Journal articles on the topic 'Chile. Ley no. 20.507'

El establecimiento de espacios de participación es un desafío abierto para gran parte de los Estados latinoamericanos. Su óptimo funcionamiento dependería de factores adicionales a la gestión institucional. Este artículo indaga cómo los Consejos Comunales de Organizaciones de la Sociedad Civil (COSOC) responden a requerimientos de gobernanza y deliberación democrática, que articulados con elementos de capital social y cultural, son componentes fundamentales del ejercicio de participación ciudadana. Para explorar este planteamiento, se tomó el caso del Consejo de la Sociedad Civil (COSOC), Chile. Los datos surgen del proyecto para la instalación del cosoc (Ley 20 500), ejecutado en la región del Biobío, Chile, en 2017. La metodología es mixta, predominantemente cualitativa, basada en el análisis de talleres participativos con apoyo de datos descriptivos tomados de las encuestas. Los principales resultados apuntan a la operatividad y eficacia de la participación y al valor que esta adquiere a partir de las condiciones del contexto y demanda social, es decir, cuestiones como la información disponible, el nivel de asociatividad, la formación cívica, las asimetrías de poder, entre otras. Las anteriores, variables vinculadas a la estructura y condiciones de los espacios promovidos y a la calidad de los procesos democráticos en la región.

En la presente exposición se pretende explorar cuáles son los alcances de las figuras de “simulación” y “subterfugio laboral”, contenidos y tipificados en el artículo 507 del Código del Trabajo actualmente vigente en Chile, introducidos a través de la reforma legal denominada “Ley Multirut”. Se realiza una exposición sobre las discusiones doctrinarias desarrolladas a propósito del antiguo artículo 478 del Código del Trabajo chileno, su relación con instituciones conexas como lo son el fraude a la ley o el levantamiento del velo corporativo, para luego afrontar críticamente la lectura del actual texto legal vigente en el artículo 507 y su vinculación con la declaración de único empleador.

Objetivo: desarrollar un diagnóstico matemático de la monitoría fetal a partir de la aplicación de la ley de Zipf-Mandelbrot y las concepciones de salud y enfermedad de los sistemas dinámicos a la aparición de Componentes Dinámicos del Sistema (CDS) en el trazado de la monitoría. Esta evaluación se hace calculando el grado de complejidad de la distribución de los CDS.Diseño: este estudio es de concordancia diagnóstica basado en una aplicación de la ley de los lenguajes naturales y de simplificaciones fisiológicas basadas en la teoría de sistemas dinámicos a la aparición de CDS de las frecuencias cardiacas fetales para construir una generalización diagnóstica.Materiales y métodos: se evaluaron 100 monitorías de mujeres gestantes divididas en dos grupos: grupo A, 50 gestantes con factores de riesgo, y grupo B, 50 sin factores de riesgo. Basados en simplificaciones dinámicas, prototipos seleccionados y en la aplicación de la ley de Zipf-Mandelbrot para caracterizar el grado de complejidad usando todos los CDS posibles, se realizaron comparaciones con el resto de las monitorías diferenciando salud de enfermedad.Resultados: la dinámica cardiaca de un feto sano tiene una autorganización matemática caracterizada por su grado de complejidad y la ausencia de CDS Invertidos Pronunciados (CDSiP) y la enfermedad es caracterizada por la pérdida de complejidad o la presencia de uno o más CDSiP, o la presencia de un CDS Invertido (CDSi) mayor o igual a 20x40 hasta 20x50 asociado a la aparición de otro CDSi mayor o igual de 20x50 o de la ausencia de CDS del grupo de 15 y/o de 20 latidos/minuto de altura, o combinaciones de las medidas diagnósticas. De acuerdo a las medidas obtenidas una de cada dos monitorías del grupo B y una de cada seis del grupo A tienen un diagnóstico equivocado según los parámetros clínicos convencionales.Conclusiones: la caracterización matemática de las monitorías permitió diferenciar salud de enfermedad de manera objetiva y reproducible en el desarrollo de un diagnóstico de aplicación clínica.

En este artículo presentamos un estudio comparado e iushistórico del matrimonio civil en Colombia, destacando los principales requisitos y los procedimientos establecidos en las constituciones de 1853, 1863 y la carta política de 1886, en relación a las normas que consagran el matrimonio civil (Ley 20 de julio de 1853), el Código Civil de 1873 (Ley 84) y el Civil de 1887 (Ley 57 ); identificamos además los “trasplantes legales” (o transferencias normativas) del Código Civil de la República de Chile (Andrés Bello, 1857).

Desde los albores de la humanidad, la actividad cinegética ha sido proveedora de sustentos alimenticios básicos. En la actualidad, la caza ha perdido esta centralidad, considerándose como una alternativa productiva y de ocio más para las comunidades rurales. En Chile, así como en otros países, esta actividad se ha legislado y reglamentado en las últimas décadas. De este modo, la vigente ley N°19.473 de 1996 y su reglamento (Decreto Supremo N°5 de 1998) son el marco básico que rige la caza en Chile. Pasados más de 20 años desde su entrada en vigor, y en atención a la laguna científica y académica imperante sobre el particular en el país, planteamos este trabajo con el objetivo de analizar la normativa y organismos chilenos implicados en el rubro, así como también las asociaciones y sus formas de organizarse y practicar la actividad cinegética. Finalmente, se descubre que en Chile la actividad cinegética es muy minoritaria. Además, persiste una visión tradicional y poco productiva, en la que el asociacionismo y el número de cotos de caza es reducido.

El enfoque de la discapacidad constituye actualmente una perspectiva que pretende hacerse cargo de la incorporación de la dimensión social en la comprensión de la salud mental, y su hegemonía en Chile es visible en el diseño de las legislaciones y políticas públicas sobre salud mental durante los últimos 20 años. Sin embargo, tanto este enfoque de la salud mental como las respectivas legislaciones y políticas desarrolladas, presentan importantes dificultades para hacerse cargo de la situación de justicia y ciudadanía de este grupo de personas. Estas dificultades del enfoque se hacen particularmente evidentes cuando se requiere garantizar el ejercicio de una ciudadanía activa, ya que los aspectos relativos a la ciudadanía han demostrado tener un efecto terapéutico sobre las deficiencias o trastornos mentales. La urgente necesidad de una ley de salud mental para Chile demanda el desafío de diseñar una legislación que se haga cargo de las particularidades de la discapacidad mental, pero además la posibilidad histórica de incluir efectivamente la perspectiva de las personas con discapacidad mental y sus familias en la discusión de una nueva ley.

El 20 de abril de 2009 entró en vigencia en Chile la Ley de Transparencia, que asegura a los ciudadanos el acceso a la información pública. Si bien el balance de este régimen es positivo, importa analizar los núcleos de conflictos que se generan cuando se deben conciliar derechos e intereses jurídicos tutelados por el ordenamiento jurídico chileno, como la protección de la vida privada y datos personales. El artículo analiza la situación de la protección de datos personales en el ordenamiento jurídico chileno. Por una parte, argumenta que el derecho a la protección de los datos personales traspasa la clásica división del ámbito de lo público y lo privado, pues en ambos campos es necesario cautelarlo. Por otro lado, el trabajo busca aportar al debate para la construcción de estándares de actuación para los organismos públicos que permitan compatibilizar la transparencia con la protección de datos personales.

Existen al menos dos Convenios Internacionales asociados a la Justicia de Familia que han sido suscritos y ratificados por Chile, por tanto, ley de la República, que operan desde hace años en una aparente opacidad. La complejización del sistema social ha obligado a la visibilización de dichos Convenios, especialmente ante fenómenos tales como los movimientos migratorios y la constitución de familias con características de transnacionalidad. La ejecución en Chile del “Convenio de Nueva York de 1956 para la Obtención de Alimentos en el Extranjero” y el “Convenio de La Haya de 1980 sobre los Aspectos Civiles de la Sustracción de Niños, Niñas y Adolescentes”, tras los fenómenos enunciados, han permitido la observación de algunas prácticas asociadas a los géneros, las edades y la paternidad/maternidad, distinciones que intentaremos develar en el presente artículo.Palabras clave: Convenios Internacionales, Familias Transnacionales, Migraciones. Aplicação de Convênios Internacionais em matéria de Família e seu envolvimento com fenômenos contemporâneosRESUMOHá pelo menos dois Acordos Internacionais relacionados com a Justiça de Família que tem sido assinados e ratificados pelo Chile, portanto, lei da República, que operam há anos numa opacidade aparente. A complexidade do sistema social tem forçado a visibilidade de ditos Convênios, especialmente a fenômenos como a migração e a constituição de famílias com caraterísticasda transnacionalidade. A execução no Chile do “Convênio de Nova Iorquede 1956 para a obtenção de alimentos no Exterior” e “a Convenção da Hayade 1980 sobre os Aspectos Civis do Rapto de Crianças e Adolescentes”, apósdos fenômenos enunciados, têm permitido a observação de algumas práticasassociadas aos gêneros, as idades e a paternidade / maternidade, distinçõesque tentam-se revelar no presente artigo.Palavras-chave: Convênios Internacionais, Famílias Transnacionais,Migrações. Application of International Conventions related to familyissues and their link to contemporary phenomena. ABSTRACTThere are at least two international conventions associated with Family Lawthat have been signed and ratified by Chile, which have been operating foryears in apparent opacity.The complexity of the social system has forced the visibility of thoseConventions, especially in connection with migration and the formation oftransnational families.The implementation in Chile of the “Convention on the Recovery Abroadof Maintenance, New York 20 June 1956” and “Convention of 25 October1980 on the Civil Aspects of International Child Abduction”, based on theaforementioned phenomena, have allowed the observation of some practicesassociated with gender, age and paternity/maternity, which we will discussin this article.Keywords: International Conventions, Transnational Families, Migrations.

Adequate application of the Lea symbol and BUST visual acuity tests (Hyvarinen et al, 1980 Acta Ophthalmologica58 507; Lindstedt, 1986 British Journal of Visual Impairment4 49), designed for children over 18 months of developmental age, in young and/or handicapped pre-school children require preliminary assessment of their level of development. To assess the developmental demands more precisely, 162 children aged from 15 to 35 months and 54 older pre-schoolers, most with normal vision, were examined. Nearly half of the children showed some developmental delays in physical and mental capabilities as assessed on the CDI scale (Ireton, 1992, Child Developmental Inventory, Behavior Science System Inc). Nevertheless, in 77% far and/or near visual acuity was successfully measured by combinations of Lea symbol and/or BUST tests. The youngest successful children, 18 and 20 months of age, passed BUST-N and Lea-Domino. For children aged 18 – 24, 24 – 29, 30 – 35 months, and 36 months and above the success rates were, respectively, 39%, 75%, 89%, and 96%. The minimal values of the CDI scale indexes among the successful children may be regarded, in addition to chronological age, as minimal developmental demands, ie conditions necessary, although not always sufficient, for the child to pass visual acuity measurements. These values in months were 16 (‘social’), 18 (‘selfserving’), 14 (‘gross motor’), 16 (‘fine motor’), 16 (‘speech development’) and 19 (‘language comprehension’). The value of the last index was the most critical. Since the developmental demands are not very high, there are good prospects of using Lea symbol and BUST tests in young and/or handicapped children.

