Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Children of gay and lesbian parents'

This study examined the relationships between parents' and their gay and lesbian children from the parents' perspective. Forty-seven questionnaires containing thirty-two questions were distributed and completed. This study sought to identify barriers parents experienced and the levels of acceptance prior to and after their child's disclosure, in order to assist families during the coming out process.

The purpose of this study was to explore the concerns of parents upon learning about their children’s gay or lesbian sexual orientation from the conceptual framework of attachment theory. Personal and contextual factors such as parents’ attachment anxiety and avoidance, parent and child gender, length of time since disclosure, and parents’ prior interpersonal contact with gay and lesbian person(s) were examined to see how they influence parents’ concerns. Members of Parents and Friends of Lesbians and Gays (PFLAG) support groups were electronically surveyed using the Experiences in Close Relationships - Short Form (ECR-S; Wei, Russell, Mallinckrodt & Vogel, 2007) and the Concerns of Parents of Lesbians (COPLAG; Conley, 2011b). A total of 296 parents met the criteria to be considered participants. The results of this study indicated that parental concerns are correlated with attachment anxiety, but not attachment avoidance. There were significant differences in concern levels between parents who reported high levels of interpersonal contact with gay or lesbian people and those who reported low levels. Parents’ concerns were significantly higher for gay sons than for lesbian daughters. Amount of time since disclosure was not found to be a significant factor in parental concerns; however, attachment anxiety and amount of time since disclosure were negatively correlated. Additionally, parents who were aware of their child’s sexual orientation for more than five years reported lower levels of attachment anxiety than parents who were aware of their child’s gay or lesbian sexual orientation for less than five years. Although parent gender was a variable in this study, too few fathers participated, precluding analyses using parent gender. Overall, the results indicate that parents’ concerns about having gay and lesbian children are influenced by both intrapsychic and contextual factors.

In an exploratory study 10 adult children, with at least one identifiable gay or lesbian parent, were interviewed and asked to discuss their childhood experiences growing up in diverse families. Understanding the introspective views of adult children with gay or lesbian parents will allow social workers the ability to tailor services to ensure the needs of these new family constellations are met.

In the United States the debate concerning transracial adoption and gay and/ or lesbian adoption has been going on since the 1970s. This research used the co-cultural theory of communication to explore how the marginalized population of gay and lesbian transracial adoptive (TRA) parents communicated with the other culturally dominant members of their society. It then analyzed the communication behaviors found to see if any differences existed in their interactions. Finally, the communication behaviors were examined to see what impact they might have on the ability of parents to be effective TRA parents. This research included eight in-depth interviews with gay and lesbian TRA parents. In these interviews, these parents were asked to explain, through their own 7 personal experiences, what it was like to be part of this cultural group. Their experiences were then analyzed using the methods described in the co-cultural communication theory. Results showed that gay and lesbian TRA parents predominantly employed the assertive accommodation and the nonassertive assimilation communication orientations in their interactions with others. Of the two, the parents overwhelmingly employed assertive accommodation. Results showed three important differences regarding how the parents employed communication orientations or enacted co-cultural practices in their interactions. Results also showed that the employment of the assertive accommodation orientation was likely to have a positive effect on the parents' ability to be effective TRA parents. The employment of the nonassertive assimilation orientation was found generally to have t mixed results. I hope that insight into the communication behaviors of this population found through this study will help clarify the most effective communication methods for these parents to learn in order to raise healthy and happy children of color.

Parents who experience their children's coming out encounter emotional reactions that could compromise their ability to function, particularly when challenged by the Catholic doctrine towards homosexuality. It is not well known how Latino parents experience their children's coming out and how they mediate their Catholic identity. The purpose of this research was to explore the experiences of these parents considering phenomenology as the method of inquiry. The theoretical lens was based on the parental acceptance-rejection theory. The research questions addressed how Latinos experienced the coming out of their children and how they mediated their identities as Catholics and as parents of a lesbian, gay, or bisexual (LGB) child. The data for this study consisted of 12 interviews with parents using an open-ended, and a semistructured format. A total of 6 themes (disclosure of an LGB identity, conflicts, help towards conflict resolution, church support, acceptance, and identity consolidation) and 10 subthemes (suspicion of an LGB identity, unexpected disclosure, internal, family, cultural and church conflicts, God's love, unconditional love, parenting pride, and Catholic pride) emerged from the analysis. The results indicated that Latino parents underscored the positive qualities of their LGB children while other Latino parents criticize the Catholic doctrine towards homosexuality. In conclusion, the notion of an all-loving and all-accepting God prompted Latinos to consolidate their identities as Catholic and as parents of a LGB child. Implications for positive social change include the education of behavioral health professionals and the Catholic clergy to enhance their professional competencies to assist Latino parents seeking counseling services or seeking spiritual care within the Roman Catholic Church.

Planned parenthood within the lesbian and gay communities attracts considerable attention internationally among researchers, the media, and law and policy-makers. This Australian study situates the phenomenon�also known as the �gayby boom��within the contemporary Australian socio-legal setting and the more international historical and political contexts of Gay and Women�s Liberation. It investigates how beliefs about nature, kinship, the sexed and reproductive body and political ideologies of family intersect in lesbians and gay men�s decision-making and stories of living their lives as parents. Two fields of intellectual enquiry are generative: the interest in families of choice and family practices within sociology and the post-modern anthropological critique of Western kinship in the era of assisted reproduction. This is a qualitative study informed by a critical humanist approach. It is based on in-depth and key informant interviews conducted with 20 lesbians and 15 gay men (parents, �donor/dads� and prospective parents) as well as 7 people engaged in legal, health or therapeutic support to prospective and current parents. Also incorporated into the analysis are a range of other primary sources, including a substantial media debate, submissions to an assisted reproduction law reform process and primary documents supplied by participants such as parenting agreements and letters. The study argues for the need to look beyond unitary concepts such as families of choice when theorising lesbian and gay parenthood. It is important to consider the historical, political and biographical conditions that make some notions of relatedness and decisions about having children seem more feasible, and indeed, natural than others. It explores how various notions of biological relatedness remain important in the formation of parent/child relationships, and the extent to which lesbians and gay men rely on strategic appeals to choice and biology in enacting families. Continuing constraints on who is eligible for clinically assisted reproductive technology in Australia lead to imaginative and harmonious, yet also fraught reproductive relationships.

