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Journal articles on the topic 'Chemical weapons'

Author: Grafiati

Published: 4 June 2021

Last updated: 31 July 2024

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1

Ahmad, Nadia. "The Language Barrier: Can the ICC Prosecute Chemical Warfare?" Human Rights Quarterly 46, no. 1 (February 2024): 98–117. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/hrq.2024.a918541.

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ABSTRACT: International law has come a long way in outlawing chemical weapon usage during warfare. From the 1907 Hague Convention to the 1997 Chemical Weapons Convention, there exists a comprehensive and mostly successful prohibition and verification regime for chemical weapons. However, the advent of modern warfare in recent conflicts in Syria and in Ukraine demonstrates compliance control is severely lacking for this form of weaponry. Consequently, there is no comprehensive accountability framework for international humanitarian law violations in the form of chemical weapon usage. Without explicit language criminalizing it, this heinous form of war crime ends up slipping under the radar. This article explores these jurisdictional gaps in both international and non-international armed conflicts and recommends ways the international community should cement its commitment to penalizing chemical weapon utilization.

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2

Witarti, Denik Iswardani, and Anggun Puspitasari. "Analysis Of The Failure Of Organizations For Prohibited of Chemical Weapon (OPCW) As The Organization For Disarmament On The Conflict Of Syria." Jurnal Pertahanan 4, no. 1 (April 12, 2018): 61. http://dx.doi.org/10.33172/jp.v4i1.253.

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<p>This paper analyzes the failure of the Organization for Prohibited of Chemical Weapon (OPCW) in handling chemical weapon disarmament in Syria. The use of chemical weapons by the Syrian government against its own citizens poses a challenge for OPCW in its role to ban the use and development of chemical weapons worldwide. OPCW itself formed in 1997 is an implementation of Chemical Weapon Convention (CWC) in 1993. The main problem of this study is OPCW failure factors to ban the use and development of chemical weapons in Syrian conflict. The study results show that the chemical weapon disarmament efforts in Syria by the OPCW by sending and destroying government-owned chemical weapons has failed. Although OPCW has claimed Syria has been freed from chemical weapons, it is still encountered the use of chemical weapons by ISIS terrorist groups and unofficial opposition groups. In conclusion, the role of the OPCW according to the concept of disarmament and the international organization is still not fully successful. OPCW is only able to detect the use of chemical weapons committed by the Syrian government. This organization has no authority in overcoming the problem of the misused chemical weapons committed by non-state actors.</p><p><span>Keywords: Chemical weapons, Syrian conflict, OPCW, Disarmament. </span><br /><span> </span></p>

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3

Kapashin, V. P., V. G. Mandych, I. N. Isaev, I. V. Kovalenko, and V. L. Veriga. "New Chemical Weapons Destruction Technologies as the Key to Successful Completion of Chemical Weapons Disarmament Process." Journal of NBC Protection Corps 6, no. 3 (May 18, 2022): 213–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.35825/2587-5728-2022-6-3-213-228.