This paper presents a theoretical investigation with the objective of identifying the basic competences to be acquired and developed in the language teaching-learning process, especially in virtual contexts. The study herein presented, of bibliographic nature, evidences a discussion and reflections on the theme competences and the representativeness of the communicative-digital domain, in the production and sharing of information, in the written and oral modality. The results achieve three basic skills : interacion through Information and Communication Technologies, creation of digital contents and sharing digital contents in the target language.ResumoEste artigo apresenta uma investigação teórica, com o objetivo de identificar as competências básicas a serem adquiridas e desenvolvidas no processo de ensino-aprendizagem de línguas, especialmente em contextos virtuais. O estudo em questão, de natureza bibliográfica, evidencia uma discussão e reflexões sobre a temática competências e a representatividade do domínio comunicativo-digital na produção e compartilhamento de informações, na modalidade escrita e oral. Os resultados evidenciam três competências básicas: interação por meio das Tecnologias de Informação e Comunicação, criação de conteúdos digitais e compartilhamento de conteúdos na língua-alvo.Resumen Este artículo presenta una investigación teórica con el objetivo de identificar las competencias básicas que vayan a ser adquiridas y desarrolladas en el proceso de enseñanza y aprendizaje de lenguas, especialmente en contextos virtuales. El estudio en cuestión, de naturaleza bibliográfica, evidencia una discusión y reflexiones sobre el tema competencias y la representatividad del dominio comunicativo-digital, en la producción y el intercambio de información, en la modalidad escrita y oral. Los resultados comprenden tres competencias básicas: interacción por medio de las Tecnologías de Información y Comunicación, creación de contenidos digitales e intercambio de contenidos en la lengua.Palavras-chave: Ensino de línguas, Competências, Competência comunicativa, Tecnologias.Keywords: Language Teaching, Competences, Communicative competence, Technologys.Palabras claves: Enseñanza de lenguas, Competencias, Competencia cumunicativa, Tecnologías.ReferencesALCARÁ, Adriana Rosecler et al. Fatores que influenciam o compartilhamento da informaçaõ e do conhecimento. Perspectivas em Ciência da Informação, v.14, n.1, p. 170-191, jan./abr., 2009. Disponível em: http://www.scielo.br/pdf/pci/v14n1/v14n1a12. Acesso em: 15 mar. 2019.AREA MOREIRA, Manuel. La alfabetización en la sociedad digital. In: Alfabetización digital y competencias informacionales. Colección Fundación Telefónica. Espanha: Editorial Ariel, p. 3-40, 2012.BARBERO ANDRÉS, J. et al. 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History is often marked by the materials and technology that reflect human capability and understanding. Many a times scales begins with the stone age, which led to the bronze, iron, steel, aluminium and alloy ages as improvements in refining, smelting took place. Science made all these possible to move towards finding more advanced materials.Therefore in the present research work, an investigation has been carried out to fabricate and evaluate the microstructure, strength, micro hardness of chilled composites consisting of nickel matrix and fused SiO2particles as the reinforcement (size 40-150 μm) in the matrix. The reinforcement being added ranges from 3 to 9 wt. % in steps of 3%. The resulting composites cast in moulds containing metallic chill blocks (MS, SiC & Cu) were tested for their microstructure and mechanical properties. The main objective of the present research is to obtain fine grain Ni/SiO2chilled sound composite having very good mechanical properties. A detail of melting and composite preparation is described elsewhere by number of researchers. After melting the matrix material in an induction furnace at around 1600 °C in an inert atmosphere, coated fused SiO2particles preheated to 500 °C were introduced evenly into the molten metal alloy by means of special feeding attachments. The moulds for the plate type of castings 150*20*20 mm (American Foundrymen Society standard) were prepared using silica sand with 5% bentonite as binder and 5% moisture and finally they were dried in an air furnace at a temperature of 1580 °C, which was cooled from one end by a chill block set in the mould. After solidification the specimens of chill end were tested for various mechanical and microstructural studies. Keywords: Metal matrix composite, Mechanical properties, Nickel alloy, Fused silica, Chills.

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Introdução. Historicamente observam-se diversos movimentos em prol da saúde sexual e reprodutiva feminina. Os mesmos vem problematizando a legalização do aborto, sendo este definido pela Organização Mundial da Saúde (OMS) como a interrupção da gravidez no máximo até a idade gestacional de 20-22 semanas e peso fetal de 500 gramas. Objetivo. O presente estudo buscou identificar como o aborto é discutido legalmente na América Latina, explorando a diversidade do tema. Método. Foi realizada uma revisão narrativa, utilizando-se as palavras-chave "aborto e (lei ou bioética)" lançadas nas bases de dados LILACS, SCIELO e PUBMED, no período de 2011 a 2016. Resultados e Discussão. Foram encontrados artigos científicos abordando 18 dos 20 países que atualmente compõem a América Latina, com exceção do Paraguai e Venezuela. Os resultados mostraram que alguns países e/ou estados têm leis menos restritivas, tais como Cuba, Uruguai e o Distrito Federal do México. Em contrapartida, outros consideram o aborto como prática ilegal sob qualquer hipótese, como Chile, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Honduras e Nicarágua. Os demais países encontrados despenalizam o aborto em situações específicas como estupro, malformações fetais incompatíveis com a vida e risco de vida ou à saúde da gestante. Conclusão. O tema da legalização do aborto ainda gera muitas ambivalências na América Latina. Contrapõem-se, por um lado, visões religiosas, o direito à vida fetal e o receio de banalização da prática, e, por outro, iniciativas de preservação da vida e dos direitos sexuais e reprodutivos das mulheres, buscando diminuir os índices de aborto inseguro e mortalidade materna.

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Método para la implementación de sistemas solares activos en establecimientos hospitalarios, estudio de caso en el hospital clínico del sur, Concepción, Chile. En Proceedings of the 3rd International Congress on Sustainable Construction and Eco-Efficient Solutions. Sevilla. 2017; 451-464. Disponible: https://idus.us.es/xmlui/handle/11441/58969. [24]Compañía General de Electricidad, Tarifa de Suministro. 2018 Disponible: http://www.cge.cl/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/Publicacion-CGE-2019-08-01-Suministro-electrico.pdf. [25]Ministerio de Desarrollo Social, Precio Social del Carbono. 2018. Disponible: http://sni.ministeriodesarrollosocial.gob.cl/download/precio-social-co2-2017/?wpdmdl=2406.

The existence of several early childhood education institutions in Indonesia, such as in the Riau Province region, often faces the risk of catastrophic floods overflowing the Kampar River resulting in casualties. The results of preliminary research found that children lacked insight into flood disaster mitigation, and schools did not have appropriate mitigation programs or media. This study aims to develop a product in the form of an E-Comic to introduce flood disaster mitigation in a practical and effective early childhood education. Research and development procedures in this study using the ADDIE model. The data collection techniques for this study were the results of expert validation, practicality tests, and media effectiveness tests on children aged 5-6 years using the mitigation understanding instrument and descriptive statistical analysis of Aiken's V validation. Flood disaster is very suitable for use in early childhood learning, with the average Aiken's V result by material experts is 89% and media expert is 96%. E-Comic practicality with an average percentage of 85.5% and effectiveness test results with an average value of 90%. It can be concluded that the E-Comic introduction of flood disaster mitigation in Kindergarten children is suitable for use as a learning medium and has a practical and effective quality. Keywords: E-Comic, Flood Disaster Mitigation References: Apriyani, R., Sumarni, S., & Rukiyah, R. (2018). Pengembangan Media Pembelajaran Komik Tema Alam Semesta untuk Anak. Cakrawala Dini: Jurnal Pendidikan Anak Usia Dini, 9(2), 110–124. https://doi.org/10.17509/cd.v9i2.11004 Azizah, N., & Khanafiyah, S. (2014). Pengaruh Komik Sains dalam Pembelajaran IPA terhadap Pengembangan Karakter Siswa di Kecamatan Semarang Tengah. 3(3), 34–42. https://doi.org/10.15294/upej.v3i3.4329 Bolton-Gary, C. (2012). Connecting Through Comics: Expanding Opportunities for Teaching and Learning. 7. Branch, R. M. (2009). Instructional Design: The ADDIE Approach. Springer US. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-09506-6 Courtis, A. (2012). Tech Module: Using Comic Life in the Classroom. 61. S. Syarah, E. Yetti, L. Fridani, Yufiarti, Hapidin, B. Pupala. (2019). Electronic Comics in Elementary School Science Learning for Marine Conservation. Jurnal Pendidikan IPA Indonesia, 8(4). https://doi.org/10.15294/jpii.v8i4.19377 Ersoy, Ş., & Koçak, A. (2016). Disasters and earthquake preparedness of children and schools in Istanbul, Turkey. Geomatics, Natural Hazards and Risk, 7(4), 1307–1336. https://doi.org/10.1080/19475705.2015.1060637 Haynes, K., & Tanner, T. M. (2015). Empowering young people and strengthening resilience: Youth-centred participatory video as a tool for climate change adaptation and disaster risk reduction. Children’s Geographies, 13(3), 357–371. https://doi.org/10.1080/14733285.2013.848599 Permendikbud no 137, Pub. L. No. no 137 (2014). Kousky, C. (2016). Impacts of Natural Disasters on Children. The Future of Children, 26(1), 73–92. https://doi.org/10.1353/foc.2016.0004 Lopez, Y., Hayden, J., Cologon, K., & Hadley, F. (2012). Child participation and disaster risk reduction. International Journal of Early Years Education, 20(3), 300–308. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669760.2012.716712 Martin, M.-L. (2010). Child Participation in Disaster Risk Reduction: The case of flood-affected children in Bangladesh. Third World Quarterly, 31(8), 1357–1375. https://doi.org/10.1080/01436597.2010.541086 Melliou, K., Moutafidou, A., & Bratitsis, T. (2014). Digital Comics Use to Develop Thinking Dispositions in Early Childhood Education. 2014 IEEE 14th International Conference on Advanced Learning Technologies, 502–504. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICALT.2014.148 Mitchell, T., Tanner, T., & Haynes, K. (2009). Children as agents of change for Disaster Risk Reduction: Lessons from El Salvador and the Philippines. 48. Peek, L. (2008). Children and Disasters: Understanding Vulnerability, Developing Capacities, and Promoting Resilience—An Introduction. Understanding Vulnerability, 30. Pfefferbaum, B., Pfefferbaum, R. L., & Van Horn, R. L. (2018). Involving children in disaster risk reduction: The importance of participation. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 9(sup2), 1425577. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2018.1425577 Save the Children UK. (2006). Child Protection During Floods in Bangladesh. The Save the Children Fund. Schipper, L., & Pelling, M. (2006). Disaster risk, climate change and international development: Scope for, and challenges to, integration: Disaster Risk, Climate Change and International Development. Disasters, 30(1), 19–38. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9523.2006.00304.x Syarah, E. S., Yetti, E., & Fridani, Lara. (2018). Pengembangan Media Komik Elektronik untuk Meningkatkan Pemahaman Konservasi Kelautan Anak Usia Dini. 12, 10. Tanner, T. (2010). Shifting the Narrative: Child-led Responses to Climate Change and Disasters in El Salvador and the Philippines: Child-led Responses to Climate Change and Disasters. Children & Society, 24(4), 339–351. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1099-0860.2010.00316.x Tuladhar, G., Yatabe, R., Dahal, R. K., & Bhandary, N. P. (2014). Knowledge of disaster risk reduction among school students in Nepal. Geomatics, Natural Hazards and Risk, 5(3), 190–207. https://doi.org/10.1080/19475705.2013.809556 Versaci, R. (2001). How Comic Books Can Change the Way Our Students See Literature: One Teacher’s Perspective. The English Journal, 91(2), 61. https://doi.org/10.2307/822347 Wasliyah, S. (2018). Komik Bencana Meningkatkan Sikap Kesiapsiagaan Bencana pada Anak Sekolah Dasar Negeri Bulakan Kecamatan Gunung Kencana Banten Selatan Tahun 2017. Jurnal Medikes (Media Informasi Kesehatan), 5(1), 30–39. https://doi.org/10.36743/medikes.v5i1.39