Gender presentation, appearing in a way that fits social expectations of one’s gender role, represents one of the most obvious ways in which one’s gender identity becomes salient to others. This quality is especially relevant to note given the continued controversy surrounding children’s gender role development when raised by non-heterosexual parents. The current study is an examination of how gender presentation develops in adopted children with lesbian, gay, and heterosexual parents across two time points (Wave 1: N = 106, Mage = 36.07 months; Wave 2: N = 90, Mage = 8.34). Children’s gender presentation was analyzed using a novel coding scheme, consisting of several variables meant to target the presence of gender typed clothing. These elements of appearance were compared with several measures of child outcomes. It was found that children generally adhere to presentation elements of their assigned gender and there were limited differences by parental sexual orientation in any of the gender presentation variables. Additionally, there was no association found between conformity in gender presentation and children’s self-perception or parent or child gender-typical attitudes. The results of this initial study may prove to be useful in ongoing research surrounding children’s gender typicality.

Thesis (Ph. D.) -- University of Maryland, College Park, 2006.
Thesis research directed by: Counseling and Personnel Services. Title from t.p. of PDF. Includes bibliographical references. Published by UMI Dissertation Services, Ann Arbor, Mich. Also available in paper.

Thesis (MA)-- Stellenbosch University, 2013.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The concept of what constitutes a “normal” family has changed within recent years. This is because various family forms have been found viable. The current study is exploratory and focuses on the planned lesbian family. It aims to describe lesbian mothers’ lived psychological experience of planned motherhood. Utilising a feminist phenomenological approach, the narratives of 10 lesbian couples were obtained. Their emotional experiences are discussed under four headings, namely; the decision to become mothers; the actual process of becoming mothers; motherhood experience; and the anticipation of and actual responses to lesbian motherhood, lesbian families and children of lesbian mothers. Significant findings reveal the decision making involved in becoming mothers; the influence the type of donor has on the couple and their child; the joys and challenges of raising children; the fair division of childcare and household chores; the importance of partner support; the level of bonding with social and adoptive mothers; society’s lack of parental validation; the issue of homophobia and the preparation of their children against homophobia. Lesbian mothers seem to experience motherhood in very similar ways to heterosexual mothers, except that they do not seem as lonely and isolated. The aim of this study was not only to explore the experiences of lesbian mothers, but also to give them a voice within the psychological literature and to strive towards the acceptance of diverse families within mainstream psychology and the broader South African community.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die konsep van wat ’n “normale“ familie behels het in die afgelope jare verander. Die rede is dat verskeie gesinsvorme as lewensvatbaar bevind is. Die gesinsvorm onder bestudering is die beplande lesbiese gesin. Hierdie was ’n verkennende studie wat gefokus het op die beskrywing van lesbiese ouers se sielkundige ervaring van beplande lesbiese moederskap. Daar is gebruik gemaak van ’n feministies-fenomenologiese benadering om die verhale van 10 lesbiese paartjies te verkry. Hulle ervarings word onder vier adelings bespreek, naamlik; die besluit om moeders te word; die werklike proses om moeders te word; moederskap ervarings; en die verwagte en werklike reaksies tot lesbiese moederskap van lesbiese families en kinders van lesbiese moeders. Noemenswaardige bevindings onthul die besluitneming betrokke om moeders te word; die invloed wat die tipe skenker op die paartjie en hulle kind het; die vreugde en vereistes van kinders grootmaak; die regverdige verdeling van kindersorg en huishoudelike take; die belangrikheid van lewensmaat ondersteuning; die krag van kinders se band met sosiale en aangenome moeders; die samelewing se tekort aan ouerlike bekragtiging; die kwessie van homofobie en die voorbereiding van hulle kinders hierteen. Dit wil voorkom of lesbiese moeders moeders in baie opsigte dieselfde ervaar as heteroseksuele moeders, behalwe dat hulle nie so alleen en geïsoleerd voorkom nie. Die studie se voorneme was nie net om die ervarings van lesbiese moeders te verken nie, maar ook om aan hulle ’n stem te bied binne die sielkundige literatuur en om te streef na die aanvaarding van uiteenlopende gesinsvorme binne hoofstroom sielkunde asook die breër Suid-Afrikaanse gemeenskap.

Sex and morals have often been factors in custody disputes. Courts have felt that giving custody of children to homosexual parents would create an environment not in the best interest of the child. Many mental health professionals argue that these decisions have been based on prejudice and homophobia. The purpose of this study was to evaluate research on the sexual orientation of children raised by homosexual parents and review data on the mental/psychosexual health of these children. These studies revealed no difference between children raised by gay/lesbian parents versus those raised by heterosexual parents on IQ scores, gender identity, or peer group relations. Daughters raised by lesbian mothers tended to choose more masculine toys and engage in more masculine activities than daughters raised by single heterosexual mothers. Nearly all of the adolescent children of homosexual parents experienced periods of questioning their sexual orientation. They also expressed the possibility of changing their sexual orientation later in life. Problems in research methodology (i.e., pre-experimental designs and lack of external validity) however, severely limit the validity and generalizability of these conclusions. Given the absence of externally valid, rigorous research on the relationship between homosexual parents and the sexual orientation of their children, these authors conclude that this question remains unanswered. These authors argue that custodial decisions regarding children of homosexual parents be based on sound information in the best interest of both children and parents and not rooted in homophobia.

