Journal articles on the topic 'Chemical engineering, examinations, questions, etc'

The examination is a key activity in determining what the learner has gained from the study. Institutions of higher learning (IHL) perform this activity through various assessment methods (test/examination, practical, etc.). The world today is focused on automation of exam generation which is ongoing with dire need during this period of the COVID-19 pandemic when education is greatly affected, leading to embracing online learning and examination. A text/exam comprises questions and answers that focus on evaluation to determine the student’s conversant level in the area of study. Each question has a cognitive level as described by (Armstrong, 2016) in the revised Bloom’s taxonomy. Questions chosen have cognitive levels based on the level of study and standardization of the exam. There is, therefore, a need to consider the question’s cognitive level along with other factors when generating an examination by incorporating deep learning algorithms.

The purpose of the article is to study and develop theoretical and methodological principles of forensic engineering and mechanical expertise, recommendations with the use of special knowledge in criminal and civil proceedings to prevent, detect, investigate and consider crimes related to the operation of machines, mechanisms, equipment and improvement of its methodology, substantiation and formulation of recommendations on legal assessment of results and increase of efficiency of use of conclusions of forensic examination in the course of proving. The methodological basis of the study are the laws and categories of the theory of cognition, in particular the provisions of materialist dialectics, which contributed to the realization of the purpose and tasks, subject, object, research issues in the context of interdependence of achievements and needs of practice. At the same time, the methods of formal logic (analysis, synthesis, deduction, induction, analogy, abstraction) made it possible to understand in more detail the content of the studied questions, the essence of the studied categories and phenomena was clarified by the system-structural method. The Ministry of Justice of Ukraine has created a new type (subtype) of forensic examination: “Mechanical Engineering” and forensic specialty 10.25 “Study of the technical condition and operating conditions of machines and mechanisms”, so the article formulates the basic concepts of forensic mechanical examination, namely : the basic questions which are solved by judicial engineering and mechanical examination are defined; tasks, subject, object, questions that give the opportunity to understand the essence and content of the expert activity of these studies; the tasks of a specific examination are distinguished from the tasks of other related types of examinations in this area. Complex problems facing the investigation / court determine the expediency of dealing with a wide range of topical issues on a scientific basis, taking into account the peculiarities of the study of technical condition and operating conditions of machines, mechanisms and equipment and create a new type of forensic engineering – mechanical engineering. In order to increase the efficiency and objectivity of investigations of crimes in the operation of machines, mechanisms and equipment, courts / investigators should, as necessary, conduct forensic examinations by engineers: technologists, mechanics, power engineers, metallurgists, etc., for which it is necessary to develop approach, scientific-theoretical and practical principles of forensic engineering and mechanical expertise.

Laser-induced periodic surface structures (LIPSS) are a simple and robust route for the nanostructuring of solids that can create various surface functionalities featuring applications in optics, medicine, tribology, energy technologies, etc. While the current laser technologies already allow surface processing rates at the level of m2/min, industrial applications of LIPSS are sometimes hampered by the complex interplay between the nanoscale surface topography and the specific surface chemistry, as well as by limitations in controlling the processing of LIPSS and in the long-term stability of the created surface functions. This Perspective article aims to identify some open questions about LIPSS, discusses the pending technological limitations, and sketches the current state of theoretical modelling. Hereby, we intend to stimulate further research and developments in the field of LIPSS for overcoming these limitations and for supporting the transfer of the LIPSS technology into industry.

In a national-scale educational assessment system, such as the National Examination, the need for several sets of questions that have the same level of difficulty is very required to avoid cheating by students. Therefore, the objective, which is to make a set of questions with the same level of difficulty automatically, is done in this research. It used a machine learning approach, namely K-Means. To achieve this goal, several following procedures need to be implemented. Firstly, we need to create banks of questions to be assigned to students. Then, we build training data by determining the value of each question based on Bloom's Taxonomy, item characters/types, and other parameters. Then, with utilizing K-Means, several cluster centers are obtained to represent the uniformity of the questions in the cluster members. By using several heuristics criteria defined previously, several sets or packages of questions that have the same characteristics and difficulty levels are obtained. From the experiments conducted, the analysis with descriptive (i.e., mean, standard deviation, and data visualization) and inference (i.e., ANOVA) statistics of results are presented showing that questions of each sets have the same characteristics to ensure the fairness of examinations. Moreover, by using this system, the contents of the questions in the generated set do not need to be the same, the package of questions can be generated automatically quickly, and the level of the difficulties can be measured and guaranteed.

Nucleation plays a vital role in polymer crystallization, in which chain connectivity and thus the multiple length and time scales make crystal nucleation of polymer chains an interesting but complex subject. Though the topic has been intensively studied in the past decades, there are still many open questions to answer. The final properties of semicrystalline polymer materials are affected by all of the following: the starting melt, paths of nucleation, organization of lamellar crystals and evolution of the final crystalline structures. In this viewpoint, we attempt to discuss some of the remaining open questions and corresponding concepts: non-equilibrated polymers, self-induced nucleation, microscopic kinetics of different processes, metastability of polymer lamellar crystals, hierarchical order and cooperativity involved in nucleation, etc. Addressing these open questions through a combination of novel concepts, new theories and advanced approaches provides a deeper understanding of the multifaceted process of crystal nucleation of polymers.

The rapid progress in engineering enhances the demands set on materials requiring better mechanical properties, resistance to frictional wear, corrosion and erosion etc. These demands can be also satisfied by e.g. applying various surface engineering techniques which permit modifying the microstructure, phase and chemical composition of the surface layers produced on the treated parts. A prospective line of the development is the production of the intermetallic layers by combining various methods aimed to improve essentially the performance properties and service life of the treated parts. The paper presents properties of the Al2O3+TiAl3+TiAl+Ti3Al type layer produced on titanium alloy Ti6Al2Cr2Mo by duplex method combined with magnetron sputtering process of aluminium coating with a glow discharge assisted treatment. The results of the examinations: microstructure, chemical and phase composition, frictional wear resistance and mechanical properties are discussed. Produced composite surface layers have the diffusion character and a precisely specified structure, chemical and phase composition and good wear and corrosion resistance what can widen significantly application range of treated parts.

The study aims to examine correlations between nutrition status with different factors and dental caries of preschool children in rural areas of Vietnam. A big data based on a total of 690 children (356 boys and 334 girls), aged 2–5 years, living in Van Xuan commune, were thoroughly analyzed. Oral examinations were performed by dentists with the assistance of nursery teachers and the research team. Caries was diagnosed using criteria established by the International Caries Detection and Assessment System (ICDAS). The examined children and their parents responded to questions pertaining to dental hygiene practices. The nutrition status of preschool children was determined by the World Health Organization (WHO) standards in 2006. There are factors which have effects on the malnutrition status of children in the research. The prevalence of dental caries also contributed importantly to assess children’s development. In this study, the stunting groups have a higher ratio of caries compared to the others. Children’s morphology and nutritional status are associated with dental caries among the preschool children in Van Xuan commune, Vinh Tuong district, Vinh Phuc province.

Membrane processes have been investigated for carbon capture for more than four decades. Important efforts have been more recently achieved for the development of advanced materials and, to a lesser extent, on process engineering studies. A state-of-the-art analysis is proposed with a critical comparison to gas absorption technology, which is still considered as the best available technology for this application. The possibilities offered by high-performance membrane materials (zeolites, Carbon Molecular Sieves, Metal Oxide Frameworks, graphenes, facilitated transport membranes, etc.) are discussed in combination to process strategies (multistage design, hybrid processes, energy integration). The future challenges and open questions of membranes for carbon capture are finally proposed.

Silver and gold nanoparticles can be found in a range of household products related to almost every area of life, including patches, bandages, paints, sportswear, personal care products, food storage equipment, cosmetics, disinfectants, etc. Their confirmed ability to enter the organism through respiratory and digestive systems, skin, and crossing the blood–brain barrier raises questions of their potential effect on cell function. Therefore, this manuscript aimed to summarize recent reports concerning the influence of variables such as size, shape, concentration, type of coating, or incubation time, on effects of gold and silver nanoparticles on cultured cell lines. Due to the increasingly common use of AgNP and AuNP in multiple branches of the industry, further studies on the effects of nanoparticles on different types of cells and the general natural environment are needed to enable their long-term use. However, some environmentally friendly solutions to chemically synthesized nanoparticles are also investigated, such as plant-based synthesis methods.

Forensic science incorporates many different scientific disciplines: criminalistics, toxicology, pathology, entomology, engineering, psychology, accounting, etc. Criminalistics incorporates such diverse areas as crime scene investigation, sexual assault evidence, DNA analysis, firearms identification and comparison, drug analysis, impression evidence, and trace evidence.A variety of microscopes and microscopical techniques are used to answer “real world” questions about physical evidence in criminalistics. The microscopes most often used include stereo (dissecting), biological (brightfield), polarizing light, phase contrast, fluorescence, transmitted light comparison, reflected light comparison, and scanning electron. Additionally, detectors from different areas of the electromagnetic spectrum have been added to microscopes to enhance the information obtained from a specimen: infrared, visible-ultraviolet, and x-ray. to gather more information about the specimen with visible light microscopes, dispersion staining(1), contrast enhancement techniques(2) fusion methods(3), chemical staining(4), and micro-chemical tests(5,6) can be integrated into the analytical scheme.

Sampling is a key step in the analysis of chemical compounds. It is particularly important in the environmental field, for example for wastewater effluents, wet-weather discharges or streams in which the flows and concentrations vary greatly over time. In contrast to the improvements that have occurred in analytical measurement, developments in the field of sampling are less active. However, sampling errors may exceed by an order of magnitude those related to analytical processes. We proposed an Internet-based application based on a sampling theory to identify and quantify the errors in the process of taking samples. This general theory of sampling, already applied to different areas, helps to answer questions related to the number of samples, their volume, their representativeness, etc. The use of the internet to host this application facilitates use of theoretical tools and raise awareness of the uncertainties related to sampling. An example is presented, which highlights the importance of the sampling step in the quality of analytical results.

Today, the fuel and energy complex (FEC) is the basis of Russian economy. It includes the most dynamically developing industries, such as petrochemical, oil refining, etc., associated with the production, transportation and processing of various fuels, as well as industries engaged in the production and distribution of electricity: thermal engineering, hydropower engineering and nuclear power engineering. The nomenclature of FEC centrifugal pumps includes a wide list of names: singleand multistage centrifugal pumps of low, medium and high pressure for clean water, water with impurities and various aggressive media [1, 2], pumps for oil production and transportation (trunk, booster, electric centrifugal production pumps, pumps for pumping leaks, etc.) and special pumps used in oil refining (cracking, cantilever chemical, etc.) [3]. The development of technical solutions aimed at improving energy efficiency as well as reliability and durability is one of the trends in the development of centrifugal pumps FEC that are most widely covered in engineering literature [4.9]. Along with this, reducing the complexity and cost of production of these pumps due to the automation of the design process remain just as important. In the given article, questions of development of a method of automated profiling of components of flow passage of centrifugal pumps for needs of FEC are considered. The description of the proposed method and the results of its approbation on the example of profiling of the flow passage of the impeller of the centrifugal cantilever chemical pump AH 12.5/50 are presented. Comparison with other known methods is carried out. The estimation of time costs for design works is carried out. It has been found that the automated profiling of the flow passage of the impeller according to the presented method took 720 times less time than manual profiling using conventional methods.