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The fulfillment of international obligations of the Russian Federation under the Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling and Use of Chemical Weapons and on Their Destruction required the development and the creation of safe innovative industrial technologies and facilities for the destruction of chemical weapons. The purpose of this work is to give brief characteristics of the technologies for the destruction of chemical weapons developed and commercially implemented at various facilities. The destruction of chemical weapons was carried out at seven facilities specially designed and built for this purpose. These facilities were located in six regions of the country. The choice of technologies for the destruction (utilization) of chemical weapons was carried out on a competitive basis in the period from 1992 to 1995. The priority was given to the so-called two-stage technology. At the first stage, the toxic chemicals were extracted from the munitions or the containers and detoxified chemically in «soft» controlled conditions. Then the empty munitions were degassed. At the second stage, thermal neutralization or bituminization of the reaction masses was carried out with their subsequent burial. The two-stage technology for the destruction of mustard and mustard-lewisite mixtures was based on the interaction of toxic chemicals with an 80 ± 5% aqueous solution of monoethanolamine, which was supplied into the reactor at a temperature of 60–80 °C in the ratio toxic chemical: degassing formulation - 1:1.2 according to mass. The detoxification process was considered completed if the content of toxic chemicals in the reaction mass did not exceed 3,2×10-3%. To destroy lewisite, a «short scheme» in a jet-type reactor was implemented. The mixing of the initial reagents, lewisite and 20% alkali solution, was carried out using a nozzle of a special design, where lewisite was swirled with a special device (swirler) and supplied into the reactor. The first stage of the destruction of V-gases was carried out in munitions cases. The munitions were considered as chemical reactors. The process of detoxification of V-gases was considered completed when the residual content of toxic chemicals was at the level of 5×10-4%, and the reaction mass was delivered for thermal neutralization (second stage). In total, 39966,588 tons of toxic chemicals were destroyed. The whole number of destroyed containers with agents and chemical munitions amounted to 4,158,456 units. On September 27, 2017, the last chemical weapon was destroyed at the Kizner chemical weapons destruction facility, thus completing the process of complete destruction of chemical weapons stockpiles in the Russian Federation.

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4

Goel, A. K. "Looming Threat of Chemical and Biological Warfare Agents." Defence Science Journal 66, no. 5 (September 30, 2016): 443. http://dx.doi.org/10.14429/dsj.66.10705.

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<p><br />In the recent past, a dramatic shift has been observed in the strategies of warfare from conventional to non-conventional. Now-a-days, traditional power is of less importance than it used to be earlier. Weapons of mass destruction, which comprise of nuclear weapons, and chemical and biological warfare agents, are posing a great peril to the world due to their devastating potential. Though, there are several bilateral as well as multilateral treaties to control the use and proliferation of these weapons, yet the risk of use of such agents by non-state actors cannot be overlooked. Chances of use of chemical and biological agents are more likely than the nuclear weapons. A comparison of nuclear, chemical and biological weapons in terms of technology, cost, signature, effectiveness on protected and un-protected troops shows that chemical and biological weapon programmes require much lower level of technology and cost than the nuclear weapon programme. Further, there is no or least distinctive and readily observable signature in biological weapon programme in comparison to nuclear and chemical weapon facilities. There can be two possibilities of use of these agents in terrorist attacks. First, there is a risk of transfer of material or know-how of these weapons to terrorists for using against the adversaries and second, the risk of these agents being pilfered due to poor security, thereby sabotaging the national security. The International Committee of Red Cross in February 1918 reckoned these agents as ‘barbarous inventions’ that can ‘only be called criminal’.</p>

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5

Yagmuroglu, Ozan, and Bilgen Subasi. "Nerve agents: chemical structures, effect mechanisms and detection methods." Open Access Journal of Science 4, no. 2 (June 8, 2020): 47–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.15406/oajs.2020.04.00151.

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With the discovery of chemical weapons, mankind has faced a great threat. These weapons are also called weapon of mass destruction and cause mass human deaths in the region where they are used, regardless of whether they are soldiers or civilians. Countries have focused on chemical defense activities because of the easy production and development of chemical weapons and negative psychological effects on the public. Many people were killed or injured due to the use of chemical weapons during World War I. Nerve agents started to be used in making chemical weapons before World War II began. Thus, the threat of chemical weapons on humanity has reached a much more critical point. Especially during World War II and the Cold War, the development of chemical weapons and the production of nerve agents increased more than ever.In this review, various sensor systems developed for detecting nerve agents have been investigated and these sensors have been compared in terms of operating principles and detection limits.

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6

Russell, Richard L. "Iraq's Chemical Weapons Legacy: What Others Might Learn from Saddam." Middle East Journal 59, no. 2 (April 1, 2005): 187–208. http://dx.doi.org/10.3751/59.2.11.