Il y a encore quelques années, être homosexuel, en couple et adopter un enfant relevait de l’utopie. Aujourd’hui, l’adoption par des couples homosexuels est devenue une réalité légale et une possibilité concrète dans plusieurs pays du monde.Pourtant, lorsqu’il faut placer les enfants dans des familles adoptives, l’orientation sexuelle des futurs parents demeure une question controversée qui divise l’opinion publique (Patterson, 2009). Souvent, le débat oppose « le droit de l’enfant », défendu par la Convention internationale des droits de l’enfant, et « le droit à l’enfant », réclamé par les homosexuels ou sympathisants (Herbrand 2006).Entre les débats socio-politiques, les controverses de nature idéologique et éthique, ces nouvelles familles, de plus en plus nombreuses, affirment haut et fort leur droit à « sortir de l’oubli » et s’engagent dans une bataille dont l’objectif est de normaliser leur contexte familial aux yeux de la société.Malgré l’expansion de l’adoption homoparentale, l’expérience de vie de ces nouvelles familles est à peine abordée dans la littérature scientifique actuelle. En effet, même si, ces quarante dernières années, de nombreuses recherches ont été consacrées à l’homoparentalité, très peu d’études se sont focalisées sur les familles ayant choisi l’adoption comme mode de filiation, surtout dans le contexte européen.L’objectif de la présente recherche était de combler ce vide dans la littérature, en analysant les expériences de la première génération de familles adoptives homoparentales résidant en Europe. Pour ce faire, nous avons donné la parole à 31 familles adoptives homoparentales, sur un total de 62 parents adoptifs (46 gays et 16 lesbiennes) et de 44 enfants adoptés (entre 3 et 18 ans) en Belgique, France et Espagne.Ces trois pays ont été choisis pour les éléments qu’ils partagent ou qui les opposent dans le contexte socio-politique des droits des minorités sexuelles et la procédure d’adoption. La Belgique et l’Espagne sont considérées aujourd’hui comme deux des pays les plus avant-gardistes et gay- friendly en Europe et dans le monde entier. De fait, ces deux pays ont été parmi les premiers à ouvrir l’adoption aux couples de même sexe(respectivement en 2006 et 2005). En revanche, la France n’a légiféré sur cette question qu’en 2013, après des débats longs et houleux qui ont suscité de nombreuses réactions.Etudier les familles homoparentales dans ces trois pays nous a permis d’avoir accès à des situations d’adoption différentes: en effet, tous les participants belges ont adopté des enfants en bas âge via une procédure d’adoption conjointe nationale, tandis que tous les participants français et la plupart des espagnols ont adopté des enfants à l’étranger et généralement plus âgés, via une procédure où seul l’un des deux partenaires adoptait légalement l’enfant.La théorie qui a orienté notre étude est celle du cycle de vie de la famille adoptive (Brodzinsky, Smith & Brodzinsky, 1998; Brodzinsky & Pinderhughes, 2002; Hajal & Rosenberg, 1991). S’inspirant du schéma « classique » du cycle de vie (Carter & McGoldrick, 1980) cette théorie identifie des phases clef à travers lesquelles la famille adoptive transite :la phase pré-adoption, durant laquelle le couple est souvent confronté à l’infertilité et décide d’entamer un parcours adoptif ;la procédure d’adoption, souvent vécue comme un moment de stress et d’incertitude; l’arrivée de l’enfant dans la famille, suivie du processus de « parentage » de l’enfant adopté, différent en fonction de l’âge de celui-ci (préscolaire, scolaire, ou adolescent). Selon cette conception, à chaque étape du cycle de vie, la famille adoptive est confrontée à de nouveaux défis et tâches développementales, qui sont à la fois similaires et différents de ceux vécus par des familles non-adoptives.Cette recherche avait pour but d’éclairer à la fois le vécu des homoparents adoptifs et des enfants adoptés au sein de ces nouvelles familles, en analysant leurs expériences en fonction de l’étape de leur cycle de vie.En ce qui concerne les parents, nous avons analysé trois moments clefs: le processus décisionnel, le parcours d'adoption et leurs expériences en tant qu’homoparents suite à l'arrivée de l'enfant dans la famille. Plus précisément, les questions suivantes ont guidé notre recherche :quel cheminement a été celui des homoparents avant de choisir l'adoption ?Quels sont les enjeux de la transition à l’homoparentalité adoptive ?Et quels sont les défis et les tâches parentales auxquels ils sont confrontés suite à l’adoption ?Concernant les enfants, nous avons analysé leur construction identitaire à différentes étapes de leur développement. Notre attention s’est portée sur les questions suivantes :quelle est l’expérience subjective de ces enfants ?Quelles sont les spécificités de leur construction identitaire à l’intersection de la situation adoptive et homoparentale ?Quelles sont leurs questions, leurs demandes tout au long de leur développement ?Ainsi, un intérêt particulier a été consacré à la thématique de la perte des parents de naissance et à l'exploration de dynamiques familiales au tour de cette issue. Plus précisément, nous avons analysé la communication familiale concernant la « double appartenance » des enfants (famille d’origine et famille adoptive) afin de répondre aux questions de recherche suivantes :comment ces familles gèrent- elles la perte des parents d’origine ?Quels sont les sentiments des homoparents et des enfants adoptés vis-à-vis des parents de naissance? Et comment cela impacte-t-il les dynamiques familiales ?Du point de vue méthodologique, nous avons conduit des entretiens semi-structurés et soumis les homoparents et leurs enfants à un test projectif graphique (La Double Lune, Greco 1999). L’entretien visait à approfondir les expériences des participants ;le test projectif, en permettant d’accéder à une dimension «plus inconsciente », a complété les informations obtenues. Cet instrument projectif s’est révélé particulièrement utile pour l’exploration des sentiments et des dynamiques relationnelles autour de la thématique de la perte de la famille d’origine.L’originalité de la présente recherche consiste dans le fait qu’elle est pionnière dans le contexte européen ainsi que dans le domaine psychologique. Notre étude a le mérite de fournir des réponses scientifiques à une question sociale de grande actualité, en recentrant les débats sur les principaux intéressés :les homoparents et leurs enfants. Leurs récits nous ouvrent la porte à un nouvel univers familial, dont les « points de repères » et les critères sont uniques et nouveaux. Les familles adoptives homoparentales sont des avant-gardistes de la société, des petits laboratoires de nouveaux mondes possibles. Ces familles anticipent et précèdent. Par leur exemple, elles accélèrent les changements de la société, elles poussent vers le futur.Les expériences des familles rapportées dans la présente thèse nous amèneront, page après page, à déconstruire nos propres préconceptions de la famille, du couple et de la filiation et à porter de « nouveaux regards » qui permettent de saisir l’incontestable richesse dont ces nouvelles géométries familiales sont dépositaires. Leurs témoignages nous permettront de concevoir une nouvelle manière de faire famille, mais aussi de « repenser » et « réinventer » le principe de l’adoption, sur base de leur expérience inédite.
Only a few years ago, being homosexual, in a relationship, and adopting a child was a utopia. Nowadays, same-sex adoption is a legal reality and a concrete possibility in many countries in the world. However, the right of gay and lesbian people to adopt a child remains a controversial issue that strongly divides public opinion. In the debate there are often those who defend “the right of the child” (according to the International Convention on the Rights of the Child) and those, these being sexual minorities and their sympathisers, who defend “the right to a child” (Herbrand 2006). Among socio-political debates, ideological and ethical controversies, these new families, who are becoming more and more numerous, claim, loud and clear, their right to "emerge from oblivion" and engage in a "battle" of which the objective is to normalise their family context in the eyes of society.Despite the progressive diffusion of same-sex adoption, the life experiences of these new families remain practically unexplored in scientific literature. In fact, even if in the last 40 years a great deal of research was dedicated to same-sex parenting, very few studies focused on families who chose adoption as a pathway to parenthood. Especially in the European context, there is a dearth of data on this topic. In order to fill this gap in literature, the present research aimed to analyse the experiences of the first generation of gay and lesbian adoptive families living in Europe. To this end, we gave the floor to 31 adoptive same-sex families, totalling 62 adoptive parents (46 gay men and 16 lesbians) and 44 adopted children (between 3 and 18 years old) living in Belgium, France and Spain.The choice for these three countries was motivated by the fact that they have a number of elements in common but also differ at some points as to the socio-political context of the rights of sexual minorities and the adoption process.Nowadays, Belgium and Spain are considered to be two of the most avant-garde and gay friendly countries both in Europe and worldwide. These two countries were among the first to open adoption to same-sex couples (respectively in 2006 and 2005). In turn, France legislated this aspect only in 2013, after long and controversial social debates. Studying same-sex families in these three countries enabled us to have access to varied adoption situations: in fact, all Belgian participants adopted infants through a joint national adoption procedure, while all the French and most of Spanish participants adopted generally older children abroad, through an international adoption procedure in which only one of the two partners legally adopted the child.Our study was oriented by the adoptive family cycle theory (Brodzinsky et al. 1998; Brodzinsky & Pinderhughes, 2002; Hajal & Rosenberg, 1991). Inspired by the classic theory of the family life cycle (Carter & McGoldrick, 1980), this theory identifies key phases through which the adoptive family transits: the pre-adoptive phase, during which the couple is often confronted with infertility and decides to start an adoption path; the adoption process, often experienced as a period of stress and uncertainty; the arrival of the child in the family, and the successive process of parenting the adopted child which changes according to the child’s age (infancy, preschool, school, or adolescence years). According to this theory, in each stage of the life cycle adoptive families encounter new challenges and developmental tasks, which are both similar and different from those experienced by non-adoptive families.This research aimed to study the experiences of both same-sex parents and the adopted children in these new families, by taking the stage of the family life cycle in which they were into account.On the side of the same-sex parents, we analysed three key moments: the decision-making process, the adoption procedure and their daily experiences as same-sex parents after the arrival of the child in the family.More precisely, the following questions guided our research: What is the personal journey of gay and lesbian people before choosing adoption? What are the main barriers encountered during the transition to same-sex adoptive parenthood? What are the main challenges and parental tasks they face after adoption? On the side of the adopted children, we were interested in exploring their identity construction process at different stages of their development. Our attention was focused on the following research questions: What is the personal experience of these children? What are the specificities of their identity construction at the intersection of their adoptive and family minority statuses? What are their questions and their developmental issues during their growing years?In addition, special attention was paid to the theme of the loss of birth parents and to the exploration of family dynamics surrounding this issue.We particularly studied the family communication concerning the double family connection of adopted children (family of origin and adoptive family), answering the following research questions: How do these families deal with the theme of the loss of the birth family? What are the feelings of same-sex parents and their adopted children towards the birth family? How does this element impact the family dynamics?From a methodological point of view, we conducted semi-structured interviews and applied a projective graphical test (the Double Moon Test, Greco, 1999) to both same-sex parents and their children. The purpose of the interviews was to explore the participants' experiences, while the projective test enriched the information obtained through the interviews, giving access to a more "unconscious" dimension. This projective instrument in particular, proved to be very useful for the exploration of feelings and relational dynamics connected with the theme of the loss of the birth family.The originality of this research is that it is pioneering in the European context as well as in the field of psychology. Our study has the merit of providing scientific answers to a very topical social question, by refocusing debates on the main stakeholders: gay and lesbian parents and their children. Their stories lead us into a new family universe whose distinguishing features and criteria are unique and new. Same-sex families are the avant-garde of society, small laboratories of possible new worlds. These families anticipate and precede. By their example, they accelerate changes in society, they push towards the future. The experiences of the families reported in this thesis will induce us, page after page, to deconstruct our own preconceptions of family, couples and filiation and bring about "a new perspective" that allows us to grasp the undeniable wealth for which these new family geometries are custodians. Their testimonies will allow us to imagine a new way of being a family, but also to "rethink" and "reinvent" the adoption clinic, based on their unique experience.
Doctorat en Sciences psychologiques et de l'éducation
info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