Reactive transport (RT) couples bio-geo-chemical reactions and transport. RT is important to understand numerous scientific questions and solve some engineering problems. RT is highly multidisciplinary, which hinders the development of a body of knowledge shared by RT modelers and developers. The goal of this paper is to review the basic conceptual issues shared by all RT problems, so as to facilitate advancement along the current frontier: biochemical reactions. To this end, we review the basic equations to indicate that chemical systems are controlled by the set of equilibrium reactions, which are easy to model, but whose rate is controlled by mixing. Since mixing is not properly represented by the standard advection-dispersion equation (ADE), we conclude that this equation is poor for RT. This leads us to review alternative transport formulations, and the methods to solve RT problems using both the ADE and alternative equations. Since equilibrium is easy, difficulties arise for kinetic reactions, which is especially true for biochemistry, where numerous challenges are open (how to represent microbial communities, impact of genomics, effect of biofilms on flow and transport, etc.). We conclude with the basic eleven conceptual issues that we consider fundamental for any conceptually sound RT effort.

Abstract The wastewater industry is currently facing dramatic changes, shifting away from energy-intensive wastewater treatment towards low-energy, sustainable technologies capable of achieving energy positive operation and resource recovery. The latter will shift the focus of the wastewater industry to how one could manage and extract resources from the wastewater, as opposed to the conventional paradigm of treatment. Debatable questions arise: can the more complex models be calibrated, or will additional unknowns be introduced? After almost 30 years using well-known International Water Association (IWA) models, should the community move to other components, processes, or model structures like ‘black box’ models, computational fluid dynamics techniques, etc.? Can new data sources – e.g. on-line sensor data, chemical and molecular analyses, new analytical techniques, off-gas analysis – keep up with the increasing process complexity? Are different methods for data management, data reconciliation, and fault detection mature enough for coping with such a large amount of information? Are the available calibration techniques able to cope with such complex models? This paper describes the thoughts and opinions collected during the closing session of the 6th IWA/WEF Water Resource Recovery Modelling Seminar 2018. It presents a concerted and collective effort by individuals from many different sectors of the wastewater industry to offer past and present insights, as well as an outlook into the future of wastewater modelling.

The powertrain system is critical to the reliability of a battery electric vehicle (BEV). However, the BEV powertrain is a complex system; it includes the motor, motor controller, power distribution unit, battery system, etc. The failure of any of these components may result in the failure of the entire powertrain system and eventually cause serious traffic accidents on the road. However, how much does each component affect the reliability of the entire system, and which components are the most vulnerable in the entire system? These questions are still unanswered today. To develop a reliability design for a BEV powertrain system, it is essential to conduct detailed research by investigating the most vulnerable component parts of the entire powertrain. In the present study, a fault-tree model of the entire powertrain and its subsystems was developed. Based on this model, the failure rates of all components were calculated first. Then, trends in the reliability indices for the entire powertrain and its components were estimated against BEV service life. From the estimation results, we learned that with increased service time, the reliability of the entire powertrain system is indeed much lower than that of its individual subsystems. Moreover, through comparative research, we found that the battery module is the most unreliable component not only of the battery system, but the entire powertrain system. Additionally, it was interesting to find that the reliability of the motor components was higher than that of other subsystem components, but that the reliability indices for the entire motor were not the highest among all the powertrain subsystems studied in this paper. We believe the findings of the present study will be of great significance to an improved understanding of the reliability design and maintenance of BEVs.

Chemical compounds from plants have been used as a medicinal source for various diseases. Aromachology is a unique field that studies the olfactory effects after inhaling aromatic compounds. Aromatherapy is a complementary treatment methodology involving the use of essential oils containing phytoncides and other volatile organic compounds for various physical and mental illnesses. Phytoncides possess an inherent medicinal property. Their health benefits range from treating stress, immunosuppression, blood pressure, respiratory diseases, anxiety, and pain to anti-microbial, anti-larvicidal, anti-septic, anti-cancer effects, etc. Recent advancements in aromatherapy include forest bathing or forest therapy. The inhalation of phytoncide-rich forest air has been proven to reduce stress-induced immunosuppression, normalize immune function and neuroendocrine hormone levels, and, thus, restore physiological and psychological health. The intricate mechanisms related to how aroma converts into olfactory signals and how the olfactory signals relieve physical and mental illness still pose enormous questions and are the subject of ongoing research. Aromatherapy using the aroma of essential oils/phytoncides could be more innovative and attractive to patients. Moreover, with fewer side effects, this field might be recognized as a new field of complementary medicine in alleviating some forms of physical and mental distress. Essential oils are important assets in aromatherapy, cosmetics, and food preservatives. The use of essential oils as an aromatherapeutic agent is widespread. Detailed reports on the effects of EOs in aromatherapy and their pharmacological effects are required to uncover its complete biological mechanism. This review is about the evolution of research related to phytoncides containing EOs in treating various ailments and provides comprehensive details from complementary medicine.

Occupational safety and health (OSH) briefings for employees and other interested parties are crucial in ensuring the proper dissemination of minimal OSH requirements and information across the organization [1]. The implementation in Malaysia is based on OSH regulations as outlined by the Department of Safety and Health Malaysia. The challenge here is the requirement for OSH briefing shall be different depending on the facility and operations themselves. Adding up, it is crucial for OSH briefing to be delivered with the right content to everyone efficiently and simply but as accurately and easily understandable as possible [2]. Several studies have indicated the multiple types of hazards available in tertiary education settings (i.e., university, college, polytechnic, etc.) which include physical, chemical, biological, electrical, and even radiological [3–5]. As tertiary education settings have multiple types of occupancy ranging from students, academic staff, support staff, contractors, and visitors, the risk of injury to the occupants is feasible. Hence, the objective of this study was to identify the elements of OSH briefing content and develop an OSH briefing kit for tertiary education settings. Understanding and evaluating elements of OSH briefing require a systematic approach for reviewing documents, both printed and electronic materials, hence document analysis methods were utilized [6]. Reports, articles, books, standards, and guidelines with a keyword of safety briefing were used to filter the identified documents and every identified information on OSH briefing is categorized into larger elements. These produced the total elements needed in conducting an effective OSH briefing. An OSH briefing kit was developed for the School of Health Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM) based on the identified elements. By utilizing the face validity method [7], the OSH was then discussed and verified by seven experts consisting of the school emergency team. Using an adopted four sections, thirteen questions of five points Likert scale questionnaire were used to assist experts in reviewing the OSH briefing kit. This study has been reviewed and approved by the USM Human Research Ethics Committee (USM/JEPeM/22020125). Through extensive literature, there were seven safety briefing elements identified for a good safety briefing [1–3,5,8] as summarized in Figure 1. The scope of the safety briefing served as the learning outcomes must be informed to the participant earlier during each safety briefing session. A specified facility background is necessary as different facilities might have different layouts and arrangements. General safety and security requirements should be stated clearly as each facility is unique and might have different risks. Basic personal protective equipment (PPE) is required to ensure that everyone entering the facility is minimally protected in preventing or minimizing injuries. Common hazards, which are typically identified by a comprehensive risk management process, will ensure that everyone understands the hazards located across the facility while reiterating the necessity of general safety and security regulations and basic PPE needs. An essential emergency procedure provides everyone with an understanding of basic response to the emergency which includes notification, communication, evacuation process, and route including assembly area and accountability process. Finally, the briefing time should be less than 15 minutes to ensure short and precise communications and to minimally disrupt the main activity or operations. The developed OSH briefing kit was tailored to the School of Health Sciences requirements and consisted of a presentation slide for a manual briefing by respective emergency team personnel as well as the three minutes and 40 seconds of pre-recorded OSH briefing multimedia depending on the availability of non-emergency team members. There were 13 slides in the presentation, each with pre-written text to make the briefing process simpler. School event organizers could have the option to use any of the two materials from the OSH briefing kit. The kit utilizes the elements of effective safety briefing identified earlier. Through the experts' validations process, it was agreed that the OSH briefing kit has good information quality with an average score of 4.26 indicating the accuracy of the content covered. The usefulness of the kit was also consented by experts at 4.52 average score indicating comprehensive general OSH requirement in the school. The OSH briefing kit scored 4.24 on average for usage characteristic and the overall satisfaction of the kit was at 4.29 average score. It is concluded that in developing an effective OSH briefing, a total of seven (7) elements should be considered to ensure the comprehensiveness of the briefing, hence the novelty of this study. The elements are suitable to be used in developing an OSH briefing for tertiary education settings, but the content should be tailored based on the entity itself. Future studies will include the evaluation of the developed OSH briefing kit for the end-user in understanding the acceptability and understanding of the minimum OSH requirement in tertiary education settings.

The present paper discusses the importance of non-destructive and micro-destructive technology in forensic investigations in the field of cultural heritage. Recent technological developments and the wide availability of modern analytical instrumentation are creating new possibilities for performing scientific measurements and acquiring data directly on-site—thereby limiting, where possible, sampling activity—as well as learning about the technologies and materials that were employed in the past to create cultural assets. Information on periods, chemical composition, manufacturing techniques, etc., can be gathered more easily. Overall, the benefits of on-site forensic investigations are multiple, including the potential to increase substantially the speed and efficacy of the criminal justice system. However, such benefits are only realized when data quality is guaranteed and findings can be used as forensic evidence in court. The present paper shows data from the non-destructive and micro-destructive analysis of different artworks and objects provided by the Cosenza Carabinieri Unit for the Protection of Cultural Heritage and Anti-Counterfeiting (Calabria, Italy). In particular, two oil paintings on canvas depicting cherubs (Italian: putti), recovered as fragments of larger religious artworks, and two bronze belt and helmet fragments were investigated. In the first case, the research aimed to define the original pictorial layer, identify any reconstruction pictorial areas or pictorial retouching, assess the state of conservation, reconstruct the previous conservation treatments, and provide indications about the chronology of the artworks. In the second case, analysis was performed both to define the bronze chemical composition and the origin of the soil (earth) found within the objects during their recovery. For these purposes, the analytical approach involved the use of non-destructive and micro-destructive analysis as follows: infrared reflectography (IRR), ultraviolet-induced visible fluorescence (UV), X-ray fluorescence analysis (XRF), digital optical microscopy (DOM), scanning electron microscopy equipped with EDX microanalysis (SEM-EDX), and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR). The results made it possible to collect valuable diagnostic information and answer questions posed by the institutions for the resolution of various doubts about forensic science and cases concerning the seizure, recovery, or return of archaeological or historical-artistic objects of cultural interest.