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Iraq's experience with chemical weapons provides ample lessons for nation-states looking to redress their conventional military shortcomings. Nation-states are likely to learn from Saddam that chemical weapons are useful for waging war against nation-states ill-prepared to fight on a chemical battlefield as well as against internal insurgents and rebellious civilians. Most significantly, nation-states studying Iraq's experience are likely to conclude that chemical weapons are not a “poor man's nuclear weapon” and that only nuclear weapons can deter potential adversaries including the United States.

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7

JACOBS, MADELEINE. "Chemical Weapons." Chemical & Engineering News 74, no. 39 (September 23, 1996): 5. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/cen-v074n039.p005.

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8

HEYLIN, MICHAEL. "Chemical weapons." Chemical & Engineering News 67, no. 3 (January 16, 1989): 5. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/cen-v067n003.p005.

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9

Britten, Stewart. "CHEMICAL WEAPONS." Lancet 325, no. 8439 (May 1985): 1220. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(85)92902-2.

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10

EMBER, LOIS. "CHEMICAL WEAPONS." Chemical & Engineering News 71, no. 18 (May 3, 1993): 8–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/cen-v071n018.p008.

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11

EMBER, LOIS. "CHEMICAL WEAPONS:." Chemical & Engineering News 68, no. 14 (April 2, 1990): 4. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/cen-v068n014.p004.

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12

Ferner, R. E., and M. D. Rawlins. "Chemical weapons." BMJ 298, no. 6676 (March 25, 1989): 767–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.298.6676.767.

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13

Mumford, C. "Chemical weapons." BMJ 302, no. 6772 (February 9, 1991): 353. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.302.6772.353-b.

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14

Vaughan, R. "Chemical weapons." BMJ 302, no. 6772 (February 9, 1991): 353. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.302.6772.353-c.

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15

Karalliedde, L., C. A. Gauci, and M. Carter. "Chemical weapons." BMJ 302, no. 6774 (February 23, 1991): 474. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.302.6774.474-b.

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16

Price, Richard. "A genealogy of the chemical weapons taboo." International Organization 49, no. 1 (1995): 73–103. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0020818300001582.

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How is it, that among the countless technological innovations in weaponry, chemical weapons stand out as weapons that carry the stigma of moral illegitimacy. To provide an adequate account of the prohibitionary norm against chemical weapons use, one must understand the meanings that have served to constitute and delegitimize this category of weapons. Such an account is provided by genealogy, a method that examines the interpretive practices around which moral orders are constructed and behaviors are defined as normal or unacceptable. The genealogical method yields insights that illuminate neglected dimensions of the chemical weapons taboo: namely, the roles that contingency, domination, and resistance have played in the operation of this norm as a symbol of “uncivilized” conduct in international relations.

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17

Pearson, Graham S., and Richard S. Magee. "Critical evaluation of proven chemical weapon destruction technologies (IUPAC Technical Report)." Pure and Applied Chemistry 74, no. 2 (January 1, 2002): 187–316. http://dx.doi.org/10.1351/pac200274020187.