Thesis advisor: Ruth McRoy
Thesis advisor: Summer Hawkins
Adoptive parenting contributes to the dramatic growth in lesbian and gay (LG) parenting. Research on adoptive families has mostly focused on heterosexual parent families and the limited research on LG parenting has primarily emphasized child adjustment outcomes. This three-paper dissertation utilized subsamples from a large (N=1616) and recent (2012-2013) comprehensive dataset, The Modern Adoptive Families Study, designed to compare family characteristics, experiences, and adjustment outcomes across different types of adoptive families, especially families headed by sexual minority parents. The Minority Stress model is used to frame a deeper understanding of parenting processes in heterosexual and lesbian and gay parent adoptive families. This framework takes into account the potential for families, led by sexual minority parents, to encounter discrimination and suggests processes may exist within the family to help buffer interpersonal and systemic bias. Paper 1 used logistic regression to examine the associations of adoptive parents’ satisfaction with their mental health services and their pediatrician. Pediatrician satisfaction was specifically related to the parental perception of their provider’s understanding of their minority status; based on 1) adoptive family status, 2) parental sexual orientation, and 3) transracial adoption status. Overall, 51% of the sample of parents who sought mental health services reported satisfaction. Satisfaction was positively associated with being a gay father, having a higher household income, and having a child whose race was identified as Asian. Satisfaction was negatively associated with having a child older than 11 years old. Of parents who reported on their satisfaction with pediatricians, 82% of parents reported satisfaction. Having a higher household income was positively associated with respondents’ satisfaction. Paper 2 used confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to explore how findings from two racial socialization measures compared across parental sexual orientation, in transracial adoptive families. The scales measured parental endorsement of cultural competency pertaining to race and related self-efficacy enacting racial socialization practices. In Paper 3, cultural socialization theory was used to investigate parents’ endorsement of socialization related to being raised in a same-sex headed family with two newly developed scales using exploratory factor analysis (EFA). Results of these studies will help to inform policy and practice by addressing critical questions impacting a growing number of adoptive families, especially those headed by sexual minority parents. Contributions to the literature include findings about parenting practices, perceptions, experiences, and relationship dynamics within lesbian, gay, and heterosexual adoptive parent families
Thesis (PhD) — Boston College, 2018
Submitted to: Boston College. Graduate School of Social Work
Discipline: Social Work

