAHMUD, and S. KOLLIPARA. "Engineering aspects of a kinestatic charge detector." Journal of X-Ray Science and Technology 5, no. 2 (1995): 181–201. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0895-3996(05)80002-3.

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23

Gamero-Castaño, Manuel. "Induction charge detector with multiple sensing stages." Review of Scientific Instruments 78, no. 4 (2007): 043301. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.2721408.

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24

Goulding, F. S., and D. A. Landis. "GAMMASPHERE-correction technique for detector charge trapping." IEEE Transactions on Nuclear Science 41, no. 4 (1994): 1145–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/23.322873.

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25

Tenney, Charles R. "Contrast resolution of a kinestatic charge detector." Medical Physics 25, no. 5 (May 1998): 796. http://dx.doi.org/10.1118/1.598400.

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26

SHIMA, K. "INFLUENCE OF WINDOW EFFECT OF SEMICONDUCTOR X-RAY DETECTORS ON THE RESPONSE FUNCTION AND DETECTION EFFICIENCY." International Journal of PIXE 02, no. 03 (January 1992): 255–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0129083592000269.

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In order to search the dead layer of a Si(Li) x-ray detector, the jump ratio of the detection efficiency observed at the Si-K-edge energy was precisely measured by changing the incident photon energies at around 1.84 keV by using monoenergetic photons provided by SOR. Here, the dead layer is meant to be the Si region where the charge collection efficiency, η, is zero. As the result, the dead layers for two detectors investigated at present turned out to be absent. On the other hand, the Si front layers in which the charge collection is incomplete (0<η<1) were estimated to be 0.26 µm and 0.17 µm from a simple analysis for low energy tail spectrum. From these results, the effect of detector window on the response function and detection efficiency is discussed.

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27

Sweedler, Jonathan V., Rafi D. Jalkian, and M. Bonner Denton. "A Linear Charge-Coupled Device Detector System for Spectroscopy." Applied Spectroscopy 43, no. 6 (August 1989): 953–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1366/0003702894203976.

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The spectroscopically important performance capabilities of a linear charge-coupled device detector system, along with the methods used to evaluate the detector performance, are described. The linearity, read noise, full-well capacity, charge transfer efficiency, and ultraviolet to near-infrared quantum efficiency of the detector are presented along with the methods required to operate the detector in unconventional modes allowing low noise and antiblooming operation. With the antiblooming mode of operation, the detector performance is shown to be unaffected by light overloads hundreds of times over the saturation level. The performance of the detector for high-resolution diagnostic studies of hollow cathode lamps as well as for molecular fluorescence is presented.

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28

Fujiwara, Mikio, and Masahide Sasaki. "Photon Number Resolving Detector at Telecom Wavelengths: Charge Integration Photon Detector (CIPD)." IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Quantum Electronics 13, no. 4 (2007): 952–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/jstqe.2007.903857.

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29

Palestini, Sandro. "Space Charge Effects in Noble-Liquid Calorimeters and Time Projection Chambers." Instruments 5, no. 1 (February 26, 2021): 9. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/instruments5010009.

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The subject of space charge in ionization detectors is reviewed, showing how the observations and the formalism used to describe the effects have evolved, starting with applications to calorimeters and reaching recent, large time-projection chambers. General scaling laws, and different ways to present and model the effects are presented. The relations between space-charge effects and the boundary conditions imposed on the side faces of the detector are discussed, together with a design solution that mitigates some of the effects. The implications of the relative size of drift length and transverse detector size are illustrated. Calibration methods are briefly discussed.

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30

Bilhorn, R. B., P. M. Epperson, J. V. Sweedler, and M. B. Denton. "Spectrochemical Measurements with Multichannel Integrating Detectors." Applied Spectroscopy 41, no. 7 (September 1987): 1125–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1366/0003702874447518.