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A critical evaluation is made of the chemical weapon destruction technologies demonstrated for 1 kg or more of agent in order to provide information about the technologies proven to destroy chemical weapons to policy-makers and others concerned with reaching decisions about the destruction of chemical weapons and agents. As all chemical agents are simply highly toxic chemicals, it is logical to consider the destruction of chemical agents as being no different from the consideration of the destruction of other chemicals that can be as highly toxictheir destruction, as that of any chemicals, requires the taking of appropriate precautions to safeguard worker safety, public health, and the environment. The Chemical Weapons Convention that entered into force in 1997 obliges all States Parties to destroy any stockpiles of chemical weapons within 10 years from the entry into force of the Conventionby 2007with the possibility of an extension for up to 5 years to 2012. There is consequently a tight timeline under the treaty for the destruction of stockpiled chemical weapons and agentsprimarily held in Russia and the United States. Abandoned or old chemical weaponsnotably in Europe primarily from World War I, in China from World War II as well as in the United Statesalso have to be destroyed. During the past 40 years, more than 20 000 tonnes of agent have been destroyed in a number of countries and over 80 % of this has been destroyed by incineration. Although incineration is well proven and will be used in the United States to destroy over 80 % of the U.S. stockpile of 25 800 tonnes of agent, considerable attention has been paid particularly in the United States to alternative technologies to incineration because of several constraints that are specific to the United States. Much of the information in this report is based on U.S. experienceas the United States had, along with the Russian Federation, by far the largest stockpiles of chemical weapons and agents anywhere in the world. The United States has made much progress in destroying its stockpile of chemical weapons and agents and has also done more work than any other country to examine alternative technologies for the destruction of chemical weapons and agents. However, the national decisions to be taken by countries faced with the destruction of chemical weapons and agents need to be made in the light of their particular national conditions and standardsand thus may well result in a decision to use different approaches from those adopted by the United States. This report provides information to enable countries to make their own informed and appropriate decisions.

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18

Majumdar, Ananda. "Weapons of Mass Destruction." ABC Research Alert 5, no. 1 (April 30, 2017): Canada. http://dx.doi.org/10.18034/ra.v5i1.309.

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From the perspective of WMD, the purpose of this essay is to explore and understand the violence of the world in the past and at present, discovers ways to reduce violence for the global development. Global development or International development is an interesting topic in Political Science and or International Relations and my favorite therefore I would like to do further studies as PhD as my preparation to gain knowledge and experience. Chemical Weapon, Biological Weapon are not recognized as modern weaponries while various nuclear, thermonuclear and radiological weapons are modern weaponries. Yet recent killing of North Korean President's step brother in Malaysia Airport by Nerve gas reminds that Chemical weapons still exists and used by countries who are not signatory of the convention. In Syria chemical weapon is using currently.

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19

Fidler, David P. "The meaning of Moscow: “Non-lethal” weapons and international law in the early 21st century." International Review of the Red Cross 87, no. 859 (September 2005): 525–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1816383100184371.

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AbstractAt the intersection of new weapon technologies and international humanitarian law, so-called “non-lethal” weapons have become an area of particular interest. This article analyses the relationship between “non-lethal” weapons and international law in the early 21st century by focusing on the most seminal incident to date in the short history of the “non-lethal” weapons debate, the use of an incapacitating chemical to end a terrorist attack on a Moscow theatre in October 2002. This tragic incident has shown that rapid technological change will continue to stress international law on the development and use of weaponry but in ways more politically charged, legally complicated and ethically challenging than the application of international humanitarian law in the past.

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20

Palca, Joseph. "Chemical weapons: Binary weapons in trouble." Nature 321, no. 6072 (June 1986): 717. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/321717a0.

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21

Tomassoni, Anthony J., Robert N. E. French, and Frank G. Walter. "Toxic Industrial Chemicals and Chemical Weapons." Emergency Medicine Clinics of North America 33, no. 1 (February 2015): 13–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.emc.2014.09.004.

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22

Maidaniuk, V. P., O. Ye Panchenko, V. M. Yakymets, V. P. Pechyborshch, V. V. Yakymets, and O. V. Pechyborshch. "MEDICAL PROTECTION OF TROOPS AND POPULATION IN THE USE OF CHEMICAL WEAPONS (LITERATURE REVIEW)." Odes’kij medičnij žurnal (The Odessa Medical Journal), no. 1-2 (2023): 64–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.54229/2226-2008-2022-1-2-12.