Thesis (Ph.D.) -- La Trobe University, 2006.
Research. "A thesis submitted in total fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy [to the] School of Public Health, (Australian Research Centre in Sex, health and Society), Faculty of health Science, La Trobe University, Bundoora, Victoria". Title of digital version: Beyond Choice : Family and Kinship in the Australian lesbian and gay 'baby boom'. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 297-335). Also available via the World Wide Web.

The purpose of this study was to gain insight into foster parents’ perceptions of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) foster youth through a self-administered survey in an attempt to provide better care for these children. The pool of participants were varied in most areas including age, gender, ethnicity, education levels, and religiosity. However, the majority was heterosexual and had less than 2 years of experience fostering. The results showed no particular demographics, trainings, or level of experience that contribute to more or less acceptance or preparedness. This may be due to response bias, however, it is more likely due to a flawed instrument. The results show that overall attitudes followed a normal bell curve, slightly skewed in favor of more positive attitudes. This is the most important finding of the study, which shows an improvement in foster parents’ overall attitudes compared to prior research. It also showed that more parents feel comfortable fostering LGBT youth, than do not.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Missouri-Columbia, 2007.
The entire dissertation/thesis text is included in the research.pdf file; the official abstract appears in the short.pdf file (which also appears in the research.pdf); a non-technical general description, or public abstract, appears in the public.pdf file. Title from title screen of research.pdf file (viewed on September 20, 2007) Vita. Includes bibliographical references.

This study investigated the phenomenological nature of coming to terms with a gay son or lesbian daughter. Seven co-researchers were interviewed. They were selected from a network of friends, acquaintences and the organization Parents and Friends of Gays and Lesbians. Each person was asked to describe their personal experience of "coming to terms" and to validate the analysis within the context of three interviews. The interviews were taped, transcribed and used as the data for this study. The meaning of "coming to terms" was studied by using the existential-phenomenological approach. The analysis followed the descriptive research method outlined by Colaizzi (1978) in Existential-Phenomenological Alternatives For Psychology. The results directly address the meaning of coming to terms with a gay son or lesbian daughter. The major themes (constituents) were described and integrated into an exhaustive phenomenological description. A condensed description (esstential structure) was derived from the phenomenological description and was presented in an unequivocal statement of meaning.
Education, Faculty of
Educational and Counselling Psychology, and Special Education (ECPS), Department of
Graduate

The purpose of this phenomenological study was to explore how LGB college students created meaning out of their coming out process to their parents. I recruited LGB college students who perceived support from their parents during their coming out process and asked the following research question: What are the lived experiences of LGB college students who have experienced support from their parents during the coming out process? Seven White (n = 4), African American (n = 2), and Hispanic (n = 1) college students, three men and four women aged 18-24 years, shared narratives that included time periods before, during, and after their coming out disclosures to their parents. Using an adapted phenomenological analysis, I identified nine major themes: awareness of feeling different, positive relationship with parents prior to coming out, college impacting the coming out process, feeling unsure of how parents would respond to disclosure, parents assuring continued loved and acceptance, parents affirming LGB identity, increased relational depth with parents, increased sense of authenticity, and an appreciation for family's response and support. The findings provide insight into how counselors might work most beneficially with LGB college students and their parents around the coming out process. Opportunities for future research and limitations of the study are discussed.

Coming out as a sexual minority can be a challenging process (D’amico, Julien, Tremblay, & Chartrand, 2015) and having supportive allies and advocates within the family makes that process less strenuous (Luke & Goodrich, 2015). The sibling relationship has been shown to play a significant supportive role in the lives of LGB people while coming out as sexual minorities (Haxhe, Cerezo, Bergfeld, & Walloch, 2017). Scholars have found that when a second child within the family system comes out as LGB, it gives the parents a chance to improve aspects of their parenting compared to the first child who came out to them. However, there is still little known about LGB sibling’s shared experience with both being sexual minorities. Chapter 2 in this dissertation is a systemic review on the topic of multiple LGB sibling families. Results indicating that these families exist but are not properly represented in literature. With LGB individuals having an increased risks of negative mental health outcomes (Russell & Fish, 2016), Chapter three explores the lived experiences of LGB individuals with LGB siblings. The purpose of the present study is twofold: 1) to examine if coming out to an LGB sibling increases the chances of an ally/advocate within the family and 2) helps lower negative mental health outcomes. Results from this qualitive study include significant differences of lived experiences based on order the siblings came out with family dynamic changes to improve family cohesion. Participants also reported viewing their siblings as allies which played a role in helping with negative mental health symptoms such as depression, anxiety, and suicidal ideation. Finally, this study utilized feminist family theory and found a less likely chance in power projection once both siblings were out. Clinical implications and future research directions will be discussed at length.