Este trabajo es un estudio analítico y comparativo entre el régimen de contrato laboral vigente en Ecuador y el contrato de teletrabajo que busca resolver el problema legal de establecer si la relación laboral de teletrabajo configurada como contrato de trabajo puede estar sujeta a las reglas generales de los contratos o reglas específicas del contrato de vivienda contempladas en el Código de Trabajo Ecuatoriano. Como el teletrabajo no está reconocido por la legislación laboral ecuatoriana, el trabajo se divide en tres capítulos diferentes que buscan solucionar el problema legal mencionado. Se exponen todas las características, elementos y demás cuestiones relevantes al régimen de contratación laboral, sirviendo de antecedente para el análisis comparativo antes mencionado. Posteriormente, se hace una descripción y análisis de la figura del teletrabajo, así como sus características y elementos que lo convierten en una figura diferente y única. Finalmente, se hizo un análisis del trabajo a domicilio (modalidad que está regulada por la legislación laboral ecuatoriana) para luego pasar a compararlo con el teletrabajo. El resultado de esta comparación es determinar si es legalmente posible regular. Palabras Clave: teletrabajo, legislación laboral, contrato de trabajo. Referencias [1]N. Samaniego, «El teletrabajo en el Ecuador,» agosto 2016. [En línea]. Disponible: http://dspace.uniandes.edu.ec/bitstream/123456789/6133/1/TUSDMDL002-2017.pdf. [Último acceso: 09 Septiembre 2020]. [2]P. Alvarez, «Teletrabajo en la experiencia extranjera, » octubre 2018. [En línea]. Disponible: https://obtienearchivo.bcn.cl/obtienearchivo?id=repositorio/10221/25913/2/PA_Teletrabajo_2018.pdf. [Último acceso: 09 09 2020]. [3]M. Palacios, «El teletrabajo: hacia una regulación garantista en el Ecuador,» Quito, 2017. [4]J. Espinosa, «Los Efectos del Condicionamiento del Plazo de un Contrato de Trabajo a la Duración de un Contrato de Servicios Complementarios en Base al Artículo 169 numeral 3ero del Código de Trabajo,» Quito, 2015. [5]Constitución de la República del Ecuador, «Legislación laboral y de Seguridad Social Tomo I,» Pudeleco, Quito, 2016. [6]H. Chiriboga, «Historia del Derecho Laboral como instrumento político del Ecuador,» Guayaquil, 2017. [7]G. Blacio, «La vulneración de los principios constitucionales del trabajo, en cuanto a la exoneración del pago de utilidades a los operarios y aprendices de losartesanos,» Loja , 2016. [8]P. Arpi, «Estrategias para promover el teletrabajo en las empresas del sector privado del Ecuador para mejorar el empleo y la productividad,» Quito, 2018. [9]P. Martín, Teletrabajo y comercio electrónico, Madrid (España): Secretaría General Técnica, 2018. [10]G. Poveda, Abril 2018. [En línea]. Disponible: https://www.eumed.net/actas/18/empresas/18-una-revision-al-teletrabajo.pdf. [Último acceso: 09 09 2020]. [11]Organización Internacional del Trabajo, «Las dificultades y oportunidades del teletrabajo para los trabajadores y empleadores en los sectores de serviciosde tecnología de la información y las comunicaciones (TIC) y financieros,» 2016. [En línea]. Disponible: https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_dialogue/---sector/documents/publication/wcms_531116.pdf. [Último acceso: 09 09 2020]. [12]E. Villa, «Beneficios e impactos del teletrabajo en el talento humano: una revisión de literatura,» CEA,vol. 2, nº 4, pp. 59-73, 2016. [13]Ministerio de Trabajo, Agosto 2016. [En línea]. Disponible: http://www.trabajo.gob.ec/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/Acuerdo_Teletrabajo_WEB.pdf. [Últimoacceso: 09 09 2020]. [14]C. Vélez, «Análisis de la norma jurídica sobre el teletrabajo en Ecuador y sus vacíos legales,» Enero 2020. [En línea]. Diponible: http://dspace.uniandes.edu.ec/bitstream/123456789/11164/1/PIUAMDL001-2020. pdf. [Último acceso: 09 09 2020]. [15]R. Hernández, Metodología de la investigación. Las rutas cuantitativa, cualitativa y mixta, México D.F. (México): McGraw Hill, 2018. [16]M. Bonilla y A. López, «Ejemplificación del proceso metodológico de la teoría fundamentada,» Scielo, pp. 305-315, 2016. [17]R. Buenaño, «El fututo del trabajo, teletrabajo y su influencia en la relación laboral,» Derecho Ecuador, 15 05 2020. [En línea]. Disponible: https://www.derechoecuador.com/el-futuro-del-trabajo-teletrabajo-y-su-influencia-en-la-relacion-laboral. [Último acceso: 10 09 2020]. [18]Ministerio del Trabajo y Previsión Social, «Ley 21220 Modifica el código del trabajo en materia de trabajo a distancia,» BCN, Santiago de Chile, 2020. [19]A. Mello y A. Acuña, «Primer Informe Estado del Teletrabajo en América Latina y El Caribe,» Ita Lac, América Latina y El Caribe, 2017. [20]C. Valera, «El teletrabajo en la legislación peruana y latinoamericana,» La Ley, Lima (Perú), 2020. [21]J. Rodríguez, «Teletrabajo en Panamá,» 06 03 2020. [En línea]. Disponible: https://www.dentonsmunoz.com/es/insights/articles/2020/march/6/teleworking-in-panama. [Último acceso: 11 09 2020]. [22]J. Hewitt, A. Acuña y A. Formoso, « Informe del Estado del Teletrabajo en Costa Rica,» CIIDTT, San José, 2017.

Abstract Homozygous α0-thalassemia (deletion of all 4 α-globin genes) results in Hb Bart’s (γ4 tetramers). The high oxygen affinity of Hgb Bart’s leads to severe hypoxia inutero with resulting profound edema (hydrops) and congestive heart failure. Almost universally fetal death occurs prior to diagnosis, therefore not allowing the opportunity for treatment. Advancement of maternal-fetal medicine and neonatal ultrasound has led to the possibility of in utero diagnosis and treatment with inrauterine transfusions. Also, cases of premature infants surviving and undergoing chronic transfusion therapy have been reported. Hematopoietic stem cell transplant (HSCT) has become increasingly used in the cure of beta thalassemia, and provides the potential to cure a0thalassemia as well. To date, 3 reported cases of a0thalassemia have been successfully treated with HSCT. Two children underwent matched sibling bone marrow transplant at 20 and 21 months of age and one underwent a 5/6 HLA matched sibling umbilical cord blood transplant (UCBT). One child had received intrauterine transfusions. We report a case of an infant with a0thalassemia successfully treated with intrauterine transfusion therapy followed by unrelated donor UCBT. The child’s mother, of Cambodian descent, presented to the obstetrician at 23 weeks with concerns of decreased fetal movement. Fetal ultrasound revealed a thickened placenta and hydrops fetalis. Based on the family’s nationality and history of previous fetal loss, the suspicion of a0thalassemia was raised. Umbilical cord blood sampling revealed a hypochromic, microcytic anemia with target cells. The hemoglobin electrophoresis demonstrated Hgb Barts and Portland. Subsequent genotyping confirmed deletion of all 4 α-globin genes. Options presented to the family included termination of pregnancy as well as the option of intrauterine transfusion followed by either chronic transfusion therapy with iron chelation or the possibility of HSCT. The patient received three intrauterine transfusions prior to delivery at 32 weeks gestation. A poor physical profile, non-reassuring heart rate and breech position led to the premature delivery. Apgars were 1 at one minute, 6 at five minutes, and 9 at ten minutes. The baby was admitted to the NICU and required mechanical ventilation for two days. The hospital course was relatively uneventful and included red blood cell transfusion. After discharge, he was maintained with intermittent transfusions until 6 months of age. Following informed consent, he was conditioned for transplant with busulfan, cytoan and rabbit ATG. Since the infant lacked an HLA matched sibling, he received a 5/6 HLA matched unrelated donor umbilical cord blood unit delivering 11.8 × 107 nucleated cells/kg. Neutrophil engraftment (ANC>500) was achieved on day + 15. FK506 and methotrexate 5mg/m2 on days 1, 3 and 6 was utilized for GVHD prophylaxis. His course was complicated by moderate venoocclusive disease, small subdural hemorrhage, and CMV and adenovirus viremia. He has not had any evidence of graft versus host disease. Initial chimerism (RFLP) showed approximately 63% donor derived cells, and subsequent testing showed increasing chimerism and 100% T-cell engraftment. He clinically is doing very well post transplant. This case demonstrates that intrauterine transfusion followed by unrelated donor UCBT is feasible for the treatment of a0thalassemia.

En este trabajo se analizó el nivel de percepción de los estudiantes sobre la calidad del servicio los centros universitarios. Para ello participaron 684 estudiantes de pregrado de un programa de estudios elegidos aleatoriamente, a quienes se les aplicó una escala que intenta calcular lo que se espera del servicio educativo. Se encontró que el nivel de percepción es aceptable con tendencia a ser buena sobre la calidad del servicio que presta la universidad, no se encontraron diferencias estadísticamente significativas según la ocupación del estudiante, sin embargo, si se hallaron diferencias según género y centro de estudios evaluados. Por lo tanto, la calidad del servicio aceptado por el estudiante de la universidad se ve reflejada en el aspecto físico, la modernización y el equipamiento, precisando que el personal administrativo debe capacitarse mejor para brindar una adecuada atención al usuario. Palabras Clave: Calidad del servicio, estudiantes, atención al usuario. Referencias [1]Ministerio de Educación, «MINEDU: Ley Universitaria 30220,» 2015. [En línea]. Disponible en: http://www.minedu.gob.pe/reforma-universitaria/pdf/ley_universitaria.pdf. [Último acceso: 15 10 2020]. [2]D. Ceballos, «La Calidad Educativa en la realidad Universitaria Peruana frente al Contexto Latinoamericano,» Flumen, Revista de la Universidad Católica Santo Toribio de Mogrovejo, vol. 7, nº 1, pp. 3-8, 2014. [3]S. Carrasco, Metodología de la investigación científica. Pautas metodológicas para diseñar y elaborar el proyecto de investigación, Lima: Editorial San Marcos E.I.R.L., 2019. [4]J. C. Vergara y Q. V. Manuel, «Análisis de la calidad en el servicio y satisfacción de los estudiantes de Ciencias Económicas de la Universidad de Cartagena mediante un modelo de ecuaciones estructurales,» Revista electrónica de investigación educativa, vol. 13, nº 1, pp. 108-122, 2011. [5]L. Muñoz y J. I. Pérez, «Calidad del servicio de uso de aulas para la enseñanza-aprendizaje desde la perspectiva del estudiante,» Universidad, Ciencia y Tecnología, vol. 17, nº 69, pp. 161-169, 2013. [6]P. I. Palominos, L. E. Quezada, C. A. Osorio, J. A. Torres y L. M. Lippi, «Calidad de los servicios educativos según los estudiantes de una universidad pública en Chile,» Revista iberoamericana de educación superior, vol. 7, nº 18, pp. 130-142, 2016. [7]N. Maneiro, A. Mejías y M. L. Romero, «Evaluación de la calidad de los servicios, una experiencia en la educación superior Venezolana,» Investigación Arbitrada, vol. 12, nº 43, pp. 797-804, 2008. [8]A. Parasuraman, V. Zeithaml y L. Berry, «SERVQUAL: A Multiple-Item Scale for Measuring Consumer Perceptions of Service Quality.,» Journal of Retailing, vol. 64, nº 1, pp. 12-40, 1988. [9]F. Ganga, N. Alarcón y L. Pedraja, «Medición de calidad de servicio mediante el modelo SERVQUAL: el caso del Juzgado de Garantía de la ciudad de Puerto Montt - Chile,» Ingeniare. Revista chilena de ingeniería, vol. 27, nº 4, pp. 668-681, 2019. [10] J. Inquilla, W. Calsina y B. Velazco, «La calidad educativa y administrativa vista desde dentro: caso Universidad Nacional del Altiplano - Puno -Perú 2017,» Comuni@cción, vol. 8, nº 1, pp. 5-15, 2017. [11]A. Mejías y A. Agustín, «Modelo para medir la calidad del servicio en los estudiantes universitarios de postgrado,» Universidad, Ciencia y Tecnología, vol. 9, nº 34, pp. 81-85, 2005. [12]L. D. Sánchez y R. Panduro, «Sociabilización del concepto de calidad y licenciamientoen las universidades del Perú. Lima 2020,» IGOBERNANZA, vol. 3, nº10, pp. 11-28, 2020. [13]L. A. Rivera, Gestión de información académica y el desarrollo del capital humano en las universidades públicas licenciadas, Lima: Universidad Peruana de las Américas, 2019. [14]S. Carrasco, Metodología de la Investigación Científica. Pautas metodológicas para diseñar y elaborar el proyecto de investigación, Lima: Editorial San Marcos, 2019. [15]A. Mejías, O. Reyes y N. Maneiro, «Calidad de los Servicios en la Educación Superior Mexicana: Aplicación del Servqualing en Baja California.,» Revista Investigación y Ciencia, vol. 14, nº 34, pp. 36-41, 2006. [16]J. Arciniegas y A. Mejías, «Percepción de la calidad de los servicios prestados por la Universidad Militar Nueva Granada con base en la escala Servqualing,con análisis factorial y análisis de regresión múltiple,» Comuni@cción, vol. 8, nº 1, pp. 1-11, 2017. [17]D. Frias, Análisis de la consistencia interna de las puntuaciones de un instrumento de medida, Valencia: Universidad de Valencia, 2020. [18]J. L. Ventura, «Tamaño del efecto para la U de Mann-Whitney: aportes al artículo de Valdivia-Peralta et al.,» Revista chilena de neuro-psiquiatría, vol. 54, nº4, pp. 353-354, 2016. [19]M. Tomczak y E. Tomczak, «Se revisó la necesidad de informar las estimaciones del tamaño del efecto. Una descripción general de algunas medidas recomendadas del tamaño del efecto,» Trends Sport Sciences, vol. 1, nº 21, pp. 19-25, 2014. [20]J. Cohen, «A power primer,» Psychological Bulletin, vol. 112, nº 1, pp. 155-159, 1992.