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This is the second article in a two-part series describing the operation, performance characteristics, and spectroscopic application of charge transfer devices (CTDs) in analytical chemistry. The first article in the series describes the new generation of integrating multichannel detectors, the charge injection device (CID), and the charge-coupled device (CCD). The first article also discusses the spectroscopically pertinent characteristics of these detectors and presents performance data for representative devices. This article covers three major topics related to the optimum use of integrating detectors in analytical spectroscopy. The advantages of employing integrating multichannel detectors in analytical spectroscopy, rather than a single detector in a wavelength scanning system or an interferometer, are discussed. Included are detector read noise considerations which have not been considered in previous performance comparisons. When one is employing an integrating detector in luminescence, absorption, and emission applications, achievable sensitivity is dependent on differing detector parameters. In the first case, quantum efficiency and read noise are of the greatest importance, whereas in the later two cases, dynamic range is most significant. The calculation of minimum detectable analyte signal for these three techniques illustrates the differences between integrating detectors and detectors which produce a photocurrent. This discussion also illustrates the great sensitivity that can be achieved with a modern CTD detector. Factors pertaining to the optical design of spectrometers which efficiently use CTDs are presented, along with examples of linear and two-dimensional dispersive polychromators employing CTDs. Low-light-level imaging and a nonconventional method of using a CCD for rapid scanning spectrophotometry are also discussed.

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31

Liu, Yan Wu. "Research on 10.6μm Laser Disturbance to Infrared Detector System." Applied Mechanics and Materials 155-156 (February 2012): 810–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amm.155-156.810.

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In order to research laser weapon soft damage to infrared missile, 10.6μm laser disturbance to infrared detector system was researched. First, 10.6μm laser atmospheric propagation transmittance was deduced. Laser atmospheric propagation transmittance relation curve was obtained. The relation curve is changed by atmospheric visibility and laser propagation distance. Then the experiment about on-axis laser disturbance to charge coupled device imaging detectors system was conducted. Charge coupled device saturation power density was measured. The relation curve between charge coupled device saturation area ratio and laser incident energy was obtained. Finally, 10.6μm laser energy which can disturb effectively infrared detector system was calculated. Some valuable data and conclusions were gained.

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32

Wenger, Emmanuel, Slimane Dahaoui, Paul Alle, Pascal Parois, Cyril Palin, Claude Lecomte, and Dominik Schaniel. "XPAD X-ray hybrid pixel detector for charge density quality diffracted intensities on laboratory equipment." Acta Crystallographica Section B Structural Science, Crystal Engineering and Materials 70, no. 5 (September 18, 2014): 783–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1107/s2052520614017338.

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The new generation of X-ray detectors, the hybrid pixel area detectors or `pixel detectors', is based on direct detection and single-photon counting processes. A large linearity range, high dynamic and extremely low noise leading to an unprecedented high signal-to-noise ratio, fast readout time (high frame rates) and an electronic shutter are among their intrinsic characteristics which render them very attractive. First used on synchrotron beamlines, these detectors are also promising in the laboratory, in particular for pump-probe or quasi-static experiments and accurate electron density measurements, as explained in this paper. An original laboratory diffractometer made from a Nonius Mach3 goniometer equipped with an Incoatec Mo microsource and an XPAD pixel area detector has been developed at the CRM2 laboratory. MoKα accurate charge density quality data up to 1.21 Å−1resolution have been collected on a sodium nitroprusside crystal using this home-made diffractometer. Data quality for charge density analysis based on multipolar modelling are discussed in this paper. Deformation electron densities are compared to those already published (based on data collected with CCD APEXII and CAD4 diffractometers).

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33

Sciuto, Antonella, Lorenzo Torrisi, Antonino Cannavò, Massimo Mazzillo, and Lucia Calcagno. "Effects induced by high and low intensity laser plasma on SiC Schottky detectors." EPJ Web of Conferences 167 (2018): 03005. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/epjconf/201816703005.

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Silicon-Carbide detectors are extensively employed as diagnostic devices in laser-generated plasma, allowing the simultaneous detection of photons, electrons and ions, when used in time-of-flight configuration. The plasma generated by high intensity laser (1016 W/cm2) producing high energy ions was characterized by SiC detector with a continuous front-electrode, and a very thick active depth, while SiC detector with an Interdigit front-electrode was used to measure the low energy ions of plasma generated by low intensity laser (1010 W/cm2). Information about ion energy, number of charge states, plasma temperature can be accurately obtained. However, laser exposure induces the formation of surface and bulk defects whose concentration increases with increasing the time to plasma exposure. The surface defects consist of clusters with a main size of the order of some microns and they modify the diode barrier height and the efficiency of the detector as checked by alpha spectrometry. The bulk defects, due to the energy loss of detected ions, strongly affect the electrical properties of the device, inducing a relevant increase of the leakage (reverse) current and decrease the forward current related to a deactivation of the dopant in the active detector region.