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In the war with Ukraine, Russia will probably use chemical weapons, resorting to surgery «under someone else’s flag». This can happen in the form of fake attacks or «exposing» chemical ammunition or Ukrainian agents who «plan» an attack by chemical weapons. Given the reasoned evidence of the use of chemical weapons in Syria and Ukraine and experts, it is appropriate to conclude that chemical weapons are expensive and unpredictable, it is not very effective tools during hostilities, but it belongs to the weapon losses among civilians and troops. Objective: In the conditions of war to offer the personnel of the Armed Forces of Ukraine and the peaceful population an algorithm of actions for medical protection when the enemy uses chemical weapons. Research materials: The research is based on analysis of sources of scientific information, normative-legal documents, scientific publications, materials of scientific-practical conferences on organization of medical support of liquidation of consequences of application of chemical ammunition in combat conditions. Methods of research: Analytical, bibliographic, historical, logical, system analysis. Results: The algorithm of actions on home medical care and medical protection of the personnel of the Armed Forces of Ukraine and the civilian population in case of threat and use of chemical weapons in wartime is proposed. Conclusions: Experience shows that early, mutually agreed planning of measures to protect troops and the population, the implementation of the algorithm of actions for home care and medical protection in the event of the threat and use of chemical weapons, significantly reduces irreversible and sanitary losses in war. Key words: medical protection, chemical weapons, fighting.

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23

Goldblat, Jozef. "Chemical weapons verification." Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 41, no. 5 (May 1985): 19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00963402.1985.11455961.

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24

EMBER, LOIS. "DESTROYING CHEMICAL WEAPONS." Chemical & Engineering News Archive 79, no. 35 (August 27, 2001): 14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/cen-v079n035.p014a.

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25

EMBER, LOIS. "CHEMICAL WEAPONS CONVENTION." Chemical & Engineering News 76, no. 22 (June 1998): 9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/cen-v076n022.p009.

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26

EMBER, LOIS. "CHEMICAL WEAPONS TREATY." Chemical & Engineering News 72, no. 25 (June 20, 1994): 6–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/cen-v072n025.p006.

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27

EMBER, LOIS. "Chemical weapons update." Chemical & Engineering News 67, no. 28 (July 10, 1989): 6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/cen-v067n028.p006a.

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28

HESS, GLENN. "CHEMICAL WEAPONS CHECKPOINT." Chemical & Engineering News Archive 89, no. 48 (November 28, 2011): 29–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/cen-v089n048.p029.

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29

Rogers, Arthur. "Chemical weapons treaty." Lancet 341, no. 8839 (January 1993): 235. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0140-6736(93)90094-w.

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30

Clark, D. N. "Chemical Weapons Disposal." Science 257, no. 5066 (July 3, 1992): 12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.257.5066.12.

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31

Clark, D. N. "Chemical Weapons Disposal." Science 257, no. 5066 (July 3, 1992): 13–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.257.5066.13.

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32

Brodie, Edmund D. "Life’s chemical weapons." Current Biology 28, no. 21 (November 2018): R1227—R1228. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2018.09.051.

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33

Kozlov, M. Y., and I. V. Ashvits. "History of the use of chemical weapons for military purposes and the possibility of their current use." Scientific Bulletin of the Omsk State Medical University 4, no. 1 (May 18, 2024): 75–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.61634/2782-3024-2024-13-75-86.

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Throughout the history of mankind there have been many wars of both local character and large-scale wars. At the heart of military actions necessarily lies the use of weapons, one type of which is chemical. Chemical weapons, the basis of which are diverse in their effect on the body and chemical composition of poisonous substances, began to be used for military purposes during World War I, namely, the first use occurred on April 22, 1915 in Belgium near the city of Ypres. Germany used gas cylinders filled with chlorine in this attack. The man who created this weapon was German chemist Fritz Haber, who became known as the "father of chemical weapons". Since that time, scientists from different countries began to actively study the effect of poisonous substances on the human body, synthesize their new types, as well as search for reliable means of protection against its effects. Throughout history, attempts have been made to ban the use of chemical weapons. In particular, after the end of the First World War, the Geneva Protocol was adopted in 1925, prohibiting the use of asphyxiating, poisonous or other similar gases in war. However, this agreement failed to limit the use of poisonous substances, which led to their further use, mainly in localized wars. Much work on the prohibition and destruction of chemical weapons belongs to the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons, established in 1997 after the adoption of the Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling and Use of Chemical Weapons and on Their Destruction in 1993. The purpose of this paper is to summarize the history of chemical weapons for military purposes, as well as to study the activities for their prohibition. Literary data of recent years on the history of creation, use of chemical weapons and international legal agreements on their prohibition and destruction, the main types of toxic substances, means of protection against their effects are analyzed. Conclusions are made about the possibilities of chemical weapons use at present.