El objetivo del estudio fue analizar el nivel de compromiso laboral según factores sociolaborales en colaboradores de dos gobiernos locales, el estudio se realizó en 477 colaboradores de gestión local elegidos aleatoriamente, a quienes se les aplicó la escala UWES-17 (Utrecht Work Engagement Scale). Se encontró que el nivel de compromiso laboral en los colaboradores es de nivel medio, no se encontraron diferencias estadísticamente significativas según sexo y condición laboral, sin embargo, si se hallaron diferencias según centro de trabajo. En conclusión, el nivel de compromiso laboral en los colaboradores se debe a que aún no han experimentado totalmente un estado psicológico positivo hacia su trabajo, para poder dedicarse, involucrarse, entusiasmarse y sentirse bien en su espacio laboral. Palabras Clave: compromiso laboral, colaboradores, gobiernos locales. Referencias [1]Ley Orgánica de Municipalidades. Ley N° 27972, Perú. [2]T. d. J. Cárdenas y A. Jaik, El Engagement (ilusión por el trabajo) y los factores que lo integran, Durango: Fundación Dialnet, 2013. [3]A. Juarez, «Engagement laboral, una concepción científica: entrevista con Wilmar Schaufeli,» Liberabit, vol. 21, nº 2, pp. 187-194, 2015. [4]B. L. Rich, J. A. Lepine y E. R. Crawford, «Job engagement: Antecedents and effects on,» Academy of Management Journal, vol. 53, nº 3, pp. 617-635, 2010. [5]D. Álvarez, C. Castro y G. Vila, «Actitudes y engagement en el trabajo como antecedentes del comportamiento altruista,» Revista Venezolana de Gerencia, vol. 19, nº 65, pp. 23-42, 2014. [6]S. Carrasco, Metodología de la investigación científica. Pautas metodológicas para diseñar y elaborar el proyecto de investigación, Lima: Editorial San Marcos E.I.R.L., 2019. [7]R. Benítez y A. R. Del Aguila, «Compromiso en el trabajo y prácticas de recursos humanos de alto rendimiento en organizaciones de acción social. El caso deAspromanis,» Lan Harremanak - Revista de Relaciones Laborales, vol. 32, nº 1, pp. 159-179, 2015. [8]M. M. Chiang, I. I. Fuentealba y R. A. Nova, «Relación Entre Clima Organizacional y Engagement, en Dos Fundaciones Sociales, Sin Fines de Lucro, de laRegión del Bio Bio,» Ciencia & trabajo, vol. 19, nº 59, pp. 105-112, 2017. [9]M. J. Foncubierta y J. M. Sánchez, «Hacia la Felicidad laboral: Atender motivaciones y eliminar temores digitales,» RETOS. Revista de Ciencias de la Administración y Economía, vol. 9, nº 18, pp. 239-257, 2019. [10]R. R. Romero y F. Palacini, «Relación entre niveles de engagement y niveles de intención de rotación en empleados de dos empresas privadas de Asunción,» Revista Científica de la UCSA, vol. 7, nº 2, pp. 3-25, 2020. [11]J. Pérez y X. L. Pedraza, «Medición del work engagement y su relación con la comunicación, liderazgo y TIC en una empresa editorial mexicana,» SIGNOS, vol. 11, nº 1, pp. 37-53, 2019. [12]W. Schaufeli y A. Bakker, UWES – Utrecht Work Engagement Scale, manual preliminar, Utrecht: Unidad de Psicología de la Salud Ocupacional Universidad de Utrecht, 2003. [13]C. A. Contreras, «Determination of the level of work Engagement among employees of an oil and gas facility offshore in Mexico,» Ciencia & trabajo, vol. 17,nº 52, pp. 37-42, 2015. [14]C. Flores, M. Fernández, A. Juárez, C. Merino y M. Guimet, «Entusiasmo por el trabajo (engagement): un estudio de validez en profesionales de la docencia en Lima, Perú,» Liberabit, vol. 21, nº 2, pp. 195-206, 2015. [15]F. J. López y C. Chiclana, «Engagement, una plataforma para el desarrollo de la persona,» Comunicación y Hombre, vol. 14, nº 1, pp. 53-62, 2017. [16]F. Luna y M. Ross, «Cultura organizacional y engagement en colaboradores de una empresa agroindustrial de Lambayeque,» Tesis de grado, Universidad Señor de Sipán, Pimentel, Perú, 2017. [17]K. S. Diaz, «Engagement entre dos instituciones financieras de Chiclayo,» Tesis de grado, Universidad Señor de Sipán, Pimentel, Perú, 2016. [18]J. Amozorrutia, (2017, abril, 19). La emoción de sentirse bien en el Trabajo. «Great Place to Work,» [En línea]. Disponible: https://www.greatplacetowork.com.pe/publicaciones/otros/blog/la-emocion-de-sentirsebien-en-el-trabajo. [Último acceso: 22 julio 2020]. [19]D. Pérez, J. Peralta y P. Fernández-Davila, «Influencia de variables organizacionales en la calidad de vida laboral de funcionarios del sector público de saluden el extremo norte de Chile,» Universitas Psychologica, vol. 13, nº 2, pp. 541-551, 2014. [20]M. F. Gutiérrez, «Compromiso organizacional y compromiso con el trabajo en instituciones de gestión pública,» Tesis de maestría, Universidad Nacional deEducación, Lima, Perú, 2019. [21]L. V. Chero y L. V. 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Hoy por hoy, la responsabilidad social empresarial (RSE) es una nueva forma de enfocar las organizaciones, y de tener un poco de conciencia o respeto hacia los diferentes medios o entornos en los cuales éstas desarrollan sus actividades empresariales. Aparte de ello se puede mencionar que, aunque no existe una gran cantidad de organizaciones pertenecientes al sector secundario, encargado de transformar la materia prima en un bien final, existe una amplia cantidad de pequeñas y medianas empresas (Pymes) del sector primario en la región amazónica, que realizan actividades como la extracción de madera, carbón, peces, producción de ganado, entre otras, acciones que perjudican toda la biodiversidad de la Amazonía colombiana. El presente artículo es de enfoque cualitativo y tipo metodológico descriptivo, ya que se buscó caracterizar el impacto de la RSE en la Amazonía colombiana por parte de las pequeñas y medianas empresas. Referencias: Acero, R. (2016). Lineamientos estratégicos para la incorporación congruente de la variable ambiental en los planes y esquemas de ordenamiento territorial de Colombia (Tesis de Maestría). Universidad de Chile. Recuperado de http://mgpa.forestaluchile.cl/Tesis/Acero%20Ronald.pdf Agudelo, E. (2015). Bases científicas para contribuir a la gestión de la pesquería comercial de bagres (familia pimelodidae) en la Amazonía colombiana y sus zonas de frontera. Recuperado de https://ddd.uab.cat/record/142475 Agudelo, S. (2009). Responsabilidad Social Empresarial, Una mirada desde Colombia. Revista de Negocios Internacionales, 2(1), 3‐11. Altuna, M. (2013). Los Factores de la Responsabilidad Social: El Análisis de las Pequeñas y Medianas Empresas Manufactureras Guipuzcoanas. Azkoaga, 16, 149-172. Anónimo. (s.f.). La RSE. “Modelo de Buena Práctica Empresarial”. Recuperado de https://aprendeenlinea.udea.edu.co/revistas/index.php/ tgcontaduria/article/viewFile/323512/20780676 Arenas, A., Escobar, E., Acosta, J., Monsalve, L. y Oyola, E. (2012). RSE “Moda o Compromiso Real” (Trabajo de Grado). Universidad de Medellín. Medellín, Colombia. Recuperado de http://repository.udem.edu.co/bitstream/handle/11407/357/ Responsabilidad%20social%20empresarial.%20%E2%80%9CModa% 20o%20compromiso%20 real%E2%80%9D.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y Aristimuño, M. y Rodríguez, C. (2014), Responsabilidad social universitaria. Su gestión desde la perspectiva de directivos y docentes. Estudio de caso: una pequeña universidad latinoamericana. Interciencia, 39(6), 375-382. Baltera, P., Díaz, E. y Dussert, J. (2005). Responsabilidad Social Empresarial, Alcances y Potencialidades en Materia Laboral. Cuaderno de Investigación N° 25. Recuperado de http://www.dt.gob.cl/portal/1626/articles-88984_recurso_1.pdf Barrena, A. (2012). La protección de las especies silvestres, especial tratamiento de la protección en situ (Tesis doctoral). Universidad de Alicante. Recuperada de https://rua.ua.es/dspace/handle/10045/28038Bencomo, T. (2007). Desarrollo de las TIC y la formación profesional. http://www.saber.ula.ve/bitstream/handle/123456789/25149/articulo1.pdf; jsessionid=A8697326F48141C4F9366A86EA3CED46?sequence=2 Buriticá, L. (2011). La RSE y su Relación Teórica con la Gestión del Talento Humano. Universidad de Manizales (Tesis de Maestría). Universidad de Manizales. Recuperado de http://ridum.umanizales.edu.co:8080/xmlui/bitstream/handle/6789/297/Buritica_ Castro_Lida_Marcela_ 2011.pdf?sequence= Camejo, A. y Cejas, M. (2009). Responsabilidad social: factor clave de la gestión de los recursos humanos en las organizaciones del siglo XXI. Nómadas, Critical Journal of Social and Juridical Sciences, 21(1), 127-142. Cardona, C. y Giraldo, L. (2010). Estandarización de Indicadores de Responsabilidad Social Empresarial Propuestas por Organizaciones de Reconocimiento Mundial (Trabajo de Grado). Universidad Tecnológica de Pereira. Recuperado de http://repositorio.utp.edu.co/dspace/bitstream/handle/11059/1549/ 658408C268. pdf;jsessionid=A24F7FD84FFE4F942F3159EE7AB68BF7?sequence=1 Congreso de la República de Colombia. (2000). Ley 590 de 2000 “por la cual se dicta disposiciones para promover el desarrollo de las micro, pequeñas y medianas empresas”. Bogotá, Colombia. Recuperada de http://www.alcaldiabogota.gov.co/sisjur/normas/Norma1.jsp?i=12672 Curatola, G. (2011). Patrones de distribución espacial de Triplaris Americana en Tambopata, Perú. Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú. Recuperado de http://tesis.pucp.edu.pe/repositorio/handle/123456789/454 De La Cuadra, F. (2013). Cambio climático, movimientos sociales y políticas públicas, una vinculación necesaria. Recuperado de https://journals.openedition.org/polis/9651 Delgado, V. y Olarte, M. (2012). Responsabilidad social corporativa en el sector de la televisión. Un estudio longitudinal de las memorias de sostenibilidad. Revista Internacional de Investigación en Comunicación aDResearch ESIC, 6(6), 112-129. Delgado, Y., Herrera, N. y Gallón, C. (2014). La Responsabilidad Social Empresarial: una mirada a la aplicación en el sector transporte público automotor. Trabajos de Grado Contaduría Pública, 8(1), 1-29. Duque, Y., Cardona, M. y Rendón, J. (2013). Responsabilidad Social Empresarial: Teorías, índices, estándares y certificaciones. Cuadernos de Administración, 29(50), 196-206. Escamilla, S., Jiménez, I. y Prado, C. (2013). La Responsabilidad Social Empresarial, una forma de crear valor. Madrid, España: Editorial Académica Española. Fernández, C. (2012). Responsabilidad Social Empresarial: Cultura y Medio ambiente (Tesis de Posgrado). Recuperado de http://repositorio.uchile.cl/handle/2250/112084 Franco, C. (s.f.). Dinámica de construcción de una nueva sociedad desde los negocios. Recuperado de http://interamerican-usa.com/articulos/Gob-Corp-Adm/Responsabilidad%20Social%20Carolina%20Franco[1].pdf García, M. y Duque, J. (2012). Gestión Humana y Responsabilidad Social Empresarial: un enfoque estratégico para la vinculación de prácticas responsables a las Organizaciones. Libre Empresa, 17, 13-37. Gil, F. (2013). La responsabilidad social universitaria desde la perspectiva ambiental: universidad y desarrollo sustentable (Tesis de Maestría). Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. Recuperado de http://132.248.9.195/ptd2013/agosto/0700625/0700625.pdf Gómez, M. (2010). La Gestión y la Información sobre la Responsabilidad Social Empresarial de las PYMES: la Necesidad de Diferenciación. Contaduría Universidad de Antioquia, 56, 15-40. Gómez-Villegas, M. y Quintanilla, D. (2012). Los informes de Responsabilidad Social Empresarial: su evolución y tendencias en el contexto internacional colombiano. Cuadernos de Contaduría, 13(32), 121-158. Gómez, H. (2014). Responsabilidad Social Empresarial en la municipalidad de Huehuetenango (Trabajo de Grado). Universidad Rafael Landívar. Recuperado de http://biblio3.url.edu.gt/Tesario/2014/01/01/Gomez-Helen.pdf Guerra, F., Higuera, K., Molina, F. y Villagrán, P. (2015). Estudio comparativo sobre responsabilidad social entre empresas y países. Recuperado de http://repositorio.uchile.cl/bitstream/handle/2250/131943/ Estudio%20comparativo %20sobre% 20responsa.pdf Henao, J. (2013). La Responsabilidad Social Empresarial como Estrategia de Gestión en la Organización Pranha S.A. (Tesis de Maestría). Universidad Nacional de Colombia. Recuperado de http://www.bdigital.unal.edu.co/12095/1/7711507.2013.pdf Lara, M. (2003). La responsabilidad social de la empresa: implicaciones contables. España: Editorial Edisofer S.L. López, I. (2014). El cambio climático, ¿reto para la Responsabilidad Social Empresarial? Revista Internacional de Organizaciones, 13, 39-53. Mantilla, M. (2012). Responsabilidad Social Empresarial y Población Indígena Colombiana. Bogotá, Colombia: Fondo de Publicaciones de la Universidad Sergio Arboleda. Méndez-Beltrán, J. y Peralta-Borray, D. (2014). Reflexiones respecto a la Responsabilidad Social Empresarial y la creación de valor económico desde la perspectiva de los proveedores. Cuadernos de Contabilidad, 15(38), 625-645. Meza, A. (2007). La Responsabilidad Social Empresarial como factor de competitividad (Trabajo de Grado). Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Bogotá, Colombia. Recuperado de http://www.javeriana.edu.co/biblos/tesis/economia/tesis27.pdf Milian, L. (2015). Responsabilidad social corporativa. Origen y evolución del concepto de RSC en el entorno empresarial europeo y español. Recuperado de https://repositorio.comillas.edu/rest/bitstreams/7232/retrieve Montoya, J. (2011). Plan de educación ambiental para el desarrollo sostenible en los colegios de la institución La Salle. Recuperado de https://www.tesisenred.net/handle/10803/41714 Montoya, B. y Martínez, P. (Coord.). (2012). Responsabilidad Social Empresarial: Una Respuesta Ética ante los Desafíos Globales. Recuperado de http://www.kas.de/wf/doc/kas_37565-1522-4-30.pdf?140425034037 Navarro, F. (2008). Responsabilidad Social Corporativa: Teoría y Práctica. Recensiones, Revista del Ministerio de Trabajo e Inmigración, 76, 193-195. Núñez, I., González, E. y Barahona, A. (2003). La biodiversidad: historia y contexto de un concepto. Interciencia, 28(7), 387-393. Observatorio de Responsabilidad Social Corporativa. Comisión Europea. (2001). Libro Verde: Fomentar un Marco Europeo para la Responsabilidad Social de las Empresas. Recuperado de https://observatoriorsc.org/libro-verde-fomentar-un-marco-europeo-para-la-responsabilidad-social-de-las-empresas/ Ortiz, P. (2009). La Responsabilidad Social Empresarial como base de la estrategia competitiva de HZX (Trabajo de Grado). Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Colombia. Recuperado de https://repository.javeriana.edu.co/handle/10554/9169 Pérez, C. (2014). Acuerdos ambientales multilaterales para la conservación de la biodiversidad. Análisis de cumplimiento en Chile (Tesis de Maestría). Universidad de Chile. Recuperado de http://mgpa.forestaluchile.cl/Tesis/Perez%20Cristian.pdf Porter, M. & Kramer, M. (2011). Creating Shared Value. Recuperado de https://hbr.org/2011/01/the-big-idea-creating-shared-value Puentes, R., Antequeras, J. y Velasco, M. (2008). La responsabilidad social corporativa y su importancia en el espacio europeo de educación superior. Recuperado de https://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=2740076 Rodríguez, Y., Alemán, R., Domínguez, J., Soria, S., Hernández, H. Salazar, C. y Jara, A. (2016). Efecto de dos abonos orgánicos (compost y biol) sobre el desarrollo morfológico de Beta vulgaris L. var. cicla bajo condiciones de invernadero. Revista Amazónica Ciencia y Tecnología, 5(2), 103-117. Ruiz, J. (2013). Diseño de Modelo de Responsabilidad Social Empresarial en PYME Constructora Araucana (Tesis de Maestría). Universidad Nacional de Colombia sede Orinoquia. Recuperado de http://www.bdigital.unal.edu.co/10192/1/7709579.2013.pdf Saavedra, M. (2011). La Responsabilidad Social Empresarial y las Finanzas. Cuadernos de administración, 27(46), 39-54. Sabogal, J. (2008). Aproximación y cuestionamientos al concepto RSE. Revista Facultad de Ciencias Económicas, 16(1), 179-195. Sánchez-Calero, J. (2013). La Responsabilidad Social Empresarial y la buena administración. GCG Globalización, Competitividad y Gobernabilidad, 7(3), 103-114. Sanín, S. y Redondo, J. (2008). 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La investigación se fundamenta en la normativa vigente y las sanciones correspondientes por evasión tributaria a las pequeñas y medianas empresas. El estudio se basó en analizar las contribuciones tributarias de todos los sectores económicos y la gestión que realiza el SRI para combatir las empresas fantasmas. El objetivo del estudio fue determinar los principales delitos que existen y las sanciones correspondientes por cada infracción. El diseño metodológico fue de orden mixto. Cualitativo porque se realizó un análisis descriptivo de los principales delitos especificados en el COIP Art. 298. Cuantitativo porque se analizó e interpretó datos económicos acerca de las PYMES, contribuciones tributarias generales y evasión de impuestos. Los resultados revelaron que las PYMES generan un alto valor tributario, por ende, existe incremento de empresas fantasmas que evaden impuestos y no existe una adecuada gestión para combatir este problema. Palabras Clave: Contribución tributaria, PYMES, evasión de impuestos, empresas fantasmas. Referencias [1]I. Quispe, “La evasión tributaria y su influencia en las micro y pequeñas empresas del sector comercio distrito de quilmaná provincia de cañete, periódo 2018,” 2019. [2]E. Cobos, “Los impuestos financian el 70% del sector público,” Rev. Gestión, no. El petróleo pierde revancha, pp. 1–2, 2018, [En línea]. Disponible en: https://revistagestion. ec/index.php/economia-y-finanzas-analisis/los-impuestos-financian-el-70-del-sector-publico. [Último acceso: 4 de mayo de 2020] [3]J. Yañez, “Evasión Tributaria : Atentado a la Equidad,” Cent. Estud. Tribut. Univ. Chile, pp. 171–206, 2015, [En línea]. Disponible en: https://revistaestudiostributarios.uchile.cl/index.php/RET/article/view/39874%0Ahttps://revistaestudiostributarios.uchile.cl/index.php/RET/article/view/39874/41444. [Último acceso: 4 de mayo de 2020]. [4]J. Benítez, R. Granda, R. Noboa, E. Villegas, I. Valero, and S. López, “Incidencia De Las Obligaciones Tributarias En Las Utilidades De Mipymes En Ecuador,caso comercial “su hacienda” del cantón general Antonio Elizalde (Bucay) Del Año 2014,” Rev. Caribeña Ciencias Soc., vol. 11, no. 2016_05, pp. 61–67, 2016. [5]M. Tamariz, “La evasión tributaria en la legislación ecuatoriana,” Universidad de Cuenca, 2015. [6]M. D. Echaiz and M. S. Echaiz, “La elusión tributaria : Análisis crítico de la actual normatividad y propuestas para una futura reforma,” Derecho Soc., p. 17,2014. [7]J. Sánchez, F. Esparza, I. Gaibor, and M. Barba, “La evasión tributaria originada en el uso de comprobantes de venta/Evaluation of micro and small enterprises of the popular and solidarity economy prior to participating in a Business Round,” KnE Eng., vol. 2020, pp.149–163, 2020, doi: 10.18502/keg.v5i2.6231. [8]SRI, “SRI investiga a nuevas empresas que presuntamente evaden impuestos con la falsificación de facturas,”Quito, 2017. [En línea]. Disponible en: https://www.sri.gob.ec/web/guest/detalle-noticias?idnoticia=412. [Último acceso: 4 de mayo de 2020]. [9]C. Yance, L. Solis, I. Burgos, I. Hermida, “La importancia de las Pymes en México,” Rev. Obs. la Econ. Latinoam. Ecuador, p. 22, 2017. [10]J. García, S. Galarza, and A. Altamirano, “Importancia de la administración eficiente del capital de trabajo en las Pymes,” Rev. Cienc. UNEMI, vol. 10,no. 2528–7737, pp. 30–39, 2017, [En línea]. Disponible en: http://ojs.unemi.edu.ec/ojs/index.php/cienciaunemi/article/view/495. [Último acceso: 4 de mayo de 2020]. [11]R. E. Ron Amores and V. A. Sacoto Castillo, “Las PYMES ecuatorianas: Su impacto en el empleo como contribución del PIB PYMES al PIB total,” Espacios,vol. 38, no. 53, 2017. [12]M. Maldonado, “Cultura Tributaria De Las Mipymes Y Su Incidencia En El Contexto Socio-Económico Ecuatoriano.,” Rev. Sur Acad., vol. 1, no. 8, pp. 43–50, 2017. [13]D. D. Delgado and G. P. Chávez, “Las pymes en el Ecuador y sus fuentes de financiamiento,” Rev. Obs. la Econ. Lationamericana, no. Abril, pp. 1–18, 2018, [En línea]. Disponible en: https://www.eumed.net/rev/oel/2018/04/pymes-ecuador-financiamiento.html. [Último acceso: 4 de mayo de 2020] [14]Asamblea Constituyente, “Codigo Organico Integral Penal,” Noticias, p. 1, 2015, [En línea]. Disponible en: https://www.mendeley.com/import/. [Último acceso: 4 de mayo de 2020]. [15]R. Hernández, Metodología de la investigación, vol. 3, no. 2. 2015. [16]M. Saltos, “El delito tributario en ecuador,” vol. 11, no. 1390, pp. 43–46, 2017. [17]M. Caguana, “Defraudación tributaria según el Código Orgánico Integral Penal (COIP)”. Tesis de maestría. Universidad de Cuenca, 2015. [18]Asamblea Constituyente, “Ley Reformatoria para la Ewuidsd Tributaria del Ecuador,” Quito, 2018. [19]W. Carrillo, P. Sánchez, and G. Carrillo, “Recaudación de impuestos por domicilio fiscal Ecuador: zona de planificación tres (Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Tungurahua, Pastaza), 2007-2018,” Bolentín Coyunt., vol. 1, no. 21,p. 22, 2019, doi: 10.31164/bcoyu.21.2019.693. [20]W. G. Torres, “La recaudación de impuestos cayó casi un 35% en un año,” Primicias, 2020, [En línea]. Disponible en: https://www.primicias.ec/noticias/economia/sri-recaudacion-tributaria-dura-caida-abril/. [Último acceso: 4 de mayo de 2020] [21]V. Calderon, M. García, and J. Espinoza, “Las empresas fantasmas en ecuador: caracterización, socios y empresas relacionadas,” 2017. [22]SRI, “Intercambio de información y cooperación con entidades gubernamentales y judiciales para el combate al fraude fiscal , lavado de activos y delitosconexos,” 2018, [En línea]. Disponible en: https://ciatorg.sharepoint.com/sites/cds/Conocimientos/EventosInstitucionales/Asambleas/2018/es/Presentaciones/pdf/2.2_Ecuador.pdf. [Último acceso: 4 de mayo de 2020].