Spintronics are attractive to the utilization in next-generation quantum-computing and memory. Compared with inorganic spintronics, organic spintronics not only controls the spin degree-of-freedom but also possesses advantages such as chemical tailorability, flexibility, and low-cost fabrication process. Besides, the organic spin valve with a sandwich configuration that is composed of two ferromagnetic electrodes and an organic space layer is one of the classical devices in organic spintronics. Greatly enhanced or inversed magnetoresistance (MR) sign appearing in organic spin valve is induced by the unique interfacial effect an organic semiconductor/ferromagnetic interface. The significant enhancement or inversion of MR is later proved to be caused by the spin-dependent hybridization between molecular and ferromagnetic interface, <i>i.e.</i>, the spinterface. The hybridization is ascribed to spin-dependent broadening and shifting of molecular orbitals. The spinterface takes place at one molecular layer when attaching to the surface of ferromagnetic metal. It indicates that the MR response can be modulated artificially in a specific device by converting the nature of spinterface. Despite lots of researches aiming at exploring the mechanism of spinterface, several questions need urgently to be resolved. For instance, the spin polarization, which is difficult to identify and observe with the surface sensitive technique and the inversion or enhancement of MR signal, which is also hard to explain accurately. The solid evidence of spinterface existing in real spintronic device also needs to be further testified. Besides, the precise manipulation of the MR sign by changing the nature of spinterface is quite difficult. According to the above background, this review summarizes the advance in spinterface and prospects future controllable utilization of spinterface. In Section 2, we introduce the basic principle of spintronic device and spinterface. The formation of unique spinterface in organic spin valve is clarified by using the difference in energy level alignment between inorganic and organic materials. Enhancement and inversion of MR sign are related to the broadening and shifting of the molecular level. In Section 3, several examples about identification of spinterface are listed, containing characterization by surface sensitive techniques and identification in real working devices. In Section 4 some methods about the manipulation of spinterface are exhibited, including modulation of ferroelectric organic barrier, interface engineering, regulation of electronic phase separation in ferromagnetic electrodes, etc. Finally, in this review some unresolved questions in spintronics are given, such as multi-functional and room-temperature organic spin valve and improvement of the spin injection efficiency. Spinterface is of great importance for both scientific research and future industrial interest in organic spintronics. The present study paves the way for the further development of novel excellent organic spin valves.

Seeing the significant increase in the number of nuclear power plants, as well as models and modifications of nuclear reactors, it becomes important to find out/establish the advantages of certain plants. At the same time, designers face a number of questions for which optimal solutions have not yet been found. At nuclear plants, there is the largest turnover of financial funds and the smallest gain in economy brings huge profits, but one should not forget about reliability and costs during the plant construction. This is a complex problem that is solved at the design stage. Calculations of the reactor at the design stage make it possible to determine the main parameters of the active zone, temperature values, etc. Thermohydraulic calculation of the active zone of the reactor is one of the cornerstones in justifying the safe operation of the nuclear power plant. Calculations of coolant parameters and temperatures of fuel elements are carried out at all stages of designing and proving the safety of nuclear power plants. Twisted pipes and finned heat transfer surfaces are widely used in engineering to increase the effective heat transfer coefficient. In particular, longitudinal, transverse, and spiral edges are used for finning the shells of fuel elements of nuclear reactors and the outer surfaces of steam generator pipes. Finning not only increases the heat transfer surface on the side where the heat transfer coefficient has a low value, but also significantly affects the hydrodynamics of the flow, and thus affects this coefficient. It is obvious that the better the medium is mixed in the main flow and in the intercoral zone, the higher the heat transfer coefficient is. The most profitable forms of fuel elements shells finning are chevron and polyzonal finning, which are performed in the form of a multiturn spiral with a large step. The R-function theory turned out to be quite convenient for building mathematical models of finned shells of fuel elements with straight and helical plates, as well as for building the corresponding objects on a 3D printer. From a practical point of view, the relevance of the problem is also determined by the significant spread of twisted cylindrical bodies, twisted channels, coils in the energy, chemical, oil, gas, metallurgical industries and in heat engineering equipment. The flows that arise at this time make it possible to intensify the processes of heat and mass exchange and achieve savings in energy resources

Summary A series of flow visualization experiments was carried out to examine the pore scale behavior of the solution gas drive process in heavy oil reservoirs. The main objective was to testify several speculative theories that had been put forward to explain the anomalous production behavior of heavy oil reservoirs producing under the solution gas drive process. Contrary to previous postulations, the asphaltene constituents did not appear to play a significant role in the nucleation and stabilization of the gas bubbles that evolved during the solution gas drive process. Experimental evidence also suggests that the production of heavy oil is not accompanied by a large population of microbubbles. These observations suggest that the production enhancement in the solution gas process in heavy oil reservoirs may be related to other mechanisms such as viscous coupling effects, sand production, wormhole effects, etc. Introduction Primary production of heavy oil reservoirs operating under the solution gas drive mechanism exhibits an unexpectedly higher primary recovery with a slower pressure decline rate, lower than expected gas oil ratios, and higher oil production rates. These reservoirs which are prolific during the primary production phase have shown very poor response to secondary recovery techniques, such as thermal recovery. Ongoing observations in the fields 1–4 and preliminary observations in laboratories 5–7 strongly suggest that the cold production process of heavy oil reservoirs by the solution gas drive process involves a multitude of effects. A detailed analysis of such unusual production behavior was first provided by Smith.1 He suggested that the solution gas drive in heavy oil reservoirs involves simultaneous flow of oil and gas in the form of microbubbles. Following this, the flow behavior of such gas-oil dispersions has been the subject of several investigators and considerable speculation.2–9 However, the solution gas mechanism in heavy oil reservoirs remains controversial and poorly understood. Background In the solution gas drive process, the main source of energy driving the oil towards the wellbore is the evolution and expansion of the gas bubbles initially dissolved in the oil. The role of the gas bubbles in the oil displacement process has been studied for a long time.10--16 The first visual studies of the behavior of the solution gas process at the microscopic level was performed by Chatenever et al.14 using thin glass bead packings and thin sections of natural sandstone and limestone. With the advent of glass micromodels, flow visualization studies were conducted to examine the microscopic behavior of the solution gas drive process.17–22 All these studies provided a direct observation of pore level events. However, a comprehensive understanding of the pore scale physics in the solution gas drive process has not yet been attained. Moreover, recent observations in the field led to revised thinking of the mechanisms involved in the solution gas drive process in heavy oil reservoirs. The flow of heavy oil under the solution gas drive process appears to be more complex than what is expected from conventional solution gas drive theories. None of the previous studies focused on the behavior of the solution gas process in heavy oil reservoirs. To acquire an improved understanding of the solution gas drive mechanisms, it is necessary to consider the pore scale physics. Most of the questions concerning nucleation, growth, coalescence, and flow of the gas bubbles dispersed in oil can be answered only by direct examination of individual pore scale events. Although it is not possible to visually examine the processes occurring at the pore level in actual reservoir rocks, a very close approximation can perhaps be achieved in a micromodel. Micromodels provide a very convenient means of directly observing the formation, growth, flow, and trapping of gas bubbles. The main objective of this work was to carry out a series of flow visualization experiments, using a high pressure etched glass micromodel, to make a detailed investigation of the effects of asphaltene particles, pressure depletion rates, and sand wettability on the pore level flow mechanisms in the solution gas drive process. To the best of our knowledge, there has been no such systematic investigation of pore scale physics of the solution gas drive process in heavy oil reservoirs. The applications and technical contributions of such a study include the following:an improved understanding of the solution gas drive mechanism in heavy oil reservoirs,planning optimum development strategies for heavy oil reservoirs, andunderstanding of the condition of the reservoir at the end of the primary production phase which is helpful for developing an effective follow-up secondary recovery technique. Micromodel Apparatus The experimental setup is shown schematically in Fig. 1. The heart of the test rig is the high pressure etched glass micromodel. Conceptually, it is simple in design. Two glass plates were held together by overburden pressure inside a windowed pressure vessel. One of the glass plates had a detailed flow pattern chemically etched onto it, the other plate was unetched and had parallel sides. The flow pattern used in this work is displayed in Fig. 2. Here, the black dots represent sand grains while the white area represents the flow channels. The center to center distance between adjoining "sand grains" was 500 µm and the diameter of each dot was 334 µm. The average depth of etched flow channels was about 50 µm. The pore volume within the boundaries of the etched pattern was approximately 75 µL. The etched flow patterns were illuminated with high intensity halogen light bulbs underneath the bottom window of the pressure vessel. The overburden pressure in the pressure vessel was maintained at 600 psi (4.14 MPa) throughout the entire study.