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Sheraz, Muhammad, Usman Hameed, and Zarfishan Qaiser. "A THREAT ASSESSMENT OF BIOTERRORISM FROM AL-QAIDA TO ISLAMIC STATE." Pakistan Journal of Social Research 03, no. 03 (September 30, 2021): 175–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.52567/pjsr.v3i3.239.

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The paper will focus on explaining the nature, extent and evolution of terrorism through the role of Chemical, Biological, Radiological and nuclear weapons (CBRN) such as Bio-Chemical Weapons (BCWs). It will further discuss the role of religious terrorist organizations, such as Al Qaeda and ISIS/Deash in re-defining terrorism in contemporary era by acquiring BCWs. Moreover, it will underscore the lethality and level of threat posed by BCW’s when employed by the non-state actors. Additionally, it will highlight various motivating factors including political, religious, and psychological which can act as a driving force for the terrorists and non-state actors to use BCWs. Lastly, it will suggest that a change in the means and methods of terrorism predominantly comprising of BCWs as a weapon of choice for the terrorists is on the cards and it is likely remaining the feature of international politics in the days and years to come if the international treaty regime on BCWS does not adequately address the phenomenon of non-state actors. Keywords: Terrorist Organizations, Bio-Chemical Weapons, Al Qaeda, Islamic State, Rational Actors, Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention, Chemical Weapon Convention, CBRN.

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35

Loyola, Benjamin. "Towards a historical context of chemical weapons." Pharmaceutics and Pharmacology Research 4, no. 2 (March 2, 2021): 01–04. http://dx.doi.org/10.31579/2693-7247/026.

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Chemical weapons remain a worrisome aspect worldwide. Knowing its history is essential to avoid repeating it and to be able to leave our planet free of this scourge. The threat of its resurgence is something tangible and real against which we must all fight, each one from his own trench.

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Buolagh, Mahmud, and Habib Zuori. "Analysis of Criminal Responsibility of Users of Chemical Weapons in International Documents." Modern Applied Science 11, no. 2 (February 1, 2017): 87. http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/mas.v11n2p87.

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The article is written entitled "Analysis of criminal responsibility of the users of chemical weapons". The issue of chemical weapons and criminal responsibility of users of this weapon is very important because countries like Iran starting a war of aggression and invasion against violations of humanitarian law, international criminal is not considered responsibility for the instigators of war. This study aimed to explore international responsibility of individuals and legal assign and use of chemical weapons and the role of domestic law in support of victims of such weapons has been developed. The main hypothesis of this study tries to answer this question that what challenges are dominant criminal responsibilities of users of chemical weapons. It states that; the impact of global powers on international issues are the lack of law, guarantees, good performances and the most important challenges is the lack of cooperation by governments. This research, descriptive analysis of documents, according to primary sources, including data and legal jurisprudence and secondary sources, including laws papers has been developed. The findings of this study show that, the principles of international law banning the use of chemical weapons, in addition to the contract law, is customary international law, hence, even if the country has no weapons of mass destruction also a member of the international conventions, proscription, in case of violations of international humanitarian law can still be prosecuted in the s.

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37

Asada, Masahiko. "The OPCW’s Arrangements for Missed Destruction Deadlines Under the Chemical Weapons Convention: An Informal Noncompliance Procedure." American Journal of International Law 108, no. 3 (July 2014): 448–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.5305/amerjintelaw.108.3.0448.