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34

Schmitt, Bernd, Anna Bergamaschi, Sebastian Cartier, Roberto Dinapoli, Dominic Greiffenberg, Ian Johnson, Aldo Mozzanica, Xintian Shi, Julia Smith, and Gemma Tinti. "Current and future detector developments at the Swiss Light Source." Acta Crystallographica Section A Foundations and Advances 70, a1 (August 5, 2014): C680. http://dx.doi.org/10.1107/s205327331409319x.

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The detector group of the Swiss Light Source (SLS) at the Paul Scherrer Institut (PSI) has a long history of x-ray detector developments for synchrotrons. Initially these detectors were all single photon counting systems. In the last years the focus at PSI was moving towards charge integrating systems mainly driven by the detector needs for the upcoming XFELs. Charge integrating systems however also solve some of the problems of single photon counting systems. Charge integrating systems have an almost infinite linear count rate capability, allow systems with smallest pixel sizes and for low photon energies. In this presentation we give an overview of the detector developments at PSI and focus on Jungfrau, Mönch and Eiger. Eiger is a single photon counting system specifically developed for high frame rates. It has a 75 micron pixel size and can run at frame rates up to 24 kHz. A 9M Eiger detector will be installed in a few months at the cSAXS beamline of the SLS. Jungfrau uses the same sensor as Eiger (about 4cm x 8 cm with a pixel size of 75 microns). It has a charge integrating architecture with dynamic gain switching to achieve a dynamic range of 10^4 photons (at 12 keV). With a frame rate of up to 2 kHz Jungfrau is currently being developed for applications at both XFELs and synchrotrons. 16M Jungfrau detectors are foreseen at the SwissFEL. Mönch is currently a research project. A first prototype with 160x160 pixels and a pixel size of 25 microns was designed and is currently characterised. It offers the smallest pixel size of current hybrid pixel detectors and also has a very low noise allowing hybrid pixel detectors to be used down to about 400eV. We present measurement results for Jungfrau, Mönch and Eiger and give an outlook on future possible systems.

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35

Kang, Hyunki, Saehong Kim, and Jungwon Kang. "Improved Sensitivity of Indirect Organic X-ray Detector Using Ag Nanoparticles Blended in Bulk-Heterojunction Active Layer." Science of Advanced Materials 12, no. 4 (April 1, 2020): 544–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1166/sam.2020.3663.

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Blending effect of Ag nanoparticles (NPs) in bulk-heterojunction P3HT:PC70BM layer was studied to improve the sensitivity of indirect X-ray detector. Scintillator-decoupled detectors with different contents (1, 3, 5 and 7 wt%) of Ag NPs were fabricated and tested using a solar simulator. Compared with the detector having pristine P3HT:PC70BM layer, the detector with 3 wt% Ag NPs blended in the P3HT:PC70BM layer showed 26% higher PCE and 19% higher Jsc. CsI(Tl) scintillator-coupled detectors were then tested under irradiation of X-ray source. The detector with 3 wt% Ag NPs-blended P3HT:PC70BM layer showed the highest CCD of 350.51 nA/cm2 and the highest sensitivity of 2.20 mA/Gy · cm2. At optimal Ag NPs blending condition, Ag NPs in the P3HT:PC70BM layer can enhance charge-generation by improving absorption of visible-photons and charge-extraction by improving carrier-mobility while lowering resistance.

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36

Iwanczyk, Jan S., Bradley E. Part, Carolyn R. Tull, and Shaul Barkan. "High-Throughput, Large Area Silicon X-Ray Detectors for High-Resolution Spectroscopy Applications." Microscopy and Microanalysis 7, S2 (August 2001): 1052–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1431927600031330.