The pandemic of COVID-19 has afflicted every individual and has initiated a cascade of directly or indirectly involved events in precipitating mental health issues. The human species is a wanderer and hunter-gatherer by nature, and physical social distancing and nationwide lockdown have confined an individual to physical isolation. The present review article was conceived to address psychosocial and other issues and their aetiology related to the current pandemic of COVID-19. The elderly age group has most suffered the wrath of SARS-CoV-2, and social isolation as a preventive measure may further induce mental health issues. Animal model studies have demonstrated an inappropriate interacting endogenous neurotransmitter milieu of dopamine, serotonin, glutamate, and opioids, induced by social isolation that could probably lead to observable phenomena of deviant psychosocial behavior. Conflicting and manipulated information related to COVID-19 on social media has also been recognized as a global threat. Psychological stress during the current pandemic in frontline health care workers, migrant workers, children, and adolescents is also a serious concern. Mental health issues in the current situation could also be induced by being quarantined, uncertainty in business, jobs, economy, hampered academic activities, increased screen time on social media, and domestic violence incidences. The gravity of mental health issues associated with the pandemic of COVID-19 should be identified at the earliest. Mental health organization dedicated to current and future pandemics should be established along with Government policies addressing psychological issues to prevent and treat mental health issues need to be developed. References World Health Organization (WHO) Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) Dashboard. 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This article seeks to deepen the debate on leadership, exploring specifcities of the Brazilian context on this topic, more specifically the principle of democratic management. The reflection focuses on both topics, explaining the path of the debate on democratic management since the mid-eighties of the twentieth century, passing through the Federal Constitution of 1988, the Law of Guidelines and Bases of National Education - Law number 9.394/96) and arriving on the most recent context, where the National Education Plan (PNE), of 2014, incorporates the subject to its goals. Considerations are presented on program contents of two national training programs: the Distance Training Program for School Managers (Progestão) and the National School Program for Managers of Basic Public Education (PNEGEB), also known as School of Managers. The main regulatory frameworks for democratic management are focused on relevant legislation. The study allows us to suggest the hypothesis that the principle of democratic management, associated with a political leadership, would have preponderated in the literature and initiatives of formation of school directors in the country, being the more technical dimension of the subject a little prioritized theme. In this sense, it can be said that the topic of leadership, as it is configured in other contexts, has become a repressed demand in Brazilian educational policy.ResumoEste artigo procura aprofundar o debate sobre liderança, explorando especificidades do contexto brasileiro em relação a esta temática, mais especificamente o princípio da gestão democrática. A reflexão detém-se sobre os dois temas, explicitando a trajetória do debate sobre gestão democrática desde meados dos anos oitenta do século XX, passando pela Constituição Federal de 1988, a Lei de Diretrizes e Bases da Educação Nacional – LDB (Lei nº 9.394/96) e chegando ao contexto mais recente, onde o Plano Nacional de Educação (PNE) de 2014 incorpora o assunto às suas metas. São apresentadas considerações sobre conteúdos programáticos de dois programas nacionais de formação: o Programa de Capacitação a Distância para Gestores Escolares (Progestão) e o Programa Nacional Escola de Gestores da Educação Básica Pública (PNEGEB), também conhecido como Escola de Gestores. Os principais marcos regulatórios da gestão democrática são focalizados na legislação pertinente. O estudo permite sugerir a hipótese de que o princípio da gestão democrática, associado a uma liderança de natureza política, teria preponderado na literatura e iniciativas de formação de diretores escolares no país, sendo a dimensão mais técnica do assunto um tema pouco priorizado. Nesse sentido, pode-se dizer que o tema da liderança, tal como se configura em outros contextos, tem se constituído em demanda reprimida na política educacional brasileira.ResumenEste artículo busca profundizar el debate sobre liderazgo, explorando especificidades del contexto brasileño en relación a esta temática, más específicamente el principio de la gestión democrática. La reflexión se detiene sobre los dos temas, explicitando la trayectoria del debate sobre gestión democrática desde mediados de los años ochenta del siglo XX, pasando por la Constitución Federal de 1988, la Ley de Directrices y Bases de la Educación Nacional - LDB (Ley nº 9.394/96) y llegando al contexto más reciente, donde el Plan Nacional de Educación (PNE), de 2014, incorpora el asunto a sus metas. Se presentan consideraciones sobre contenidos programáticos de dos programas nacionales de formación: el Programa de Capacitación a Distancia para Gestores Escolares (Progestão) y el Programa Nacional Escuela de Gestores de la Educación Básica Pública (PNEGEB), también conocido como Escuela de Gestores. Los principales marcos regulatorios de la gestión democrática se centran en la legislación pertinente. El estudio permite sugerir la hipótesis de que el principio de la gestión democrática, asociado a un liderazgo de naturaleza política, habría preponderado en la literatura e iniciativas de formación de directores escolares en el país, siendo la dimensión más técnica del tema un tema poco priorizado. En ese sentido, se puede decir que el tema del liderazgo, tal como se configura en otros contextos, se ha constituido en demanda reprimida en la política educativa brasileña.Keywords: Leadership and democratic management, Educational legislation, Public policies, Scholar managers training.Palavras-chave: Liderança e gestão democrática, Legislação educacional. Políticas públicas, Formação de gestores escolares.Palabras claves: Liderazgo y gestión democrática, Legislación educativa, Políticas públicas, Formación de gestores escolares.ReferencesALMEIDA, Bruno Luiz Teles de. Construindo uma gestão democrática no Estado da Bahia: contribuições do Curso de Especialização em Gestão Escolar promovido pelo Programa Escola de Gestores. Universidade Federal da Bahia. 2015. Dissertação de Mestrado, 2015. Disponível em: https://repositorio.ufba.br/ri/handle/ri/17694. Acesso em: 27 out. 2018.BENTO, António; OLIVEIRA, Maria Isabel. A liderança escolar a três dimensões: diretores, professores e alunos. Bragança: Ideias em prática, 2013. Disponível em: https://bibliotecadigital. ipb.pt/handle/10198/9560. Acesso em: 18 ago. 2018.BIANCO, Mônica de Fátima; SOUZA, Eloísio Moulin de; SOUZA-REIS, Antônio Marcos. A nova gestão pública: um estudo do Pró-gestão focado em dois projetos prioritários no estado do Espírito Santo. Revista Gestão e Planejamento, Salvador, v. 15, n. 1, p. 118-143, jan./abr. 2014.BOLIVAR, Antonio. El liderazgo pedagógico de la dirección escolar en España: limitaciones y acciones. In: LIMA, Licinio; SÁ, Virginio (orgs.). 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Acesso em: 25 set. 2016.MAGALDI, Ana Maria; GONDRA, José G. A reorganização do campo educacional no Brasil: manifestações, manifestos e manifestantes. Rio de Janeiro: 7Letras, 2003.MELO, Marisete Fernandes de. Programa nacional escola de gestores para a educação básica: um olhar sobre a proposta e execução na Paraíba (2010 - 2012). 2017. Dissertação de Mestrado. Universidade Federal da Paraíba. Mestrado Profissional em Políticas Públicas, Gestão e Avaliação da Educação, 2017. Disponível em https://repositorio.ufpb.br/ jspui/handle/tede/9320. Acesso em 31 out. 2018.NOGUEIRA, Danielle Xabregas Pamplona. Programa de Capacitação a Distância de Gestores Escolares – Progestão no Estado do Pará: um estudo sobre a implementação do curso de especialização, no período de 2001 a 2002. 2008. Dissertação(Mestrado em Educação). Universidade de Brasília, Brasília, 2008. Disponível em: http://repositorio.unb.br/handle/10482/1845. Acesso em: 27 out. 2018.OLIVEIRA, Ana Cristina Prado de. 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This study aimed to explore the perceived barriers to physical activity among college students Study Design: Qualitative research design Eight focus group discussions on 67 college students aged 18-24 years (48 females, 19 males) was conducted on College premises. Data were analysed using inductive approach. Participants identified a number of obstacles to physical activity. Perceived barriers emerged from the analysis of the data addressed the different dimensions of the socio-ecological framework. The result indicated that the young adults perceived substantial amount of personal, social and environmental factors as barriers such as time constraint, tiredness, stress, family control, safety issues and much more. Understanding the barriers and overcoming the barriers at this stage will be valuable. Health professionals and researchers can use this information to design and implement interventions, strategies and policies to promote the participation in physical activity. This further can help the students to deal with those barriers and can help to instil the habit of regular physical activity in the later adult years.