The article deals with the problematic issues of the forensic medical definition of the concept of automobile trauma. An analysis of various literature sources has been carried out, according to which it can be concluded that, on the one hand, there is no single definition of car trauma for today, on the other - that any of the available definitions suffers from a certain incompleteness. With this in mind, the author developed a universal definition of car injuries for the needs of forensic doctors, and a more extensive - for both forensic doctors and experts - transport routeologists; The latter can be used for the development of issues of a related (forensic and transport-investigative) character. Introduction. The concept of «car trauma» is firmly embedded in the structure of forensic medicine, this kind of injury is devoted to many scientific works. And, nevertheless, as the analysis of various literary data testifies, for today there is no single generally accepted forensic medical definition of automobile trauma. This situation can hardly be considered normal. Therefore, the purpose of this study was the analysis of various literature sources on car trauma, own practice, and the formulation of the most optimal concept of car trauma.Material and methods of investigation. The material of this study is various literature sources devoted to the problems of forensic medical examination of car injuries, their comprehensive analysis in terms of completeness and validity of the proposed forensic medical definitions of this type of injury.Results and its discussion. It seems that in order to avoid the artificial and unnecessary narrowing of the concept of car trauma, it is possible to offer the following purely forensic medical definition: «Trauma is a complex of injuries that result from various traumatic effects on the human body during a road traffic accident «. But to give a modern forensic medical definition of car trauma is not the whole solution of the problem. The fact is that, perhaps, irretrievably passes those times when, solely on the basis of the nature of bodily injuries, the victims made profound conclusions about the form and exact mechanism of contact interaction between the car and the victim’s body, without due analysis of other data, for example, research of clothes and shoes (Which causes obvious bewilderment - after all, the clothes and shoes affected by modern expert practice are usually researched by forensic doctors!), The results of expert car research, study Results of the inspection of the scene. Meanwhile, in the existing definitions of car injuries it is only a matter of bodilyharm, other objects (at least clothes and shoes, as «standard» for forensic researchers) are not even mentioned. But today the most reliable data on the circumstances of injuries to victims during an accident are obtained as a result of joint work of experts of several specialties - forensic doctors, transport specialists, and others. That is why the author of this work took the liberty to offer not narrow, only forensic, the concept of car trauma, but broader (forensic and transport-tracological) definition of the concept of the mechanism of traumatic effects on the human body during an accident. It seems that this concept, although it goes beyond the generally accepted forensic concepts of car trauma, nevertheless more closely meets the needs of expert practice.So, the synthesis of available scientific data and a comprehensive understanding of the problems of the transport trauma allows us to conclude that under the mechanism of traumatic impacts on the human body in case of an accident in expert activity one should understand, more often than not, the process (often complex) of mechanical contact interaction between the human body, Shoes and parts of a moving car, usually resulting in the formation of bodily injuries, injuries and marks on clothing and shoes and the corresponding parts of the car.This definition is not exhaustive - based on the specific type and specific circumstances of the accident, in addition to the listed objects, the objects, parts of the pavement, parts of other vehicles, which lead to the formation of corresponding damages and traces, and These objects. In addition, not only mechanical factors, but also other factors (thermal, chemical, etc.) that affect the bodies of victims directly related to road accidents can act on the bodies of victims during an accident, and is an essential component of the accident.In addition, it should be borne in mind that in practice there are often situations when the process of contact interaction between the listed objects does not cause the formation of visible and pathologically significant damages and traces on a part of these objects. So, with a low intensity of the contact interaction between the car and the pedestrian’s body, there may not be any tracologically significant damage and traces from such contact. In turn, if there are obvious traces of contact with a pedestrian of the corresponding visible bodily injuries, a pedestrian may not form.In addition, in practice, during the same accident there is not one, but much more participants. Some of them received visible bodily injuries, some did not. And in any case, no matter what the participant of an accident states about the absence of bodily injuries - he must be examined by an expert, and therefore is an independent object of expert investigation, regardless of whether or not he will be found bodily injuries.Sometimes the fact of the presence of bodily injuries in one participant in an accident and the fact that the other does not have a valuable differential-diagnostic criterion that allows to locate these persons inside the car. And it often happens that the injured party has no physical injuries, but nevertheless, the damage and traces valuable for expert diagnosis are formed on his clothes and shoes. All this should be taken into account by experts.Conclusion.1. The analysis of the literature data suggests that there is no generally accepted definition of an automobile trauma.2. The various definitions of car trauma that are available suffer from significant shortcomings, primarily incompleteness.3. Based on the analysis of literature data and the generalization of existing expert practice, the author proposes a universal definition of car trauma for the needs of forensic doctors and an expanded - forensic and transport-tracological definition of this type of injury for use by both forensic doctors and transport routeologists during the development of questions Complex examinations.

In recent years, massive open online courses (MOOCs) have become quite popular. Such courses are either completely free or cost nominally. Generally, the MOOCs face the challenge of not being recognized as ‘regular’ courses (i.e., the ones taken at the traditional learning institutions). One of the main reasons for this lack of acceptability is the assessment in an unsupervised environment, which is prone to the problems of test-taker’s online lookups or interaction with others for finding the answers to the test questions. A few ways of alleviating this problem include: limiting the time for answering the questions, the avoidance of repetitive questions, and the creation of a large number of questions. This paper presents a tool named QAgen that enables the automatic creation of a large number of questions and answers related to different topics in computer/electrical engineering (ECE), computer science, physics, etc. Specifically, the tool is related to the courses on digital logic design, computer architecture, etc. The generated questions are in a format that is suitable both for learning management system (LMS) based and/or non-LMS-based assessment in conventional courses or MOOCs. The proposed tool is based on open-source software, thus eliminating the need for any commercial software packages. The underlying principles of QAgen are applicable to other engineering/science courses as well, if the assessment methods require the creation of some connected-object diagrams, tables and equations. For assessing the usefulness of QAgen, practice question sets were created for three different courses. The student surveys for these courses indicated that the questions helped students prepare for actual tests/examinations. Especially favored by the students was the availability of correct answers at the end of each practice test/examination.

Infrared Spectroscopy (IR) has traditionally been considered a “non-destructive” analysis method because it causes no chemical change to the sample, and the sample can be recovered for further analysis. However, physical changes are generally necessary for the sample to be introduced into the spectrometer: slicing, crushing, dissolving, melting, etc. In an art object or historical artifact, these sampling methods can be considered somewhat “destructive.”

To ensure the quality learning of students, course outcome assessment is vital element of outcome based education. To achieve course outcomes, various modes of pedagogy and assessment are essential. There are different modes of assessment for In-semester examination like multiple choice questions, time bound pen and paper, presentations, seminars, assignment etc. This paper explains the use of assignment mode for effective assessment of students. This paper highlights how assignment mode helps students to apply concepts taught in classroom to solve various problems on applications of engineering mathematics. We had done assessment of 610+ F. Y. B. Tech students by giving different assignment to each student which included different set of questions for the course Linear Algebra and Univariate Calculus with time bound submission. This ensured that students have to solve the assignment independently without taking help of peers. This paper describes how assignment mode has improved various competencies of students. This paper is illustrated with responses of F. Y. B. Tech students. The proposed method is useful for online and offline mode of examinations.

Forensic expertise, as a form of using special knowledge, is one of the most effective ways to establish the truth during the investigation of threats or violence against a law enforcement officer, especially given the often-limited amount of criminally valuable information in such proceedings, which conditions the relevance of this paper. The purpose of the paper is to establish the types and analyse the possibilities of forensic examinations that can be assigned during the investigation of threats or violence against a law enforcement officer. During the study, a set of scientific methods was applied – system, comparative legal, statistical, analysis, bibliographic, synthesis, induction, and deduction. According to the results of the study, a holistic view of the complex of forensic studies was presented, which: are most often assigned in the proceedings under consideration (examination of sound and video recordings, fingerprinting, examination of cold steel and firearms, forensic trasological examination), are mandatory if injuries are caused to the victim (forensic medical), can be assigned depending on the needs of the specific production (engineering and transport, phototechnical, forensic psychiatric examination); also, the types of examinations, the capabilities of which are not fully used by investigators (forensic psychological), were identified. The most important problems that arise at the stage of assigning expert examinations and can largely affect the quality of expert opinions were identified: violation of the deadlines for assigning expert examinations, incorrect formulation of questions to the expert, provision of insufficient quantity and/or poor quality of materials for research, incorrect definition of the type of expert study. It is emphasised that in the conditions of martial law and the expansion of the list of methods and tools of committing the investigated criminal offences in connection with it, there is a need for expert study, the objects of which are explosives and substances, various weapons, etc

Forensic expertise, as a form of using special knowledge, is one of the most effective ways to establish the truth during the investigation of threats or violence against a law enforcement officer, especially given the often-limited amount of criminally valuable information in such proceedings, which conditions the relevance of this paper. The purpose of the paper is to establish the types and analyse the possibilities of forensic examinations that can be assigned during the investigation of threats or violence against a law enforcement officer. During the study, a set of scientific methods was applied – system, comparative legal, statistical, analysis, bibliographic, synthesis, induction, and deduction. According to the results of the study, a holistic view of the complex of forensic studies was presented, which: are most often assigned in the proceedings under consideration (examination of sound and video recordings, fingerprinting, examination of cold steel and firearms, forensic trasological examination), are mandatory if injuries are caused to the victim (forensic medical), can be assigned depending on the needs of the specific production (engineering and transport, phototechnical, forensic psychiatric examination); also, the types of examinations, the capabilities of which are not fully used by investigators (forensic psychological), were identified. The most important problems that arise at the stage of assigning expert examinations and can largely affect the quality of expert opinions were identified: violation of the deadlines for assigning expert examinations, incorrect formulation of questions to the expert, provision of insufficient quantity and/or poor quality of materials for research, incorrect definition of the type of expert study. It is emphasised that in the conditions of martial law and the expansion of the list of methods and tools of committing the investigated criminal offences in connection with it, there is a need for expert study, the objects of which are explosives and substances, various weapons, etc

Flows in highly heterogeneous porous media are found in many practical fields, such as hydrology, petroleum engineering, and chemical engineering. The case of two-region heterogeneous media (fractured media, catalytic beds, etc.) plays a fundamental role. The different questions associated with this specific case are illustrated in this paper for two different kinds of transport: (i) flow of a slightly compressible fluid, (ii) dispersion of a tracer. Many different theoretical models are implemented using COMSOL Multiphysics™. These models correspond to direct simulation and macro-scale or large-scale models such as fully averaged models or mixed models.

AbstractThe concept of Metzner and Otto was initially developed for correlating power measurements in stirred vessels for shear-thinning fluids in the laminar regime with regard to those obtained for Newtonian liquids. To get this overlap, Metzner and Otto postulated and determined an “effective shear rate” which was proportional to the rotational speed of the impeller Although it was not based on a strong theoretical background, it was rapidly admitted as a practical engineering approach and was extended for seeking out a “Newtonian correspondence” with non-Newtonian results (i.e. different classes of fluids). This was applied in a variety of tank processes even for predicting heat transfer or mixing time, which stretches far away from the frame initially envisaged by Metzner and Otto themselves. This paper aimed to show how dimensional analysis offers a theoretically founded framework to address this issue without the experimental determination of effective quantities. This work also aimed to enlarge the underlying questions to any process in which a variable material property exists and impacts the process. For that purpose, the pending questions of Metzner and Otto concept were first reminded (i.e. dependence of the Metzner–Otto constant to rheological parameters, physical meaning of the effective shear rate, etc.). Then, the theoretical background underlying the dimensional analysis was described and applied to the case of variable material properties (including non-Newtonian fluids), by introducing in particular the concept of material similarity. Finally, two examples were proposed to demonstrate how the rigorous framework associated with the dimensional analysis is a powerful method to exceed the concept of Metzner and Otto and can be adapted beyond the Ostwald–de Waele power law model to a wide range of non-Newtonian fluids in various processes, without being restricted to batch reactor and laminar regime.

The construction industry is one of the priority sectors of the economy and has a great social significance. Despite the implementation of the state policy on counteracting criminal offenses in the budgetary sphere, their level remains significant, especially in such priority sectors as construction, reconstruction and repair of state facilities. As expert practice shows, recently, the number of expert studies related to the determination of the cost of actually executed construction work has increased. Crimes in the field of construction have recently been characterized by a complex mechanism of accomplishment. During their investigation, the investigators have tasks whose solution requires the application of specialist knowledge in various fields, including accounting, engineering and construction, etc. As analysis of investigative practice shows, in the investigation of crimes in the field of construction, a comprehensive judicial-economic and construction-technical expertise is conducted. Comprehensive examination should be appointed when the solution of the questions posed is impossible as a result of several consecutive examinations. There is an integrated examination, in the production of which the solution of the problem is impossible without the simultaneous participation of specialists in various fields of knowledge and formulation of their general conclusion. Complex examination is carried out by at least two experts from different fields of knowledge or different areas within one area of ​​knowledge. The article analyzes the peculiarities of the process of carrying out complex construction-economic researches and examinations, reveals the main tasks of the complex judicial building-technical and economic expertise, as well as proposes a general algorithm for the implementation of a comprehensive judicial engineering-building and economic expertise. The authors of the article agree that in most cases, the appointment of a comprehensive judicial construction, technical and economic expertise is the most efficient, methodologically correct way to the solution of expert tasks, when obtaining a reliable answer is guaranteed only by a general generalization of the results of the application of basic expert knowledge and methods. Key words: special knowledge, multi-discipline expertise, multi-discipline construction, technical and economic expertise.