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The Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling and Use of Chemical Weapons and on Their Destruction of 1993, or Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC), represented a major (and at the time, not uncontroversial) innovation in global treaty making. Covering a whole class of weapons of mass destruction, it mandated an immediate and comprehensive ban on use and acquisition, coupled with phased destruction and buttressed by an extensive and intrusive verification system administered by a substantial and specialized international organization. The goal was the total elimination of this particular type of weapon.

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38

Tiwari, Dr Aruna, Dr Ritu Kapoor, and Dr Manoj Adhalaka. "Strategic Uses of Poison in Ancient Times According to Ayurved." International Journal for Research in Applied Science and Engineering Technology 10, no. 10 (October 31, 2022): 1247–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.22214/ijraset.2022.47162.

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Abstract: In both ancient Samhitas and contemporary texts, poisoning is thoroughly discussed. Collective use of poison for mass destruction has been going on since ancient times. In ancient times, food, water and atmosphere etc. were contaminated by using poison (Samrika Vish Prayog) etc. to win over the enemy. At present, the form of this poison has taken the form of various types of chemical weapons and nuclear weapons, which, if used, leads to mass destruction of the enemy army in a very short time. A weapon of mass destruction (WMD) It is a nuclear, radiological, chemical, biological or other weapon that can kill and bring significant harm to a large number of humans or cause great damage. For personal gain throughout ancient times, the Visha was blended with food, beverages, and cosmetics. Chemical weapons are chemical agents, whether gaseous, liquid, or solid, those are employed because of their direct Toxic effects on humans, animals, and plants. They inflict damage when inhaled, absorbed through the skin, or ingested in food or drink. Chemical agents become weapons when they are placed into artillery shells, land mines, aerial bombs, missile warheads, mortar shells, grenades, spray tanks, or any other means of delivering the agents to designated targets.

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39

Sreekumar, Dr Surya Haritha. "Chemical Weapons: VX Nerve Agents." International Journal for Research in Applied Science and Engineering Technology 11, no. 5 (May 31, 2023): 509–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.22214/ijraset.2023.51493.

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Abstract: In light of earlier research completed by Dr. Gerhard Schrader, a scientist working for IG Farben in Germany during the 1930s, VX, also known as "venomous specialist X," is one of the most amazing known about the V nerve specialists. It was first discovered at Porton Down in England during the mid-1950s. They are currently a part of a larger V-series of specialists and go by the label of nerve specialists. They have been used as a substance weapon in numerous documented dangerous assaults. VX is more potent than sarin, another nerve agent with a similar component of activity, in that it causes death with exposure to multiple milligramme levels through inhalation or absorption through skin. Such candour has some experts really upset. A delayed neuromuscular bar, limp loss of motion of the relative variety of body muscles, including the stomach, and asphyxiation are the results of these specialists' serious disruption of the body's motioning between the worried and strong frameworks. VX in particular poses a problem because it is relatively non-unpredictable and does not dissipate and circulate as a fume; rather, it remains directly exposed to the chemical specialist where it was initially dispersed. These physical and biological properties of VX make it a weapon that can be used in a wide range of environments. The Chemical Weapons Convention of 1993 forbids the production and storage of VX above 100 grammes (3.53 oz) each year as a substance weapon and classifies it as a weapon of mass destruction. "Examination, clinical or drug purposes outside a single limited scope office in total amounts not exceeding 10 kg (22 lb) each" is the primary exception.

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Timperley, Christopher M., Jonathan E. Forman, Pal Åas, Mohammad Abdollahi, Djafer Benachour, Abdullah Saeed Al-Amri, Augustin Baulig, et al. "Advice from the Scientific Advisory Board of the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons on riot control agents in connection to the Chemical Weapons Convention." RSC Advances 8, no. 73 (2018): 41731–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c8ra08273a.