La prevalencia de personas con discapacidad en Chile asciende al 20% de su población, de los cuales un porcentaje cercano al 12% asiste a establecimientos educacionales especiales, quienes en su mayoría, presentan discapacidad intelectual, condición que se relaciona a comorbilidades y menor condición física. El año 2018, entró en vigencia la ley Nº 21.015 que incentiva a las empresas a la contratación e inclusión laboral de personas con discapacidad, sin embargo no existen programas y estrategias gubernamentales orientadas a promover el bienestar general y el desarrollo condición física en el ciclo escolar para la transferencia mundo laboral de personas con discapacidad intelectual.

El propósito del presente artículo expone como el diagnóstico de VIH ha afectado a mujeres chilenas en su rol de trabajadoras, conociéndolo desde su propia perspectiva. Es una investigación cualitativa, donde se entrevistan a 3 mujeres sero positivo de edad entre los 20 y 65 años, que cuentan con experiencia laboral previo al diagnóstico de VIH. Los resultados identifican un antes y después del diagnóstico de VIH, donde para mantener su rol de trabajadoras ocultan su diagnóstico al empleador y a sus compañeros de trabajo por miedo a ser discriminada; dan a conocer abiertamente su diagnóstico al contexto social que se desenvuelven para evitar prejuicios; o cambian su rubro laboral. De esta manera, se reconoce que la ley del SIDA de Chile no logra cubrir una protección real que permita el respeto, fiscalización y responsabilidad de estas normas, siendo vulnerados los derechos de las mujeres que viven con VIH. Las mujeres diagnosticadas sufren apartheid ocupacional e injusticia ocupacional, ya que no logran realizar su rol como trabajadoras debido a la desinformación que existe en la sociedad frente al VIH y a los estigmas que se encuentran en torno a ella, desencadenando prejuicios sociales históricos que han favorecido que mujeres vivan ocultando su realidad.

BASTARDYAll children born before matrimony, or so long after the death of the husband as to render it impossible that the child could be begotten by him, are bastards.– Cro. Jac. 451William Toone: The Magistrates Manual, 1817 (66)On 4 September 1832, the body of a newborn baby boy was found washed up on the shore at the port town of Fremantle, Western Australia. As the result of an inquest into the child’s suspicious death, a 20-year-old, unmarried woman named Mary Summerland was accused of concealing his birth. In October 2014, 25-year-old Irish backpacker Caroline Quinn faced court in Perth, Western Australia, over claims that she concealed the birth of her stillborn child after giving birth in the remote north west town of Halls Creek during May of the same year. Both women denied the existence of their children, both appear to have given birth to their “illegitimate” babies alone, and both women claimed that they did not know that they had ever been pregnant at all. In addition, both women hid the body of their dead child for several days while the people they lived with or were close to, did not appear to notice that the mother of the child had had a baby. In neither case did any person associated with either woman seek to look for the missing child after it had been born.Despite occurring 182 years apart, the striking similarities between these cases could lead to the assumption that it is almost as if there were a written script of behaviour that would explain the actions of both young women. Close examination of the laws surrounding child murder, infanticide and concealment of birth reveals evidence of similar behaviours being enacted by women as far back as the 1600s (and earlier), and all are shaped in response to the legal frameworks that prosecuted women who gave birth outside of marriage.This article traces the history of child murder law from its formation in England in the 1600s and explores how early moral assumptions concerning unmarried mothers echoed through the lived experiences of women who killed their illegitimate babies in colonial Western Australia, and continue to resonate in the treatment of, and legal response to, women accused of similar crimes in the present day. The Unlicensed ChildThe unlicensed child is a term coined by Swain and Howe to more accurately define the social matrix faced by single women and their children in Australia. The term seeks to emphasise the repressive and controlling religious, legal and social pressures that acted on Australian women who had children outside marriage until the mid-1970s (xxi, 1, 92, 94). For the purposes of this article, I extend Swain and Howe’s term the unlicensed child to coin the term the unlicensed mother. Following on from Swain and Howe’s definition, if the children of unmarried mothers did not have a license to be born, it is essential to acknowledge that their mothers did not have a license to give birth. Women who had children without social and legal sanction gave birth within a society that did not allocate them “permission” to be mothers, something that the corporeality of pregnancy made it impossible for them not to be. Their own bodies—and the bodies of the babies growing inside them—betrayed them. Unlicensed mothers were punished socially, religiously, legally and financially, and their children were considered sinful and inferior to children who had married parents simply because they had been born (Scheper-Hughes 410). This unspoken lack of authorisation to experience the unavoidably innate physicality of pregnancy, birth and motherhood, in turn implies that, until recently unmarried mothers did not have license to be mothers. Two MothersAll that remains of the “case” of Mary Summerland is a file archived at the State Records Office of Western Australia under the title CONS 3472, Item 10: Rex V Mary Summerland. Yet revealed within those sparse documents is a story echoed by the events surrounding Caroline Quinn nearly two hundred years later. In September 1832, Mary Summerland was an unmarried domestic servant living and working in Fremantle when the body of a baby was found lying on a beach very close to the settlement. Western Australia had only been colonized by the British in 1829. The discovery of the body of an infant in such a tiny village (colonial Fremantle had a population of only 436 women and girls out of 1341 non-Aboriginal emigrants) (Gardiner) set in motion an inquest that resulted in Mary Summerland being investigated over the suspicious death of the child.The records suggest that Mary may have given birth, apparently alone, over a week prior to the corpse of the baby being discovered, yet no one in Fremantle, including her employer and her family, appeared to have noticed that Mary might have been pregnant, or that she had given birth to a child. When Mary Summerland was eventually accused of giving birth to the baby, she strongly denied that she had ever been pregnant, and denied being the mother of the child. It is not known how her infant ended up being disposed of in the ocean. It is also not known if Mary was eventually charged with concealment or child murder, but in either scenario, the case against her was dismissed as “no true bill” when she faced her trial. The details publically available on the case of Caroline Quinn are also sparse. Even the sex of her child has not been revealed in any of the media coverage of the event. Yet examination of the limited details available on her charge of “concealment of birth” reveal similarities between her behaviours and those of Mary Summerland.In May 2014 Caroline Quinn had been “travelling with friends in the Kimberly region of Western Australia” (Lee), and, just as Mary did, Caroline claims she “did not realise that she was pregnant” when she went into labour (Independent.ie). She appears, like Mary Summerland, to have given birth alone, and also like Mary, when her child died due to unexplained circumstances she hid the corpse for several days. Also echoing Mary’s story, no person in the sparsely populated Hall’s Creek community (the town has a populace of 1,211) or any friends in Caroline’s circle of acquaintances appears to have noticed her pregnancy, nor did they realise that she had given birth to a baby until the body of the child was discovered hidden in a hotel room several days after her or his birth. The media records are unclear as to whether Caroline revealed her condition to her friends or whether they “discovered” the body without her assistance. The case was not brought to the attention of authorities until Caroline’s friends took her to receive medical attention at the local hospital and staff there notified the police.Media coverage of the death of Caroline Quinn’s baby suggests her child was stillborn or died soon after birth. As of 13 August 2014 Caroline was granted leave by the Chief Magistrate to return home to Ireland while she awaited her trial, as “without trivialising the matter, nothing more serious was alleged than the concealing of the birth” (Collins, "Irish Woman"). Caroline Quinn was not required to return to Australia to appear at her trial and when the case was presented at the Perth Magistrates Court on Thursday 2 October, all charges against her were dropped as the prosecutor felt “it was not in the public interest” to proceed with legal action (Collins, "Case").Statutory MarginalisationTo understand the similarities between the behaviours of, and legal and medical response to, Mary Summerland and Caroline Quinn, it is important to situate the deaths of their children within the wider context of child murder, concealment of birth and “bastardy” law. Tracing the development of these methods of law-making clarifies the parallels between much of the child murder, infanticide and concealment of birth narrative that has occurred in Western Australia since non-Aboriginal settlement.Despite the isolated nature of Western Australia, the nearly 400 years since the law was formed in England, and the extremely remote rural locations where both these women lived and worked, their stories are remarkably alike. It is almost as if there were a written script and each member of the cast knew what role to play: both Mary and Caroline knew to hide their pregnancies, to deny the overwhelmingly traumatic experience of giving birth alone, and to conceal the corpses of their babies. The fathers of their children appear to have cut off any connection to the women or their child. The family, friends, or employers of the parents of the dead babies knew to pretend that they did not know that the mother was pregnant or who the father was. The police and medical officers knew to charge these women and to collect evidence that could be used to simultaneously meet the needs of the both prosecution and the defence when the cases were brought to trial.In reference to Mary Summerland’s case, in colonial Western Australia when a woman gave birth to an infant who died under suspicious circumstances, she could be prosecuted with two charges: “child murder” and/or “concealment of birth”. It is suggestive that Mary may have been charged with both. The laws regarding these two offences were focused almost exclusively on the deaths of unlicensed children and were so deeply interconnected they are difficult to untangle. For Probyn, shame pierces the centre of who we think we are, “what makes it remarkable is that it reveals with precision our values, hopes and aspirations, beyond the generalities of good manners and cultured norms” (x). Dipping into the streams of legal and medical discourse that flow back to the seventeenth century highlights the pervasiveness of discourses marginalising single women and their children. This situates Mary Summerland and Caroline Quinn within a ‘burden on society’ narrative of guilt, blame and shame that has been in circulation for over 500 years, and continues to resonate in the present (Coull).An Act to Prevent the Destroying and Murthering of Bastard ChildrenIn England prior to the 17th century, penalties for extramarital sex, the birth and/or maintenance of unlicensed children or for committing child murder were expressed through church courts (Damme 2-6; Rapaport 548; Butler 61; Hoffer and Hull 3-4). Discussion of how the punishment of child murder left the religious sphere and came to be regulated by secular laws that were focused exclusively on the unlicensed mother points to two main arguments: firstly, the patriarchal response to unlicensed (particularly female) sexuality; and secondly, a moral panic regarding a perceived rise in unlicensed pregnancies in women of the lower classes, and the resulting financial burden placed on local parishes to support unwanted, unlicensed children (Rapaport 532, 48-52; McMahon XVII, 126-29; Osborne 49; Meyer 3-8 of 14). In many respects, as Meyer suggests, “the legal system subtly encouraged neonaticide through its nearly universally negative treatment of bastard children” (240).The first of these “personal control laws” (Hoffer and Hull 13) was the Old Poor Law created by Henry VIII in 1533, and put in place to regulate all members of English society who needed to rely on the financial assistance of the parish to survive. Prior to 1533, “by custom the children of the rich depended on their relations, while the ‘fatherless poor’ relied on the charity of the monastic institutions and the municipalities” (Teichman 60-61). Its implementation marks the historical point where the state began to take responsibility for maintenance of the poor away from the church by holding communities responsible for “the problem of destitution” (Teichman 60-61; Meyer 243).The establishment of the poor law system of relief created a hierarchy of poverty in which some poor people, such as those suffering from sickness or those who were old, were seen as worthy of receiving support, while others, who were destitute as a result of “debauchery” or other self-inflicted means were seen as undeserving and sent to a house of correction or common gaol. Underprivileged, unlicensed mothers and their children were seen to be part of the category of recipients unfit for help (Jackson 31). Burdens on SocietyIt was in response to the narrative of poor unlicensed women and their children being undeserving fiscal burdens on law abiding, financially stretched community members that in 1576 a law targeted specifically at holding genetic parents responsible for the financial maintenance of unlicensed children entered the secular courts for the first time. Called the Elizabethan Poor Law it was enacted in response to the concerns of local parishes who felt that, due to the expenses exacted by the poor laws, they were being burdened with the care of a greatly increased number of unlicensed children (Jackson 30; Meyer 5-6; Teichman 61). While the 1576 legislation prosecuted both parents of unlicensed children, McMahon interprets the law as being created in response to a blend of moral and economic forces, undergirded by a deep, collective fear of illegitimacy (McMahon 128). By the 1570s “unwed mothers were routinely whipped and sent to prison” (Meyer 242) and “guardians of the poor” could force unlicensed mothers to wear a “badge” (Teichman 63). Yet surprisingly, while parishes felt that numbers of unlicensed children were increasing, no concomitant rise was actually recorded (McMahon 128).The most damning evidence of the failure of this law, was the surging incidence of infanticide following its implementation (Rapaport 548-49; Hoffer and Hull 11-13). After 1576 the number of women prosecuted for infanticide increased by 225 percent. Convictions resulting in unlicensed mothers being executed also rose (Meyer 246; Hoffer and Hull 8, 18).Infanticide IncreasesBy 1624 the level of infanticide in local communities was deemed to be so great An Act to Prevent the Destroying and Murthering of Bastard Children was created. The Act made child murder a “sex-specific crime”, focused exclusively on the unlicensed mother, who if found guilty of the offence was punished by death. Probyn suggests that “shame is intimately social” (77) and indeed, the wording of An Act to Prevent highlights the remarkably similar behaviours enacted by single women desperate to avoid the shame and criminal implication linked to the social position of unlicensed mother: Whereas many lewd Women that have been delivered of Bastard Children, to avoyd their shame and to escape punishment [my italics], doe secretlie bury, or conceale the Death of their Children, and after if the child be found dead the said Women doe alleadge that the said Children were borne dead;…For the preventing therefore of this great Mischiefe…if any Woman…be delivered of any issue of the Body, Male or Female, which being born alive, should by the Lawes of this Realm be a bastard, and that she endeavour privatlie either by drowning or secret burying thereof, or any other way, either by herselfe of the procuring of others, soe to conceale the Death thereof, as that it may not come to light, whether it be borne alive or not, but be concealed, in every such Case the Mother so offending shall suffer Death… (Davies 214; O'Donovan 259; Law Reform Commission of Western Australia 104; Osborne 49; Rose 1-2; Rapaport 548). An Act to Prevent also “contained an extraordinary provision which was a reversion of the ordinary common law presumption of dead birth” (Davies 214), removing the burden of proof from the prosecution and placing it on the defence (Francus 133; McMahon 128; Meyer 2 of 14). The implication being that if the dead body of a newborn, unlicensed baby was found hidden, it was automatically assumed that the child had been murdered by their mother (Law Reform Commission of Western Australia 104; Osborne 49; Rapaport 549-50; Francus 133). This made the Act unusual in that “the offence involved was the concealment of death rather than the death itself” (O'Donovan 259). The only way an unlicensed mother charged with child murder was able to avoid capital punishment was to produce at least one witness to give evidence that the child was “borne dead” (Law Reform Commission of Western Australia 104; Meyer 238; McMahon 126-27).Remarkable SimilaritiesClearly, the objective of An Act to Prevent was not simply to preserve infant life. It is suggestive that it was enacted in response to women wishing to avoid the legal, social, corporal and religious punishment highlighted by the implementation of the poor law legislation enacted throughout earlier centuries. It is also suggestive that these pressures were so powerful that threat of death if found guilty of killing their neonate baby was not enough to deter women from concealing their unlicensed pregnancies and committing child murder. Strikingly analogous to the behaviours of Mary Summerland in 19th century colonial Western Australia, and Caroline Quinn in 2014, the self-preservation implicit in the “strategies of secrecy” (Gowing 87) surrounding unlicensed birth and child murder often left the mother of a dead baby as the only witness to her baby’s death (McMahon xvii 49-50).An Act to Prevent set in motion the legislation that was eventually used to prosecute Mary Summerland in colonial Western Australia (Jackson 7, Davies, 213) and remnants of it still linger in the present where they have been incorporated into the ‘concealment of birth law’ that prosecuted Caroline Quinn (Legal Online TLA [10.1.182]).Changing the ‘Script’Shame runs like a viral code through the centuries to resonate within the legal response to women who committed infanticide in colonial Western Australia. It continues on through the behaviours of, and legal responses to, the story of Caroline Quinn and her child. As Probyn observes, “shame reminds us about the promises we keep to ourselves” in turn revealing our desire for belonging and elements of our deepest fears (p. x). While Caroline may live in a society that no longer outwardly condemns women who give birth outside of marriage, it is fascinating that the suite of behaviours manifested in response to her pregnancy and the birth of her child—by herself, her friends, and the wider community—can be linked to the narratives surrounding the formation of “child murder” and “concealment” law nearly 400 years earlier. Caroline’s narrative also encompasses similar behaviours enacted by Mary Summerland in 1832, in particular that Caroline knew to say that her child was “born dead” and that she had merely concealed her or his body—nothing more. This behaviour appears to have secured the release of both women as although both Mary and Caroline faced criminal investigation, neither was convicted of any crime. Yet, neither of these women or their small communities were alone in their responses. My research has uncovered 55 cases linked to child murder in Western Australia and the people involved in all of these incidences share unusually similar behaviours (Gardiner). Perhaps, it is only through the wider community becoming aware of the resonance of child murder law echoing through the centuries, that certain women who are pregnant with unwanted children will be able to write a different script for themselves, and their “unlicensed” children. ReferencesButler, Sara, M. "A Case of Indifference? Child Murder in Later Medieval England." Journal of Women's History 19.4 (2007): 59-82. Collins, Padraig. "Case against Irish Woman for Concealing Birth Dropped." The Irish Times 2 Oct. 2014. ---. "Irish Woman Held for Hiding Birth in Australia Allowed Return Home." The Irish Times 13 Aug. 2014. Coull, Kim. “The Womb Artist – A Novel: Translating Late Discovery Adoptee Pre-Verbal Trauma into Narrative”. Dissertation. Perth, WA: Edith Cowan University, 2014.Damme, Catherine. "Infanticide: The Worth of an Infant under Law." Medical History 22.1 (1978): 1-24. Davies, D.S. "Child-Killing in English Law." The Modern Law Review 1.3 (1937): 203-23. Dickinson, J.R., and J.A. Sharpe. "Infanticide in Early Modern England: The Court of Great Sessions at Chester, 1650-1800." Infanticide: Historical Perspectives on Child Murder and Concealment, 1550-2000. Ed. Mark Jackson. Hants: Ashgate, 2002. 35-51.Francus, Marilyn. "Monstrous Mothers, Monstrous Societies: Infanticide and the Rule of Law in Restoration and Eighteenth-Century England." Eighteenth-Century Life 21.2 (1997): 133-56. Gardiner, Amanda. "Sex, Death and Desperation: Infanticide, Neonaticide and Concealment of Birth in Colonial Western Australia." Dissertation. Perth, WA: Edith Cowan University, 2014.Gowing, Laura. "Secret Births and Infanticide in Seventeenth-Century England." Past & Present 156 (1997): 87-115. Hoffer, Peter C., and N.E.H. Hull. Murdering Mothers: Infanticide in England and New England 1558-1803. New York: New York University Press, 1984. Independent.ie. "Irish Woman Facing Up to Two Years in Jail for Concealing Death of Her Baby in Australia." 8 Aug. 2014. Law Reform Commission of Western Australia. "Chapter 3: Manslaughter and Other Homicide Offences." Review of the Law of Homicide: Final Report. Perth: Law Reform Commission of Western Australia, 2007. 85-117.Lee, Sally. "Irish Backpacker Charged over the Death of a Baby She Gave Birth to While Travelling in the Australia [sic] Outback." Daily Mail 8 Aug. 2014. Legal Online. "The Laws of Australia." Thomson Reuters 2010. McMahon, Vanessa. Murder in Shakespeare's England. London: Hambledon and London, 2004. Meyer, Jon'a. "Unintended Consequences for the Youngest Victims: The Role of Law in Encouraging Neonaticide from the Seventeenth to Nineteenth Centuries." Criminal Justice Studies 18.3 (2005): 237-54. O'Donovan, K. "The Medicalisation of Infanticide." Criminal Law Review (May 1984): 259-64. Osborne, Judith A. "The Crime of Infanticide: Throwing Out the Baby with the Bathwater." Canadian Journal of Family Law 6 (1987): 47-59. Rapaport, Elizabeth. "Mad Women and Desperate Girls: Infanticide and Child Murder in Law and Myth." Fordham Urban Law Journal 33.2 (2006): 527-69.Rose, Lionel. The Massacre of the Innocents: Infanticide in Britain, 1800-1939. London: Routledge & Kegan, 1986. Scheper-Hughes, Nancy. Death without Weeping: The Violence of Everyday Life in Brazil. Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1992. Swain, Shurlee, and Renate Howe. Single Mothers and Their Children: Disposal, Punishment and Survival in Australia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995. Teichman, Jenny. Illegitimacy: An Examination of Bastardy. Oxford: Cornell University Press, 1982. Toone, William. The Magistrate's Manual: Or a Summary of the Duties and Powers of a Justice of the Peace. 2nd ed. London: Joseph Butterworth and Son, 1817.