Often play therapists are faced with challenges when working with caregivers of transgender and gender expansive children. We are legally and ethically called to provide affirmative services and support. This presentation assists in developing skills for supporting all clients in play therapy

Thesis (MEd )--Stellenbosch University, 2011.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: During no other time in history have sexual minority individuals been the recipients of so much attention, scrutiny and unprecedented acceptance and inclusion into mainstream culture. However, despite advances and society's ever increasing tolerance toward sexual minorities, many individuals with alternative sexual orientations remain fearful of disclosing their sexuality. Consequently, adolescents often hide their alternative sexual orientation from others or disclose to only a select few. Adolescents with alternative sexual orientations face unique challenges, such as the coming out process, during which they must recognise, explore, define and disclose their orientation in a way that heterosexual individuals need not. Disclosure of an alternative sexual orientation is a struggle for most lesbian, gay and bisexual youth due to fears of discrimination, ostracism and violence from others. Despite a growing body of scientific literature on homosexuality in general, little is known about the disclosure process and its impact on an adolescent. This study seeks to help fill the gaps by giving voice to the adolescent by exploring the experience of disclosure. Furthermore, this study seeks to provide insight and knowledge to mental health professionals to aid adolescent clients throughout the disclosure process. This study's research methodology can be described as qualitative research which is embedded within an interpretive/constructivist paradigm. Purposive sampling was used to select five male and five female research participants. The methods of data collection that were employed comprised semi-structured individual interviews and reflective notes. Furthermore, content analysis was used to analyse the data. The findings of this study suggest that many unique issues besides the normative challenges that lesbian and gay adolescents share with heterosexual adolescents characterise their development. This research study suggests that there are several milestones that are characteristic of lesbian and gay identity development, the negotiation of which may hinder development in other areas. The male and female participants described a similar trajectory to coming out, consistently identifying a feeling of being different during early childhood which resolved into an awareness of same-sex attraction that concluded in their self-labelling as gay or lesbian. The findings of this study suggest that the process of disclosure is continuous and emergent. The reactions of parents ranged from extreme outrage and expulsion from the home to support and acceptance of the fact that their child had disclosed his/her homosexual orientation. From the findings of this study it would appear that the participants' parents were initially ill prepared and unable to support their child during his/her disclosure. The participants voiced various strategies to support an adolescent in the position of disclosing to family. There are several implications of this study's findings for mental health professionals working with lesbian, gay and bisexual adolescents and youth.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die aandag, noukeurige betragting, aanvaarding en ongekende insluiting binne die hoofstroom van die kultuur wat tans deur seksuele minderheidsgroepe ervaar word, is ongekend in die geskiedenis. Ten spyte van vooruitgang en die toenemende verdraagsaamheid teenoor die seksuele minderheid in die samelewing, vrees diegene wat 'n alternatiewe seksuele oriëntasie toon steeds om hulself bloot te stel. Gevolglik hou adolessente dikwels hul alternatiewe seksuele oriëntasie geheim of onthul hulle dit slegs aan 'n uitgesoekte paar persone. Adolessente met 'n alternatiewe seksuele oriëntasie kom op 'n wyse wat nie vir heteroseksuele individue nodig is nie, voor unieke uitdagings soos die openbaarmaking van hul oriëntasie te staan wanneer hulle dit moet erken, verken, definieër en aan die moet lig bring. Die erkenning van 'n alternatiewe seksuele oriëntasie plaas die meeste lesbiese, gay en biseksuele jeugdiges voor 'n stryd vanweë die vrees vir diskriminasie, verstoting en geweld deur andere. Ten spyte van die algemene toenemende hoeveelheid wetenskaplike literatuur oor homoseksualiteit, is daar weinig kennis van die verklaringsproses en die impak daarvan op 'n adolessent. Hierdie studie poog om die ervaring van verklaring te ondersoek om die adolessent se stem te laat hoor en sodoende die kennisgaping te oorbrug. Verder poog die studie ook om insig en kennis aan professionele persone binne die gebied van die geestesgesondheid te bied, om hulle in staat te stel om adolessente kliënte met die verklaringsproses by te staan. Die navorsingsmetodologie wat vir die studie gebruik is, kan as kwalitatiewe navorsing binne 'n interpretiewe/konstruktiwistiese paradigma beskou word. Doelgerigte toetsing is ingespan om vyf manlike en vyf vroulike deelnemers vir die navorsingspoging te werf. Data is met behulp van semigestruktureerde onderhoude en reflektiewe notas ingesamel. Verder is inhoudsanalise gebruik om die data te ontleed. Die bevindings van die studie dui daarop dat die ontwikkeling van gay en lesbiese adolessente benewens die normatiewe uitdagings wat deur hulle sowel as heteroseksuele adolessente aangespreek moet word, ook deur unieke kwessies gekenmerk word. Hierdie navorsingstudie suggereer dat verskeie mylpale kenmerkend is van die ontwikkeling van lesbiese en gay identiteit en dat die bewerkstelliging daarvan ontwikkeling in ander areas kan stuit. Die manlike en vroulike deelnemers aan die studie het langs soortgelyke bane tot die verklaring van hul oriëntasie gekom en het die gewaarwording dat hulle tydens hul vroeë jeug reeds 'n gevoel dat hulle anders was konsekwent geïdentifiseer. Hierdie gevoel het tot 'n bewustheid van die aantrekking van dieselfde geslag ontwikkel en tot self-etikettering as gay of lesbies gelei. Die bevindings van die studie stel voor dat die verklaringsproses voortdurend en opdoemend van aard is. Die reaksies van ouers wissel vanaf uiterste verontwaardiging en verdrywing vanuit die tuiste tot ondersteuning en aanvaarding van die wete dat hul kind sy/haar homoseksuele oriëntasie verklaar het. Die bevindings laat blyk ook dat die ouers van die deelnemers aanvanklik gebrekkig voorbereid was en nie in staat was om hul kind tydens die verklaring te ondersteun nie. Die deelnemers het verskeie strategieë voorgestel vir die ondersteuning van 'n adolessent wat hom/haar op die punt van hierdie verklaring aan die gesin bevind. Die studie se bevindings het ook verskeie implikasies vir professionele persone wat binne die gebied van die geestesgesondheid met lesbiese, homoseksuele en biseksuele adolessente en jeugdiges te doen het.

La thèse porte sur l'évolution des normes parentales dans des situations où celles-ci sont discutées, mises en jeu et légitimées, en particulier concernant la pluriparentalité. D'une part, je me suis penchée sur le projet légal de "parenté sociale" qui vise à reconnaître la place et les droits d'un adulte qui s'occupe de l'enfant de son conjoint avec qui il n'a pas de lien biologique. D'autre part, j'ai analysé des situations familiales dites de "coparentalité" où gay(s) et lesbienne(s) s'associent pour avoir un enfant ensemble en l'élevant séparément.