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The concept utilized in charge coupled devices (CCD’s) for detection and imaging of light signals involving lateral movement of charges and extremely low capacitance of the detector and readout electronics has spawned a variety of new ideas in the design of nuclear detectors. Initially, silicon drift detectors (SDD’s) were developed for high energy physics applications. More recently, a vigorous effort to develop new structures for x-ray spectroscopy and light detection has started. Drift structures have been designed in a variety of topologies and materials (such as Si, CdZnTe, and HgI2) to satisfy the requirements of many different applications. The most interesting features that can be achieved with drift structures include: a) Large active area devices with low capacitance and low electronic noise, b) Very high signal throughput, c) Operation at or near room temperature, d) High sensitivity over the large entrance electrode to low energy xrays and short wavelength light, f) Single carrier charge collection allowing for elimination of hole contribution to the spectral broadening in compound semiconductor detectors such as HgI2, CdTe, and CdZnTe, f) 2D resolution of few tens of micrometer in both directions over few cm2 active areas, and g) Possibility of using more sophisticated schemes of charge collection by switching between integration and drift mode.

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37

Havnes, O., L. H. Surdal, and C. R. Philbrick. "Mesospheric dust and its secondary effects as observed by the ESPRIT payload." Annales Geophysicae 27, no. 3 (March 5, 2009): 1119–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/angeo-27-1119-2009.

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Abstract. The dust detector on the ESPRIT rocket detected two extended dust/aerosol layers during the launch on 1 July 2006. The lower layer at height ~81.5–83 km coincided with a strong NLC and PMSE layer. The maximum dust charge density was ~−3.5×109 e m−3 and the dust layer was characterized by a few strong dust layers where the dust charge density at the upper edges changed by factors 2–3 over a distance of ≲10 m, while the same change at their lower edges were much more gradual. The upper edge of this layer is also sharp, with a change in the probe current from zero to IDC=−10−11 A over ~10 m, while the same change at the low edge occurs over ~500 m. The second dust layer at ~85–92 km was in the height range of a comparatively weak PMSE layer and the maximum dust charge density was ~−108 e m−3. This demonstrates that PMSE can be formed even if the ratio of the dust charge density to the electron density P=NdZd /n_e≲0.01. In spite of the dust detector being constructed to reduce possible secondary charging effects from dust impacts, it was found that they were clearly present during the passage through both layers. The measured secondary charging effects confirm recent results that dust in the NLC and PMSE layers can be very effective in producing secondary charges with up to ~50 to 100 electron charges being rubbed off by one impacting large dust particle, if the impact angle is θi≳20–35°. This again lends support to the suggested model for NLC and PMSE dust particles (Havnes and Næsheim, 2007) as a loosely bound water-ice clump interspersed with a considerable number of sub-nanometer-sized meteoric smoke particles, possibly also contaminated with meteoric atomic species.

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38

Samedov, Victor V. "Induced Charge Fluctuations in Semiconductor Detectors with a Cylindrical Geometry." EPJ Web of Conferences 170 (2018): 01014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/epjconf/201817001014.

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Now, compound semiconductors are very appealing for hard X-ray room-temperature detectors for medical and astrophysical applications. Despite the attractive properties of compound semiconductors, such as high atomic number, high density, wide band gap, low chemical reactivity and long-term stability, poor hole and electron mobility-lifetime products degrade the energy resolution of these detectors. The main objective of the present study is in development of a mathematical model of the process of the charge induction in a cylindrical geometry with accounting for the charge carrier trapping. The formulae for the moments of the distribution function of the induced charge and the formulae for the mean amplitude and the variance of the signal at the output of the semiconductor detector with a cylindrical geometry were derived. It was shown that the power series expansions of the detector amplitude and the variance in terms of the inverse bias voltage allow determining the Fano factor, electron mobility lifetime product, and the nonuniformity level of the trap density of the semiconductor material.

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39

Sandupatla, Abhinay, Subramaniam Arulkumaran, Ng Geok Ing, Shugo Nitta, John Kennedy, and Hiroshi Amano. "Vertical GaN-on-GaN Schottky Diodes as α-Particle Radiation Sensors." Micromachines 11, no. 5 (May 20, 2020): 519. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/mi11050519.