Olive leaves (OLs) are well known for being rich in oleuropein, their main bioactive molecule which has recently been attracting great interest from the scientific community due to its antiviral properties, including Covid-19 disease. Furthermore, the high-temperature/short-time drying process has found applications for various plants and food processing, which might be also implemented for the drying of OLs. This study focuses on: 1. the mathematical modeling of thin-layer high-temperature-drying (HTD) kinetic of olive (var. Chemlal and Oleaster) leaves, and 2. the determination of HTD effect on some physicochemical properties (oleuropein, chlorophylls, and CIELab color parameters) of the dried olive leaves (DOLs). For this, four drying temperatures (100, 120, 140, and 160 °C) were applied. For comparison purposes, low-temperature DOL samples were also prepared. The obtained data have shown that among the tens tested mathematical models, the Midilli et al. model describes more correctly experimental data for all drying temperatures and for both olive leaf varieties (R2 = 0.9960, SEE = 0.0085, RMSE = 0.0165 and χ2 = 0.0006). Moreover, the results show that the HTD at 120 and 160 °C does not differ from freeze-drying in terms of oleuropein retention (p < 0.05), highlighting the technological interest in the high-temperature/short-time drying process. Considering the biological value of oleuropein, in particular its antiviral activity, the study deserves further investigation in order to elucidate certain questions such as the storability of DOLs, and their valorization as fortification ingredient in food and pharmaceutical formulations, evaluation in vitro of their biological activities, etc.

Abstract BACKGROUND Oocyte activation deficiency (OAD) is attributed to the majority of cases underlying failure of ICSI cycles, the standard treatment for male factor infertility. Oocyte activation encompasses a series of concerted events, triggered by sperm-specific phospholipase C zeta (PLCζ), which elicits increases in free cytoplasmic calcium (Ca2+) in spatially and temporally specific oscillations. Defects in this specific pattern of Ca2+ release are directly attributable to most cases of OAD. Ca2+ release can be clinically mediated via assisted oocyte activation (AOA), a combination of mechanical, electrical and/or chemical stimuli which artificially promote an increase in the levels of intra-cytoplasmic Ca2+. However, concerns regarding safety and efficacy underlie potential risks that must be addressed before such methods can be safely widely used. OBJECTIVE AND RATIONALE Recent advances in current AOA techniques warrant a review of the safety and efficacy of these practices, to determine the extent to which AOA may be implemented in the clinic. Importantly, the primary challenges to obtaining data on the safety and efficacy of AOA must be determined. Such questions require urgent attention before widespread clinical utilization of such protocols can be advocated. SEARCH METHODS A literature review was performed using databases including PubMed, Web of Science, Medline, etc. using AOA, OAD, calcium ionophores, ICSI, PLCζ, oocyte activation, failed fertilization and fertilization failure as keywords. Relevant articles published until June 2019 were analysed and included in the review, with an emphasis on studies assessing large-scale efficacy and safety. OUTCOMES Contradictory studies on the safety and efficacy of AOA do not yet allow for the establishment of AOA as standard practice in the clinic. Heterogeneity in study methodology, inconsistent sample inclusion criteria, non-standardized outcome assessments, restricted sample size and animal model limitations render AOA strictly experimental. The main scientific concern impeding AOA utilization in the clinic is the non-physiological method of Ca2+ release mediated by most AOA agents, coupled with a lack of holistic understanding regarding the physiological mechanism(s) underlying Ca2+ release at oocyte activation. LIMITATIONS, REASONS FOR CAUTION The number of studies with clinical relevance using AOA remains significantly low. A much wider range of studies examining outcomes using multiple AOA agents are required. WIDER IMPLICATIONS In addition to addressing the five main challenges of studies assessing AOA safety and efficacy, more standardized, large-scale, multi-centre studies of AOA, as well as long-term follow-up studies of children born from AOA, would provide evidence for establishing AOA as a treatment for infertility. The delivery of an activating agent that can more accurately recapitulate physiological fertilization, such as recombinant PLCζ, is a promising prospect for the future of AOA. Further to PLCζ, many other avenues of physiological oocyte activation also require urgent investigation to assess other potential physiological avenues of AOA. STUDY FUNDING/COMPETING INTERESTS D.G. was supported by Stanford University’s Bing Overseas Study Program. J.K. was supported by a Healthcare Research Fellowship Award (HF-14-16) made by Health and Care Research Wales (HCRW), alongside a National Science, Technology, and Innovation plan (NSTIP) project grant (15-MED4186-20) awarded by the King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology (KACST). The authors have no competing interests to declare.

System view, understanding systems and how they are controlled is an important discipline in engineering education. Nowadays considering the ever increasing knowledge, the explosion of information available at the internet, the available visual technics and software tools there is a need to revisit the content and the teaching methodology of the first control course. The IFAC Technical Committee on Control Education (9.4) is circulating a pilot survey addressing these questions. Here we present our experience related to renewing the control course. The topics of the course are given. The main ideas are explained on two levels: hopefully in an understandable way for everyone, and precisely, using mathematical tools. In the lectures some parts of the multilevel e-book, Sysbook are referred, which has been elaborated to present the main principles governing systems and control on different levels. Besides static teaching materials interactive demonstrations developed for Sysbook are also used in the lectures which enhance the effectiveness and also enjoyment of the learning process. At the last part of each lecture the students are active solving problems related to the topic of the lecture. They are motivated by the obtained extra evaluation points. Then the solutions of the problems are discussed. Computer laboratory exercises using MATLAB/SIMULINK software contribute to understanding and applying the analysis and synthesis methods discussed in the lectures. The course is supported by the recently published Springer books: Keviczky et al.: Control Engineering and Control Engineering: MATLAB Exercises. In the content of the control course a new feature is the emphasis of the YOULA parameterization method for controller design already in the first control course and showing that other controller design methods can be considered as its special cases. Nowadays in education a new teaching – learning paradigm is Open Content Development (OCD) which means active participation of the teachers and students creating an up-to-date teaching material. This project runs at the Department of Technical Education at the Budapest University of Technology and Economics since 2015 supported by the Hungarian Academy of Sciences. In the frame of vocational teacher training programs several so-called micro-contents have been developed. Utilizing the experiences of these pilot efforts the Sysbook platform has been connected to the OCD model. In a special surface Sysbook provides several case studies for systems and their control (e.g. driving, energy production and distribution, oil refinery, systems and control in the living organism, etc.). Teachers and students studying systems and control can elaborate new case studies in their areas of interest which means active application of the learned topics. After evaluation these projects can be uploaded in the student area of Sysbook. Summarizing: in the methodology of teaching a basic control course the motivation of the students can be increased by active participation in the learning process, including interactive demonstration of the principles, solving exercises at the end of the lectures and getting immediate feedback, solving analysis and synthesis problems in the computer laboratories, and developing their own case studies for Sysbook. It should be also emphasized that the examples of systems and their control should be chosen mainly from the area of the specialization of the students (electrical or software engineering, chemical engineering, biology, economics, etc.). Also it is important to provide real-time experiments in laboratory work or using distant laboratories. IFAC Repository would be also of great help reaching useful resources.