The PhD thesis deals with the evolution of parental norms in changing situations in which these norms can be discussed and modified, specifically en terms of multiparenthood. On the one hand, I have studied a new form of legal status - “social parenthood” - debated in the Belgian Parliament to recognize non-biological parenthood. On the other hand, I have analyzed gay and lesbian “coparenting”, which can be defined as a parental project involving a lesbian woman/couple and a gay man/couple brought together to have a child and raise he or she separately. In each case, I examined the ways in which individuals live and deal with familial situations that involve same-sex couples and/or more than two parents raising a child.
Doctorat en sciences sociales, Orientation sociologie
info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

Denna studie kan placeras inom barndomsforskningen, där barn ses som aktörer vars röster förtjänar att tas på allvar. Syftet var att undersöka regnbågsbarns syn på familj, sin egen familj och tillblivelse. Intervjuer har genomförts med tolv barn i åldern fem till åtta år som alla var samboende med två mammor. En semistrukturerad intervjuguide användes och barnen ombads att måla sin egen och en annan familj. Barnens tal har analyserats utifrån en diskursanalytisk ansats. Resultatet visar att regnbågsbarnen pratar om familj utifrån relationella band, emotionell närhet, att man bor och gör saker tillsammans. Barnen visar en öppenhet inför olika familjestrukturer. Föräldrar beskrivs som omhändertagande och mammors och pappors funktion sägs vara likvärdig. Pratet om den egna familjen och mammorna präglas av positiva beskrivningar men utmanas i ett fåtal berättelser genom att teman av konflikt lyfts. Majoriteten av barnen pratar om pappor och beskriver dessa dels utifrån ursprung och dels utifrån en relationell mening. En del barns prat framstår förvirrat kring dessa två aspekter av pappor. Barnen uppvisar svårigheter att närma sig prat om tillblivelse och använder begreppen frö och ägg i olika utsträckning. Majoriteten av barnen som pratar om frö berättar att det kommer från en man. Regnbågsbarnens sätt att prata om familj är i linje med tidigare forskning om barns syn på familj. Barnens öppenhet inför olika familjestrukturer kan ses som ett uttryck för att rättfärdiga den egna familjekonstellationen, alternativt visar det på en realistisk spegling av samhällets mångfald vad gäller familjeformer. Svårigheterna att prata om negativa erfarenheter inom den egna familjen visar på det problematiska att gå emot en dominerande diskurs av familj som harmonisk. Regnbågsbarnens prat kring att mammor och pappor är samma sak skiljer sig från tidigare forskning om barns syn på föräldrar och hur detta kan förstås diskuteras i uppsatsen. Den förvirring som en del barns prat kring att i en mening ha en pappa och i en annan inte, kan visa på att barnen behöver få stöd i att hitta en fungerande diskurs om vad en pappa är och skillnaden på en relationell pappa och en donator.

This research aimed to explore the parenting experiences of lesbian women who chose to have children through artificial insemination. While this study aimed to explore the experience of being a lesbian parent in South Africa generally, its intent was to be primarily vigilant of the particular challenges that face lesbian parents having children (through sperm donation) within the broader context of heterosexuality in South Africa. Using the voice-centred relational method of analysis, two separate interviews with a lesbian parenting couple were analysed. The findings revealed a number of expected and some unexpected challenges that lesbian parents of sperm donor children reportedly contend with. The overall finding was that lesbian parenting is a significantly challenging experience. Whilst it can be argued that parenting for all individuals is fraught with difficulties, what this study highlights is that for lesbian parents, typical parenting difficulties are exacerbated by societal judgment and lack of support. It is hoped that this research will contribute to filing the vast gap in South African literature relating to lesbian parenting as well as provide the impetus for further research relating to this topic to be conducted within South Africa. This research also intends to provide an educational resource to potential lesbian mothers as well as to lesbian parents who may possibly seek solace in the awareness they are not alone in terms of the challenges which they may face. Last but certainly not least, it is hoped that the insights of this study may assist psychologists in improving their competency in working with same sex parent populations by cultivating knowledge, understanding, self reflection and empathy skills.
Thesis (M.A.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2010.

Some romantic relationship types have a greater likelihood of receiving parental support than do others. Specifically, adults in traditional romantic relationships (i.e., same-race, opposite-sex) perceive more parental support for their relationships than do individuals in socially stigmatized relationships (e.g., interracial, same-sex relationships; Lehmiller & Agnew, 2006). The goal of the current study was to understand better what motivates parents to provide support for their adult children’s romantic relationships. To address this question, the original and a modified version of the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA; Ajzen & Fishbein, 1975) were tested. The TRA was implemented to measure whether parents’ attitudes toward showing support and the parents’ subjective norms were associated with the parents’ intentions to provide support for their children’s relationships in the future. In the modified model, subjective norms was reconceptualized to include parents’ perceptions of stigma by associating with their children’s relationships and the perceived threat of sanctions from the parent’s social networks if the parents were to provide support for their children’s relationships in the future. To improve predictive ability of the models, theoretically relevant covariates were included in each model. To capitalize on a variety of viewpoints, this study included parents whose children were either single or in dating relationships. Parents whose child was single completed the questionnaire while imagining his or her child in a traditional, interracial, or same-sex relationship whereas parents whose child was in a dating relationship reported on his or her child’s current relationship. A sample of 438 parents completed an online survey. Overall, across all groups, parents’ attitudes toward providing support were consistently associated with parents’ intentions to provide support. Associations between the parents’ subjective norms and intentions to provide support varied across groups and were not always significantly associated with parents’ intentions to provide support in the future. Furthermore, parents’ motivations to provide support differed among parents who imagined their children in relationships compared to parents whose children were in real relationships, suggesting parents may overestimate problems with their children’s interracial and same-sex relationships and underestimate problems with their children’s traditional relationships than may occur in real-life situations.
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Dissertation
This study examined the experiential world of adolescents in the middle and late phases of adolescent development with homosexual parents. A comprehensive literature review was conducted to explore homosexual parenting and societal reactions to this phenomenon. Thereafter, Bronfenbrenner’s bio-ecological systems theory of child development was highlighted followed by a synopsis comprising different dimensions of the development of adolescents in the middle and late phases of adolescent development. The empirical investigation was carried out through qualitative research methodology. In-depth case studies selected by purposeful sampling were carried out with three adolescents, each of whom had a homosexual father. Although the qualitative data is not generalisable, the findings of the case studies revealed similarities in the life worlds of the adolescents. The participants were affected by the discovery of their father’s homosexuality, but they chose to accept their father’s sexual orientation and sought a relationship with him. Finally, recommendations for practice were made.
Psychology of Education
M. Ed. (Guidance and Counselling)