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Among the different semiconductors, GaN provides advantages over Si, SiC and GaAs in radiation hardness, resulting in researchers exploring the development of GaN-based radiation sensors to be used in particle physics, astronomic and nuclear science applications. Several reports have demonstrated the usefulness of GaN as an α-particle detector. Work in developing GaN-based radiation sensors are still evolving and GaN sensors have successfully detected α-particles, neutrons, ultraviolet rays, x-rays, electrons and γ-rays. This review elaborates on the design of a good radiation detector along with the state-of-the-art α-particle detectors using GaN. Successful improvement in the growth of GaN drift layers (DL) with 2 order of magnitude lower in charge carrier density (CCD) (7.6 × 1014/cm3) on low threading dislocation density (3.1 × 106/cm2) hydride vapor phase epitaxy (HVPE) grown free-standing GaN substrate, which helped ~3 orders of magnitude lower reverse leakage current (IR) with 3-times increase of reverse breakdown voltages. The highest reverse breakdown voltage of −2400 V was also realized from Schottky barrier diodes (SBDs) on a free-standing GaN substrate with 30 μm DL. The formation of thick depletion width (DW) with low CCD resulted in improving high-energy (5.48 MeV) α-particle detection with the charge collection efficiency (CCE) of 62% even at lower bias voltages (−20 V). The detectors also detected 5.48 MeV α-particle with CCE of 100% from SBDs with 30-μm DL at −750 V.

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40

Böckenhoff, K., and W. Fischer. "Determination of electrokinetic charge with a particle-charge detector, and its relationship to the total charge." Fresenius' Journal of Analytical Chemistry 371, no. 5 (October 2, 2001): 670–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s002160100897.

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41

Yang, Bingcheng, Yongjing Chen, Masanobu Mori, Shin-Ichi Ohira, Abul K. Azad, Purnendu K. Dasgupta, and Kannan Srinivasan. "Charge Detector for the Measurement of Ionic Solutes." Analytical Chemistry 82, no. 3 (February 2010): 951–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/ac9021902.

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42

Orthen, A., H. Wagner, H. J. Besch, R. H. Menk, and A. H. Walenta. "Charge transfer considerations of MicroCAT-based detector systems." Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment 492, no. 1-2 (October 2002): 160–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0168-9002(02)01276-7.

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43

Carini, Gabriella A., Pavel Rehak, Wei Chen, and D. Peter Siddons. "Charge-pump detector for X-ray correlation spectroscopy." Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment 649, no. 1 (September 2011): 75–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nima.2010.12.241.

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44

Ran, Han. "Induced charge signal of a glass RPC detector." Chinese Physics C 38, no. 4 (April 2014): 046002. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1674-1137/38/4/046002.

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45

Natali, Giuliano, and Fernando Pedichini. "Charge‐coupled device image detector for Schmidt telescopes." Review of Scientific Instruments 61, no. 7 (July 1990): 1839–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1141104.

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46

Tuomi, T., J. Partanen, and K. Simomaa. "Charge‐coupled device as a detector in topography." Review of Scientific Instruments 63, no. 1 (January 1992): 682–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1142637.

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47

Tsai, Chin‐Chun, John T. Bahns, and William C. Stwalley. "Shielded cylindrical space‐charge‐limited diode ionization detector." Review of Scientific Instruments 63, no. 12 (December 1992): 5576–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1143384.

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48

Pickel, J. C., R. A. Reed, R. Ladbury, B. Rauscher, P. W. Marshall, T. M. Jordan, B. Fodness, and G. Gee. "Radiation-induced charge collection in infrared detector arrays." IEEE Transactions on Nuclear Science 49, no. 6 (December 2002): 2822–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/tns.2002.805382.

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49

Lai, Stefano, Alessandra Caboni, Daniela Loi, and Massimo Barbaro. "A CMOS Biocompatible Charge Detector for Biosensing Applications." IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices 59, no. 9 (September 2012): 2512–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/ted.2012.2202233.

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50

Kandiah, K., and F. B. Whiting. "Limits of resolution of charge sensitive detector systems." Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment 326, no. 1-2 (March 1993): 49–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0168-9002(93)90332-c.

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