Photo by Mehdi Imani on Unsplash ABSTRACT Non-Profit and Non-Governmental Organizations (NPOs/NGOs) often receive research funds from private for-profit corporations through Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR). Harm industries such as tobacco and alcohol have utilized this opportunity to clear themselves of any blame in contributing to the disease burden, thus obscuring the real danger of their products. The association of public health institutions with such harmful industries has given rise to both financial and non-financial Conflicts of Interest (COIs). To resolve conflicts that arise out of this association, institutions have sought prohibition and full disclosure models. This article highlights the necessity to expand conflict of interest and include industries of implicit harm (fast fashion, mining, cosmetics, and sugary drinks) and not limit itself to just tobacco and alcohol. Simultaneously, the article underlines the hurdles in such an expansion. In conclusion, the article provides a hybrid model for conflict assessment that attempts to account for the limitations of a prohibition model as well as a full disclosure model. INTRODUCTION As public health research lacks funding, corporations fill a funding gap by allocating money to non-governmental organizations and non-profits.[1] However, the financial involvement of private corporations in public health research raises questions about conflicts of interest and research integrity.[2] Conflicts of interest must be a consideration in the philosophical framework that public health institutions ought to adopt. The recent focus on promoting a “socially conscious capitalistic environment” has led to the inception of corporate social responsibility[3] or an obligation of corporations to address social concerns their products or operations might bring about. Corporations engage in responsible actions to improve transparency and be more accountable for their actions.[4] Some corporations are motivated to be good corporate citizens through ethically profitable practices; they recognize a self-imposed obligation to use their resources to protect, and benefit society and they adhere to a social contract.[5] Corporate social responsibility has strong parallels with entrepreneurial philanthropy. By investing in research, that benefits the socio-economically disadvantaged, social responsibility initiatives further social goals.[6] There are two distinct problems with corporate social responsibility models: First, they attempt (but fail) to make up for a poor corporate endeavor like selling cigarettes. Some companies abuse their responsibilities and produce unhealthy goods or engage in practices that are contrary to social good. Furthermore, their philanthropic engagement may be ill-motivated. It enables them to access the socio-political domain, benefit from tax breaks, and profit directly from the “generosity” label without changing their core practices.[7] Second, corporate social responsibility leads to conflicts of interest in public research. Corporations fund public health research as a way to “act” responsible and to further a social goal.[8] Corporations that fund research at academic institutions, and non-profits pose financial conflicts of interest.[9] l. Conflict of Interest: Funding Effect and Ethical Engagement Arguably, tobacco and alcohol industries are in stark contrast to the goals of public health.[10] Their involvement in and contribution towards public health research may be motivated by a desire to improve their reputation. Harm industries engaging in public health research create a fundamental ethical tension.[11] Many scholars have defined conflict of interest in a variety of ways. In this article, we take the definition of conflict of interest as "a set of circumstances that creates a risk that professional judgement or actions regarding a primary interest will be unduly influenced by a secondary or a competing interest" [12] Thus, a financial conflict of interest occurs when funding leads to the risk of compromising the research project that is financed by the corporation. "Funding Effect" was coined after a study showed significant differences in research outcomes of private and public-funded drug efficiency safety studies.[13] Private-industry-sponsored research produced commercially favorable outcomes in comparison to publicly sponsored studies.[14] Research sponsored by the tobacco industry had scientists produce biased data, often making the best case for industrial interests.[15] Receiving funds from for-profit corporations has also led to reduced dissemination of unfavorable results and under-reporting of negative findings.[16] There is not enough research to assess the value of corporate funding to those in academics.[17] Qualitative and quantitative empirical research may help shape best practices when engaging with private corporations. Corporate social responsibility creates an illusion of righteousness. Tobacco companies have funded public health research designed to influence tobacco control policies.[18] Corporations have used research to further the narrative that personal responsibility plays an outsized role in alcohol consumption, thereby ignoring the social determinants of addiction and programs that include alcohol supply reduction.[19] A similar narrative has pervaded the sugary drinks discussion.[20] While there are many considerations, there is no homogenous policy to help tackle conflicts of interest in public health research.[21] Academic journals mandate declaring financial conflicts of interest. [22] However, declarations should attempt to incorporate an institutional view of values and not restrict themselves to personal convictions. Rather than approaching each conflict of interest and using declarations, journals should evaluate conflicts of interest in terms of risk. Such an evaluation also would address embedded research practices that may appear ethical on the surface but represent unrecognized bias.[23] The Mohammed Ali effect is a good example of this phenomenon. Self-reporting of ethical research behavior by scientists is under representative of actual occurrences of misconduct simply because peers are held to different standards than self.[24] ll. The Prohibition Model – A Deontological Framework The prohibition model discards any research in association with industries that would create a conflict of interest.[25] Academic institutions or journals that prohibit research by industry limit the ability of harm industries to engage in philanthropic public health research that may reflect pro-industry bias. The non-association with harm industries draws from Kant’s categorical imperative. In From the Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals, Kant[26] believes that moral behavior exists a priori. If we consider ethics a posteriori, we only deal with what we ‘already did,’ which is not the basis for a moral system. In a Kantian analysis, non-association with harm industries is the starting point of ethical behavior. Furthermore, in Metaphysics of Morals, Kant[27] outlines the motivations to act. He posits that ethical actions are motivated by duty and not by self-interest or immediate inclination. Thus, the prohibition model grounds itself in strong ethical imperatives. However, it would limit public health research funding. lll. The Disclosure Model: Conflicts of Interest are Inevitable The disclosure model claims that transparent disclosure procedures are enough to manage conflicts of interest. Often, a placating response to any concern is the disclosure of otherwise unavailable information.[28] Any disclosure should include enough information about the nature, scope, duration, and monetary forces within the for-profit organizational web to allow institutions to assess the risk to their own reputation of engaging in partnership or publishing research conducted by corporations.[29] In addition to transparency, disclosure allows for weighing risks and benefits by assessing proportionality. The proportionality principle requires that the benefits of the association or accepting funds from for-profits be great to justify the conflict of interest.[30] As a result of full disclosure, there is scope for increased accountability from private corporations and public health scholars to ensure that values are upheld throughout the association. However, disclosure is not always effective as it does not prevent or remedy a conflict of interest.[31] Disclosure rests on a presumption of wrongdoing and can deter prospective corporate engagement in public health research. However, the risk of deterring research participation is not a concern strong enough to loosen the values a public health institution must strive to achieve. Values such as transparency, proportionality, precautionary measures, and accountability make it easier to navigate disclosure requirements. Disclosure as a standalone method is not a foolproof technique.[32] Thus, a tailor-made model that can switch between the prohibition model and the disclosure model on a case-by-case basis might be more effective. Furthermore, academics need to ensure reasonable confidence that corporations would disclose financial conflicts of interest as the disclosure requirement often acts on an honor system. In case of non-compliance, either terminating the ties or establishing a legal recourse could be sought as alternatives. lV. The Case for Expanding the Definition of Conflicts of Interests Many industries are explicitly harmful to people. Tobacco and alcohol corporations engage in actions and create products that work against the ideals of public health. Industries like fast fashion, cosmetics, and many others that are seemingly harmless contribute significantly to the deterioration of public health through their treatment of workers, environmental impacts, and lobbying efforts that include relaxing laws meant to protect consumers and workers. The fashion industry produces large amounts of inexpensive clothing by outsourcing labor to lower- and middle-income countries,[33] creating environmental and occupational hazards for their citizens. Many countries lack institutional structures to prevent abuse of workers.[34] Fast fashion also leads to the production of solid waste that ends up in landfills with no efficient mechanism for its disposal.[35] The cosmetic industry releases a great number of micro-plastics into aquatic systems through face products which lead to a shift in their chemical composition.[36] The gambling industry harms health as gambling is addictive and can financially harm individuals, families, and interpersonal relationships.[37] The mining industry has occupational hazards such as inhaling of toxic substances as well as environmental hazards.[38] The sugary drink industry increases the burden of obesity, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease.[39] A prohibition model works well with industries that explicitly harm. Thus, non-association with the tobacco and alcohol industry becomes obvious. The difficulty in deciphering conflict of interest through association arises when public health institutions are looking to expand their non-association to industries of implicit harm. When looking to expand non-association into industries such as mining, fast fashion, sugary drinks, etc., we need to move away from a one-size-fits-all approach. Disclosure is not enough as it does not resolve the risk of bias; it merely provides transparency. Yet, a prohibition model would require academic institutions and journals to research funding relationships as well as harmful practices and would lead to less funding for research. V. The Traffic Light Model: A tailor-made hybrid of prohibition and disclosure Academic institutions, non-profits, and public health organizations might shape market practices and unearth latent intentions to contradict the social determinants of health if they are able to eliminate bias in public health research. This section presents a hybrid model for conflict-of-interest assessment and resolution that takes the metaphor of a traffic light. Figure 1 represents a schematic of the hybrid. Figure 1: A Schematic of the Traffic Light Hybrid As the schematic represents, industries that project values against public health, such as tobacco and alcohol, fall under the red light and hence can be put under non-association, i.e., the prohibition model. Expanding non-association to industries implicit in their harms, such as fast fashion, sugary drinks, mining, companies that exploit labor, would require us to proceed with the disclosure model. As mentioned before, disclosure would require assessing the conflict of interest in terms of proportionality, transparency, accountability, and ensuring that the precautionary principle has been met. Providing a legal recourse at every significant point during research might be helpful to eliminate conflicts that surface during the intermediate stages of research. The entire disclosure model falls under the yellow light urging us to go slow and err on the side of caution. The green light comprises pro-public health values corporations and exercises impactful operational methods that do not devalue public health goals. However, this should not be taken for face value. Any suspicion of conflict must be dealt with disclosure, and risk-based assessment should precede every funding decision. The three categories serve as a starting point for public health researchers to invest more in building a framework that helps assess such conflicts. Conflicts of interest are rather dynamic and require constant attention. Examining research practices and funder objectives is crucial. The impact of private corporations on public health research needs to be widely discussed in the academic community. Although the hybrid provides a starting point in designing a more dynamic and flexible framework, the presence of an institutional conflict of interest policy and committee with independent review and oversight of research is also a necessity.[40] Considering decreased federal funding, scholars have argued the necessity for corporate funding. Besides meeting the financial demand, corporate funding has brought in benefits such as employment opportunities, access to otherwise unavailable tools and technology, and turning academic research into commercially viable practice.[41] Although the goals of public health research, such as the creation of public goods, affordable and safe housing, access to vaccines, etc., may seem utilitarian, it is important to understand that corporations influence research practices that are more deontological in nature. Research integrity has to do with ethical conduct of research and shaping best practices. Thus, an efficient way to deal with research practice and bias is by invoking the Kantian categorical imperative grounded in procedural ethics rather than consequentialist ethics. A Kantian perspective allows considering conflicts of interest as an institutional value. In addition to focusing on individual research practices, public health institutions need to develop an institutional conflict of interest framework where the values of a public health institution shape corporate engagement. Another closely related discourse that has a significant bearing on corporate involvement is commercial determinants of health. It considers corporations as contributors to disease burden and holds them as part of a structural problem.[42] By shaping research practices and investing in designing conflicts of interest policies, public health institutions can redefine the narrative of accountability. By actively evaluating financial links within the corporation and assessing risks of bias and influence in research, public health institutions can check the power imbalance that corporations tend to misuse.[43] More importantly, furthering a narrative that defines disease burden in terms of corporate contribution signals support to those who fight against the injustices perpetrated by large-scale corporations. People from lower- and middle-income countries and several indigenous communities have been forced out of their neighborhoods for corporate expansion.[44] As a public health institution, it is important to support vulnerable groups outpowered and forced into poor living conditions by global corporations. CONCLUSION The consumption of tobacco, alcohol, polluting motor vehicles, and other products of disease-promoting corporations have presented a significant struggle in improving public health. Engaging with such corporations through corporate social responsibility ventures into the highly contentious ethical territory. From a fundamental difference in the values endorsed, for-profit corporations present a conflict of interest in public health research. Public health institutions should be wary of the influence of corporate funding provided through social responsibility programs. Academic bias and the use of corporate social responsibility as a backdoor to legitimizing questionable practices are problematic. The prohibition and disclosure models independently do not perform efficiently against the dynamic nature of conflicts of interest. The hybrid model for institutional conflict-of-interest policy incorporates both the prohibition and disclosure models and allows for switching between them on a case-by-case basis. Managing corporate power requires dealing with conflict of interests broadly and as a risk-susceptibility issue rather than an occurrence issue. - [1] Denier, Y. (2008). Mind the gap! Three Approaches to Scarcity in Health Care. Medicine, Health Care and Philosophy, 11(1), 73-87. [2] Gupta, A., Holla, R., & Suri, S. (2015). Conflict of Interest in Public Health: Should There be a Law to Prevent It? Indian J Med Ethics, 12(3), 172-7. [3] de Vries, H. (2016). Invited Commentary: Corporate Social Responsibility and Public Health: An Unwanted Marriage; Resnik, D. B. (2019). Institutional Conflicts of Interest in Academic Research. Science and Engineering Ethics, 25(6), 1661-1669. [4] Lee, K., & Bialous, S. A. (2006). Corporate Social Responsibility: Serious Cause for Concern. Tobacco Control, 15(6), 419-419. [5] Macassa, G., da Cruz Francisco, J., & McGrath, C. (2017). Corporate social responsibility and population health. Health Science Journal, 11(5), 1-6. [6] Harvey, C., Gordon, J., & Maclean, M. (2021). The Ethics of Entrepreneurial Philanthropy. Journal of Business Ethics, 171(1), 33-49. [7] Harvey, C., Gordon, J., & Maclean, M. (2021). The Ethics of Entrepreneurial Philanthropy. Journal of Business Ethics, 171(1), 33-49. [8] Resnik, D. B. (2019). Institutional Conflicts of Interest in Academic Research. Science and Engineering Ethics, 25(6), 1661-1669. [9] Royo Bordonada, M., & García López, F. (2018). What Is and What Is Not a Conflict of Interest in Public Health Research. European Journal of Public Health, 28(suppl_4), cky213-750. [10] de Vries, H. (2016). Invited Commentary: Corporate Social Responsibility and Public Health: An Unwanted Marriage. [11] Lee, K., & Bialous, S. A. (2006). Corporate Social Responsibility: Serious Cause for Concern. Tobacco Control, 15(6), 419-419. [12] Gupta, A., Holla, R., & Suri, S. (2015). Conflict of Interest In Public Health: Should There Be A Law To Prevent It?. Indian J Med Ethics, 12(3), 172-7. [13] Krimsky, S. (2013). Do Financial Conflicts of Interest Bias Research? An Inquiry into The “Funding Effect” Hypothesis. Science, Technology, & Human Values, 38(4), 566-587. [14] Ibid. [15] Ibid. [16] Nakkash, R. T., Mugharbil, S., Alaouié, H., & Afifi, R. A. (2017). Attitudes of Public Health Academics Toward Receiving Funds from For-Profit Corporations: A Systematic Review. Public Health Ethics, 10(3), 298-303. [17] Nakkash, R. T., Mugharbil, S., Alaouié, H., & Afifi, R. A. (2017). Attitudes of Public Health Academics Toward Receiving Funds From For-Profit Corporations: A Systematic Review. Public Health Ethics, 10(3), 298-303. (An attempt to review the research failed as there was not data on the “Attitudes of Public Health Academics towards receiving funds from for-profit corporations.”) [18] de Vries, H. (2016). Invited Commentary: Corporate Social Responsibility and Public Health: An Unwanted Marriage. [19] Yoon, S., & Lam, T. H. (2013). The illusion of Righteousness: Corporate Social Responsibility Practices Of The Alcohol Industry. BMC Public Health, 13(1), 1-11. [20] Gupta, A., Holla, R., & Suri, S. (2015). Conflict of interest in Public Health: Should There Be A Law To Prevent It?. Indian J Med Ethics, 12(3), 172-7. [21] Shamoo, A. S., & Resnik, D. B. (2015). Responsible Conduct of Research (3rd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. [22] Resnik, D. B. (2019). Institutional Conflicts of Interest in Academic Research. Science And Engineering Ethics, 25(6), 1661-1669. [23] Field, M. J., & Lo, B. (Eds.). (2009). Conflict of Interest in Medical Research, Education, And Practice. [24] Fanelli, D. (2009). How Many Scientists Fabricate and Falsify Research? A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis Of Survey Data. PloS one, 4(5), e5738. [25] Field, M. J., & Lo, B. (Eds.). (2009). Conflict of Interest in Medical Research, Education, and Practice. [26] Kant, I. (2008). Groundwork for the Metaphysics of Morals. Yale University Press. [27] Kant, I. (2008). Groundwork for the Metaphysics of Morals. Yale University Press. [28] Field, M. J., & Lo, B. (Eds.). (2009). Conflict of Interest In Medical Research, Education, And Practice. [29] IbId. [30] Childress, James F., R. Gaare Bernheim, R. J. Bonnie, and A. L. Melnick. "Introduction: A Framework For Public Health Ethics." Essentials Of Public Health Ethics 1 (2015): 1-20. [31] Fleishman, J. L. (1981). The Disclosure Model and Its Limitations. Hastings Center Report, 15-17. [32] Ibid. [33] Bick, R., Halsey, E., & Ekenga, C. C. (2018). The Global Environmental Injustice of Fast Fashion. Environmental Health, 17(1), 1-4. [34] Anguelov, N. (2015). The Dirty Side of The Garment Industry: Fast Fashion and Its Negative Impact on Environment and Society. CRC Press. [35] Wicker, A. Fast Fashion Is Creating an Environmental Crisis. Newsweek. September 1, 2016; Available from: https://www.newsweek.com/2016/09/ 09/old-clothes-fashion-waste-crisis-494824.html. Accessed 13 Aug 2021 [36] Alabi, O. A., Ologbonjaye, K. I., Awosolu, O., & Alalade, O. E. (2019). Public and Environmental Health Effects of Plastic Wastes Disposal: A Review. J Toxicol Risk Assess, 5(021), 1-13. [37] Wardle, H., Reith, G., Langham, E., & Rogers, R. D. (2019). Gambling and Public Health: We Need Policy Action to Prevent Harm. BMJ, 365. [38] Hendryx, M. (2015). The Public Health Impacts of Surface Coal Mining. The Extractive Industries and Society, 2(4), 820-826. [39] Flynn, A., & Okuonzi, S. A. (2016). Coca-Cola's Multifaceted Threat to Global Public Health. The Lancet, 387(10013), 25. [40] Resnik, D. B. (2019). Institutional Conflicts of Interest in Academic Research. Science And Engineering Ethics, 25(6), 1661-1669. [41] Bayer, R., & Sampat, B. N. (2016). Corporate Funding for Schools of Public Health: Confronting the Ethical and Economic Challenges. American Journal of Public Health, 106(4), 615-618. [42] McKee, M., & Stuckler, D. (2018). Revisiting The Corporate and Commercial Determinants of Health. American Journal of Public Health, 108(9), 1167-1170. [43] Daube, M. (2018). Shining a Light on Industry Research Funding. American Journal of Public Health, 108(11), 1441. [44] Munarriz, G. (2008). Rhetoric and Reality: The World Bank Development Policies, Mining Corporations, and Indigenous Communities in Latin America. International Community Law Review, 10(4), 431-443.