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Chemicals that meet the criteria of a riot control agent as defined by the Chemical Weapons Convention (an international chemical disarmament and non-proliferation treaty) are reviewed by the Scientific Advisory Board of the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons.

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Kloske, Marcin, and Zygfryd Witkiewicz. "Chemical weapon in the 20th and 21st centuries. Part 2. Nerve agents ‒ G group." Bulletin of the Military University of Technology 68, no. 3 (September 30, 2019): 119–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.5604/01.3001.0013.5560.

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The aim of this publication is to review the state of the art in the field of chemical weapons. It contains the knowledge about the G group of chemical compounds that are part of the phosphorous-organic combat paralytic and seizure poisonous agents from their discovery to 1970. G group compounds are also referred to as G series compounds, G compounds, G-gases, G gases, are a subgroup of paralytic-convulsant combat poisonous agents that inhibit acetylcholinesterase. The paper contains basic data on this group of compounds, still considered as an important component of chemical weapons. Keywords: phosphororganic chemical agents, chemical weapon, II World War, post-war period, Cold War

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LAYMAN, PATRICIA. "CHEMICAL WEAPONS: Chemical group suspends Imhausen." Chemical & Engineering News 67, no. 6 (February 6, 1989): 4. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/cen-v067n006.p004.

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Konieczny, Marcin. "Redefinition of War and the Weapons of Mass Destruction in the 21st Century." De Securitate et Defensione. O Bezpieczeństwie i Obronności 8, no. 2 (March 20, 2023): 133–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.34739/dsd.2022.02.09.

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War needs science and advanced technology to evolve. Until the time of the technological revolution, the war did not have such a large-scale to cover the whole world. But nowadays, communication became a tool that determines the potential of expanding threats. Modern military forces can change an environment faster than ever, but in a decentralized area, the army is unnecessary to war. This article shows the concept of a new idea of decentralized war as a civil and hybrid warfare conducted in the countries in which human rights are repeatedly violated. As evidenced by recent studies, decentralized war uses new generation technology as a weapon of mass destruction based on globally available mass communication tools. Thus, the study concentrates on the issue of these weapons as not only nuclear weapons are likely to play a more significant role in the international security environment, and constraints on the proliferation and use of chemical and biological weapons seem to be inefficient. There will be greater scope for terrorism, though it is not possible to predict the frequency or severity of any future employment of the weapons of mass destruction. New forms of the weapons (beyond chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear weapons) are likely to emerge. This is namely cyber weapons that is capable of inflicting a widespread disruption and generating high costs to deter large-scale cyber attacks. As a consequence of war redefinition, the article is also a trial of reconsidering the term of weapon of mass destruction, by explaining the role of cyber attacks, political fanaticism and hateful propaganda.

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SOLTAN, ASHRAF. "PROTECTION AGAINST CHEMICAL WEAPONS." International Conference on Chemical and Environmental Engineering 4, no. 6 (May 1, 2008): 783. http://dx.doi.org/10.21608/iccee.2008.38525.

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Murray, Virginia. "Injuries from chemical weapons." Nursing Standard 5, no. 19 (January 30, 1991): 52–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.7748/ns.5.19.52.s59.

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Casper, Monica J. "Chemical Weapons: Incineration island." Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 58, no. 2 (March 1, 2002): 17–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.2968/058002005.

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Sydnes, Leiv K. "Chemical Weapons Convention Amended." Chemistry International 42, no. 1 (January 1, 2020): 26–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/ci-2020-0109.

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Dickson, David. "Chemical weapons treaty signed." Nature 361, no. 6408 (January 1993): 105. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/361105b0.

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Fitzpatrick, Mark. "Destroying Syria’s Chemical Weapons." Survival 55, no. 6 (December 2013): 107–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00396338.2013.862938.

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Hogendoorn, E. J. "A Chemical Weapons Atlas." Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 53, no. 5 (September 1997): 35–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00963402.1997.11456768.

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