Mixed race and African South African parents of children coming out as Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transsexual, Intersex, Queer, Questioning and A-Sexual+ have a unique set of challenges within their cultural, religious and social contexts. The problem statement for the study entails that parents have to deal with familial and societal perceptions and reactions to their child coming out, face their own challenges and fears concerning their child’s sexual orientation or identity, and find coping strategies to deal with their coming out as LGBTIQA+. During my research in the UNISA library and online I found that there is a paucity of literature on this subject matter, especially within the South African context. The aim of this study was to obtain an in-depth understanding of these mixed race and African parents’ experiences, challenges and coping strategies in relation to a child coming out as LGBTIQA+. The Resiliency Theory of Family Stress, Adjustment and Adaptation, as linked to Hill’s Stress Theory and the Strength-based approach, were adopted as related theories within the theoretical framework of this study. A qualitative approach was employed, as I intended to gain insight into the lived experiences, challenges and coping strategies of mixed race and African South African parents in relation to a child coming out as LGBTIQA+, as well as to gain advice on social work support. A phenomenological and collective instrumental case study design, together with an explorative, descriptive and contextual strategy of inquiry, were used to explore, describe and contextualise how mixed race and African parents of LGBTIQA+ children experienced their children’s coming out, what their challenges were, and the coping strategies they employed to manage the challenges experienced. The sample of participants was selected by utilising purposive sampling. Semi-structured interviews, contained in an interview guide, were used to collect the data that was analysed using Tesch’s method of analysis (in Creswell, 2014:198). The data were collected by means of individual interviews and presented in a cross-person manner using selected narratives from the participants. Guba’s model, as espoused in Krefting (1991) and Lietz and Zayas (2010), was used and the four aspects of trustworthiness, namely credibility, transferability, dependability and confirmability, were applied. Ethical considerations were observed. The findings led the researcher to make recommendations regarding social work practice, education and further research into the phenomenon of parental experiences, challenges and coping strategies in relation to a child coming out as LGBTIQA+. In terms of parental experiences of their child coming out as LGBTIQA+, I found that parents were surprised and unhappy, disappointed, pained and shocked, and fearful for their child’s safety when they realised he or she was LGBTIQA+. When it came to their challenges and fears, the parents openly admitted that what the community, church and external family would make of their child being LGBTIQA+ caused stress for them. Lastly, the parents made recommendations to social workers based on their experiences, challenges and coping strategies, indicating that social workers should focus on sharing information and guiding parents; but firstly, social workers must have self-awareness and understand their own attitudes toward LGBTIQA+ matters.
Social Work
MA (Social Work)

碩士
國立中正大學
社會福利研究所
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Taiwan same-sex couples seeking same-sex marriage legal has been more than thirty years. In October 2013, Same-sex Marriage Civil Law amendment adopted on First Reading, that aroused fierce opposition from opponents. Showing many people couldn’t understand how same-sex couples have a family, when their family imaginations are beyond patriarch-heterosexual society. Heteronormative may also cause same-sex couples’ parenting practice become harder. Therefore, this article tries to discuss how patriarch-heterosexual gender role culture, social class, and institutions affect same-sex couples’ parenting practice, and to explore the social challenges faced by same-sex couples and their response strategies. This study uses qualitative research, and interviewed three gay families and three lesbian families both. Some of the households were interviewed by only one of them, there were nine parents interviewed. Research finding accords with their birth process, first, presenting individual preference, life experience, and social culture may the reasons why same-sex couples want to be parents. Second, same-sex parents face more obstacles in institution, need to pay more ‘price’ to have a child. Third, patriarch-heterosexual gender role may affect their fertility role and parenting practice. Last, to respond misunderstandings form others, same-sex couples develop three strategies: to communicate with the emergence, establish supporting networks, and cultivate children's ability to face the community independently. Research also points out, although patriarch-heterosexual culture may influence same-sex couples’ imaginations of marriage and family, however, there are still some different performance in same-sex couples’ parenting practice, ex. diversified family appellation. Otherwise, in the institution constraints, only the family having higher socioeconomic position and culture capital may fulfill their desire of being parents. The institutions of Taiwan still oppression the possibilities of same-sex couples to being parents. To improve same-sex families’ social situation, institutions should recognize same-sex couples’ relationship, expand eligibility of artificial insemination, establish the institution of surrogacy, and open adoption for same-sex couples. These institutions changing could ensure same-sex couples’ rights for being parents. To break the rigid division of gender roles, need for mandatory, diversified childcare system to vary gender role scripts. At last, to change the prejudice of same-sex couples, we should strengthen schools’, and professionals’ multi-gender education.

This dissertation examines changes in the meaning of family and what this reveals about the complex, socially grounded mechanics of meaning-making more generally. Examining the discourse from interviews with 23 gay and lesbian parents, I show that they have very concrete and definable ideologies of family that reflect an American/ Western concept of kinship in which family is made up of those who are related by blood, marriage or adoption; as well as an understanding that family can also be chosen and therefore outside of traditional biogenetic structures. For these men and women, family of choice and the dominant American kinship structure are not mutually exclusive. Through an analysis of the participants' definitions of family, this dissertation finds that the parents gave both a narrow definition (that which includes only blood and legal relationships) and a broad definition (that which includes those not related by blood, marriage or adoption). Based on these definitions, both from the participants themselves and from those who have spoken out nationally against same-sex marriage and parenting, I apply Lakoff's Prototype Theory to offer a way to understand the disconnection between those who believe being gay and being a parent are incompatible, and those who see it as one of many types of family that do not conform to a dominant ideology. I identify a prototype of FAMILY made up of two radial categories to account for two central, yet opposed, ideologies, separated solely by whether parents could be the same sex. I also discuss the parents' positioning of their narratives toward local and nonlocal interactants and their use of generic and personal features in their discourse. The parents both draw upon external influences and become meaning-makers themselves through negotiations of their family identities in the context of dominant ideologies of family that often regard them as illegitimate. The outcomes of the negotiations that the parents undertake do not reflect a new, radical kind of family on the whole, but often a traditional sense of family that sometimes gets more broadly defined to include a supportive network of family and friends. The discursive micro-shifts in definition that these parents perform inform our understanding of the bridge between local negotiations and global shifts in ideology.
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