A same-but-different dichotomy has recently been encapsulated within the US Food and Drug Administration’s ill-defined concept of “substantial equivalence” (USFDA, FDA). By invoking this concept the genetically modified organism (GMO) industry has escaped the rigors of safety testing that might otherwise apply. The curious concept of “substantial equivalence” grants a presumption of safety to GMO food. This presumption has yet to be earned, and has been used to constrain labelling of both GMO and non-GMO food. It is an idea that well serves corporatism. It enables the claim of difference to secure patent protection, while upholding the contrary claim of sameness to avoid labelling and safety scrutiny. It offers the best of both worlds for corporate food entrepreneurs, and delivers the worst of both worlds to consumers. The term “substantial equivalence” has established its currency within the GMO discourse. As the opportunities for patenting food technologies expand, the GMO recruitment of this concept will likely be a dress rehearsal for the developing debates on the labelling and testing of other techno-foods – including nano-foods and clone-foods. “Substantial Equivalence” “Are the Seven Commandments the same as they used to be, Benjamin?” asks Clover in George Orwell’s “Animal Farm”. By way of response, Benjamin “read out to her what was written on the wall. There was nothing there now except a single Commandment. It ran: ALL ANIMALS ARE EQUAL BUT SOME ANIMALS ARE MORE EQUAL THAN OTHERS”. After this reductionist revelation, further novel and curious events at Manor Farm, “did not seem strange” (Orwell, ch. X). Equality is a concept at the very core of mathematics, but beyond the domain of logic, equality becomes a hotly contested notion – and the domain of food is no exception. A novel food has a regulatory advantage if it can claim to be the same as an established food – a food that has proven its worth over centuries, perhaps even millennia – and thus does not trigger new, perhaps costly and onerous, testing, compliance, and even new and burdensome regulations. On the other hand, such a novel food has an intellectual property (IP) advantage only in terms of its difference. And thus there is an entrenched dissonance for newly technologised foods, between claiming sameness, and claiming difference. The same/different dilemma is erased, so some would have it, by appeal to the curious new dualist doctrine of “substantial equivalence” whereby sameness and difference are claimed simultaneously, thereby creating a win/win for corporatism, and a loss/loss for consumerism. This ground has been pioneered, and to some extent conquered, by the GMO industry. The conquest has ramifications for other cryptic food technologies, that is technologies that are invisible to the consumer and that are not evident to the consumer other than via labelling. Cryptic technologies pertaining to food include GMOs, pesticides, hormone treatments, irradiation and, most recently, manufactured nano-particles introduced into the food production and delivery stream. Genetic modification of plants was reported as early as 1984 by Horsch et al. The case of Diamond v. Chakrabarty resulted in a US Supreme Court decision that upheld the prior decision of the US Court of Customs and Patent Appeal that “the fact that micro-organisms are alive is without legal significance for purposes of the patent law”, and ruled that the “respondent’s micro-organism plainly qualifies as patentable subject matter”. This was a majority decision of nine judges, with four judges dissenting (Burger). It was this Chakrabarty judgement that has seriously opened the Pandora’s box of GMOs because patenting rights makes GMOs an attractive corporate proposition by offering potentially unique monopoly rights over food. The rear guard action against GMOs has most often focussed on health repercussions (Smith, Genetic), food security issues, and also the potential for corporate malfeasance to hide behind a cloak of secrecy citing commercial confidentiality (Smith, Seeds). Others have tilted at the foundational plank on which the economics of the GMO industry sits: “I suggest that the main concern is that we do not want a single molecule of anything we eat to contribute to, or be patented and owned by, a reckless, ruthless chemical organisation” (Grist 22). The GMO industry exhibits bipolar behaviour, invoking the concept of “substantial difference” to claim patent rights by way of “novelty”, and then claiming “substantial equivalence” when dealing with other regulatory authorities including food, drug and pesticide agencies; a case of “having their cake and eating it too” (Engdahl 8). This is a clever slight-of-rhetoric, laying claim to the best of both worlds for corporations, and the worst of both worlds for consumers. Corporations achieve patent protection and no concomitant specific regulatory oversight; while consumers pay the cost of patent monopolization, and are not necessarily apprised, by way of labelling or otherwise, that they are purchasing and eating GMOs, and thereby financing the GMO industry. The lemma of “substantial equivalence” does not bear close scrutiny. It is a fuzzy concept that lacks a tight testable definition. It is exactly this fuzziness that allows lots of wriggle room to keep GMOs out of rigorous testing regimes. Millstone et al. argue that “substantial equivalence is a pseudo-scientific concept because it is a commercial and political judgement masquerading as if it is scientific. It is moreover, inherently anti-scientific because it was created primarily to provide an excuse for not requiring biochemical or toxicological tests. It therefore serves to discourage and inhibit informative scientific research” (526). “Substantial equivalence” grants GMOs the benefit of the doubt regarding safety, and thereby leaves unexamined the ramifications for human consumer health, for farm labourer and food-processor health, for the welfare of farm animals fed a diet of GMO grain, and for the well-being of the ecosystem, both in general and in its particularities. “Substantial equivalence” was introduced into the food discourse by an Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) report: “safety evaluation of foods derived by modern biotechnology: concepts and principles”. It is from this document that the ongoing mantra of assumed safety of GMOs derives: “modern biotechnology … does not inherently lead to foods that are less safe … . Therefore evaluation of foods and food components obtained from organisms developed by the application of the newer techniques does not necessitate a fundamental change in established principles, nor does it require a different standard of safety” (OECD, “Safety” 10). This was at the time, and remains, an act of faith, a pro-corporatist and a post-cautionary approach. The OECD motto reveals where their priorities lean: “for a better world economy” (OECD, “Better”). The term “substantial equivalence” was preceded by the 1992 USFDA concept of “substantial similarity” (Levidow, Murphy and Carr) and was adopted from a prior usage by the US Food and Drug Agency (USFDA) where it was used pertaining to medical devices (Miller). Even GMO proponents accept that “Substantial equivalence is not intended to be a scientific formulation; it is a conceptual tool for food producers and government regulators” (Miller 1043). And there’s the rub – there is no scientific definition of “substantial equivalence”, no scientific test of proof of concept, and nor is there likely to be, since this is a ‘spinmeister’ term. And yet this is the cornerstone on which rests the presumption of safety of GMOs. Absence of evidence is taken to be evidence of absence. History suggests that this is a fraught presumption. By way of contrast, the patenting of GMOs depends on the antithesis of assumed ‘sameness’. Patenting rests on proven, scrutinised, challengeable and robust tests of difference and novelty. Lightfoot et al. report that transgenic plants exhibit “unexpected changes [that] challenge the usual assumptions of GMO equivalence and suggest genomic, proteomic and metanomic characterization of transgenics is advisable” (1). GMO Milk and Contested Labelling Pesticide company Monsanto markets the genetically engineered hormone rBST (recombinant Bovine Somatotropin; also known as: rbST; rBGH, recombinant Bovine Growth Hormone; and the brand name Prosilac) to dairy farmers who inject it into their cows to increase milk production. This product is not approved for use in many jurisdictions, including Europe, Australia, New Zealand, Canada and Japan. Even Monsanto accepts that rBST leads to mastitis (inflammation and pus in the udder) and other “cow health problems”, however, it maintains that “these problems did not occur at rates that would prohibit the use of Prosilac” (Monsanto). A European Union study identified an extensive list of health concerns of rBST use (European Commission). The US Dairy Export Council however entertain no doubt. In their background document they ask “is milk from cows treated with rBST safe?” and answer “Absolutely” (USDEC). Meanwhile, Monsanto’s website raises and answers the question: “Is the milk from cows treated with rbST any different from milk from untreated cows? No” (Monsanto). Injecting cows with genetically modified hormones to boost their milk production remains a contested practice, banned in many countries. It is the claimed equivalence that has kept consumers of US dairy products in the dark, shielded rBST dairy farmers from having to declare that their milk production is GMO-enhanced, and has inhibited non-GMO producers from declaring their milk as non-GMO, non rBST, or not hormone enhanced. This is a battle that has simmered, and sometimes raged, for a decade in the US. Finally there is a modest victory for consumers: the Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture (PDA) requires all labels used on milk products to be approved in advance by the department. The standard issued in October 2007 (PDA, “Standards”) signalled to producers that any milk labels claiming rBST-free status would be rejected. This advice was rescinded in January 2008 with new, specific, department-approved textual constructions allowed, and ensuring that any “no rBST” style claim was paired with a PDA-prescribed disclaimer (PDA, “Revised Standards”). However, parsimonious labelling is prohibited: No labeling may contain references such as ‘No Hormones’, ‘Hormone Free’, ‘Free of Hormones’, ‘No BST’, ‘Free of BST’, ‘BST Free’,’No added BST’, or any statement which indicates, implies or could be construed to mean that no natural bovine somatotropin (BST) or synthetic bovine somatotropin (rBST) are contained in or added to the product. (PDA, “Revised Standards” 3) Difference claims are prohibited: In no instance shall any label state or imply that milk from cows not treated with recombinant bovine somatotropin (rBST, rbST, RBST or rbst) differs in composition from milk or products made with milk from treated cows, or that rBST is not contained in or added to the product. If a product is represented as, or intended to be represented to consumers as, containing or produced from milk from cows not treated with rBST any labeling information must convey only a difference in farming practices or dairy herd management methods. (PDA, “Revised Standards” 3) The PDA-approved labelling text for non-GMO dairy farmers is specified as follows: ‘From cows not treated with rBST. No significant difference has been shown between milk derived from rBST-treated and non-rBST-treated cows’ or a substantial equivalent. Hereinafter, the first sentence shall be referred to as the ‘Claim’, and the second sentence shall be referred to as the ‘Disclaimer’. (PDA, “Revised Standards” 4) It is onto the non-GMO dairy farmer alone, that the costs of compliance fall. These costs include label preparation and approval, proving non-usage of GMOs, and of creating and maintaining an audit trail. In nearby Ohio a similar consumer versus corporatist pantomime is playing out. This time with the Ohio Department of Agriculture (ODA) calling the shots, and again serving the GMO industry. The ODA prescribed text allowed to non-GMO dairy farmers is “from cows not supplemented with rbST” and this is to be conjoined with the mandatory disclaimer “no significant difference has been shown between milk derived from rbST-supplemented and non-rbST supplemented cows” (Curet). These are “emergency rules”: they apply for 90 days, and are proposed as permanent. Once again, the onus is on the non-GMO dairy farmers to document and prove their claims. GMO dairy farmers face no such governmental requirements, including no disclosure requirement, and thus an asymmetric regulatory impost is placed on the non-GMO farmer which opens up new opportunities for administrative demands and technocratic harassment. Levidow et al. argue, somewhat Eurocentrically, that from its 1990s adoption “as the basis for a harmonized science-based approach to risk assessment” (26) the concept of “substantial equivalence” has “been recast in at least three ways” (58). It is true that the GMO debate has evolved differently in the US and Europe, and with other jurisdictions usually adopting intermediate positions, yet the concept persists. Levidow et al. nominate their three recastings as: firstly an “implicit redefinition” by the appending of “extra phrases in official documents”; secondly, “it has been reinterpreted, as risk assessment processes have … required more evidence of safety than before, especially in Europe”; and thirdly, “it has been demoted in the European Union regulatory procedures so that it can no longer be used to justify the claim that a risk assessment is unnecessary” (58). Romeis et al. have proposed a decision tree approach to GMO risks based on cascading tiers of risk assessment. However what remains is that the defects of the concept of “substantial equivalence” persist. Schauzu identified that: such decisions are a matter of “opinion”; that there is “no clear definition of the term ‘substantial’”; that because genetic modification “is aimed at introducing new traits into organisms, the result will always be a different combination of genes and proteins”; and that “there is no general checklist that could be followed by those who are responsible for allowing a product to be placed on the market” (2). Benchmark for Further Food Novelties? The discourse, contestation, and debate about “substantial equivalence” have largely focussed on the introduction of GMOs into food production processes. GM can best be regarded as the test case, and proof of concept, for establishing “substantial equivalence” as a benchmark for evaluating new and forthcoming food technologies. This is of concern, because the concept of “substantial equivalence” is scientific hokum, and yet its persistence, even entrenchment, within regulatory agencies may be a harbinger of forthcoming same-but-different debates for nanotechnology and other future bioengineering. The appeal of “substantial equivalence” has been a brake on the creation of GMO-specific regulations and on rigorous GMO testing. The food nanotechnology industry can be expected to look to the precedent of the GMO debate to head off specific nano-regulations and nano-testing. As cloning becomes economically viable, then this may be another wave of food innovation that muddies the regulatory waters with the confused – and ultimately self-contradictory – concept of “substantial equivalence”. Nanotechnology engineers particles in the size range 1 to 100 nanometres – a nanometre is one billionth of a metre. This is interesting for manufacturers because at this size chemicals behave differently, or as the Australian Office of Nanotechnology expresses it, “new functionalities are obtained” (AON). Globally, government expenditure on nanotechnology research reached US$4.6 billion in 2006 (Roco 3.12). While there are now many patents (ETC Group; Roco), regulation specific to nanoparticles is lacking (Bowman and Hodge; Miller and Senjen). The USFDA advises that nano-manufacturers “must show a reasonable assurance of safety … or substantial equivalence” (FDA). A recent inventory of nano-products already on the market identified 580 products. Of these 11.4% were categorised as “Food and Beverage” (WWICS). This is at a time when public confidence in regulatory bodies is declining (HRA). In an Australian consumer survey on nanotechnology, 65% of respondents indicated they were concerned about “unknown and long term side effects”, and 71% agreed that it is important “to know if products are made with nanotechnology” (MARS 22). Cloned animals are currently more expensive to produce than traditional animal progeny. In the course of 678 pages, the USFDA Animal Cloning: A Draft Risk Assessment has not a single mention of “substantial equivalence”. However the Federation of Animal Science Societies (FASS) in its single page “Statement in Support of USFDA’s Risk Assessment Conclusion That Food from Cloned Animals Is Safe for Human Consumption” states that “FASS endorses the use of this comparative evaluation process as the foundation of establishing substantial equivalence of any food being evaluated. It must be emphasized that it is the food product itself that should be the focus of the evaluation rather than the technology used to generate cloned animals” (FASS 1). Contrary to the FASS derogation of the importance of process in food production, for consumers both the process and provenance of production is an important and integral aspect of a food product’s value and identity. Some consumers will legitimately insist that their Kalamata olives are from Greece, or their balsamic vinegar is from Modena. It was the British public’s growing awareness that their sugar was being produced by slave labour that enabled the boycotting of the product, and ultimately the outlawing of slavery (Hochschild). When consumers boycott Nestle, because of past or present marketing practices, or boycott produce of USA because of, for example, US foreign policy or animal welfare concerns, they are distinguishing the food based on the narrative of the food, the production process and/or production context which are a part of the identity of the food. Consumers attribute value to food based on production process and provenance information (Paull). Products produced by slave labour, by child labour, by political prisoners, by means of torture, theft, immoral, unethical or unsustainable practices are different from their alternatives. The process of production is a part of the identity of a product and consumers are increasingly interested in food narrative. It requires vigilance to ensure that these narratives are delivered with the product to the consumer, and are neither lost nor suppressed. Throughout the GM debate, the organic sector has successfully skirted the “substantial equivalence” debate by excluding GMOs from the certified organic food production process. This GMO-exclusion from the organic food stream is the one reprieve available to consumers worldwide who are keen to avoid GMOs in their diet. The organic industry carries the expectation of providing food produced without artificial pesticides and fertilizers, and by extension, without GMOs. Most recently, the Soil Association, the leading organic certifier in the UK, claims to be the first organisation in the world to exclude manufactured nonoparticles from their products (Soil Association). There has been the call that engineered nanoparticles be excluded from organic standards worldwide, given that there is no mandatory safety testing and no compulsory labelling in place (Paull and Lyons). The twisted rhetoric of oxymorons does not make the ideal foundation for policy. Setting food policy on the shifting sands of “substantial equivalence” seems foolhardy when we consider the potentially profound ramifications of globally mass marketing a dysfunctional food. If there is a 2×2 matrix of terms – “substantial equivalence”, substantial difference, insubstantial equivalence, insubstantial difference – while only one corner of this matrix is engaged for food policy, and while the elements remain matters of opinion rather than being testable by science, or by some other regime, then the public is the dupe, and potentially the victim. “Substantial equivalence” has served the GMO corporates well and the public poorly, and this asymmetry is slated to escalate if nano-food and clone-food are also folded into the “substantial equivalence” paradigm. Only in Orwellian Newspeak is war peace, or is same different. It is time to jettison the pseudo-scientific doctrine of “substantial equivalence”, as a convenient oxymoron, and embrace full disclosure of provenance, process and difference, so that consumers are not collateral in a continuing asymmetric knowledge war. References Australian Office of Nanotechnology (AON). 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