Human capital is one of the components of national wealth, therefore, its development should be considered as a factor for strengthening the stability of the territory in the formation of regional policy. The authors' analysis shows that the trends in the development of the human capital lead to a decrease in the stability of the region indicated by the aging population, reduced quality of labour potential, the development of negative migration processes and especially its intellectual characteristics and health capital. As the world practice shows, ensuring sustainable development of a region and a country as a whole is not possible without increasing human capital and its potential. Its importance in the modernization of all aspects of public life is growing steadily. According to the World Bank, in developed countries 64% of the structure of national wealth belongs to human capital, 16% to physical one and only 20% to raw materials. In this regard, the human capital and its potential are among the key factors in the transition to an innovative type of development of a region and a country as a whole. Purpose – to identify patterns of changes and trends in demographic processes and socially determined morbidity of the population of the industrial region of Ukraine, their main causes and opportunities to improve the situation Materials and methods. The materials of the study were domestic and world scientific sources, annual collections of statistical data of the Dnipropetrovsk region and Ukraine as a whole from the demographic development and morbidity of the population; annual reports of the country’s leadership and the Ministry of Health on these issues, information from the WHO Regional Office; legislative documents. Methods were used: bibliosemantic, system analysis, retrospective analysis of public health over demographic indicators (fertility, mortality, natural increase, average life expectancy, child mortality) morbidity for individual classes of diseases leading to the largest share of deaths; medical statistics: relative values, time series, assessment of trends in demographic indicators, morbidity, graphic representation of statistical data, computer technologies Results. The development of the human capital of the population, the quantitative and qualitative potential of its reproduction is a condition, a basis and a goal of sustainable development of society and the state. State policy in the field of public life should be focused primarily on solving the most pressing, priority tasks. In recent years, Ukraine has had a problem of depopulation - a steady decline in population. Public health is the main factor in the formation of demographic processes. Moreover, its level largely affects the development of such processes as mortality and fertility as well as future life expectancy. Thus, the health of the nation determines the number and quality of human resources not only today but also in the future. The population, having a certain life and work potential, loses it at every stage of the development of generations due to injuries, diseases, abortion, stillbirth, premature mortality and so on. The article highlights the main problems of the formation of the population of the Dnipropetrovsk region of Ukraine: the intensification of mortality, male mortality, negative natural growth, a decrease in the total fertility rate, high levels of demographic aging. The population of the Vinnytsia region has decreased over the years of independence by 16.9% (Ukraine – by 18.1%). The overall fertility rate decreased by 30.9%, the overall mortality rate increased by 33.0%, which resulted in negative natural growth and depopulation. The main causes of death in 2019 were diseases of the circulatory system – 67.8%; neoplasms – 14.6%; injuries, poisoning and other consequences of external factors – 5.7%. Despite the decrease in the death rate of children under 1 year by 2 times, the number of children in the region has decreased by more than 100 thousand. people. The elderly population increased to 300 ppm, which led to a regressive type of age structure. Average life expectancy lags far behind (by 10 or more years) from the countries of Western Europe. Proposals are presented on how to improve the demographic situation and prevent diseases leading to the greatest number of deaths. Conclusions. While assessing the real opportunities for human development in the future taking Vinnytsia region as an example, we can see that the significant deterioration of all major medical and demographic indicators that has occurred in recent years puts significant limitations on human resources for further sustainable development of the region and Ukraine. Demographic indicators of the population of Ukraine indicate a deep demographic crisis, as a result of which the population has decreased by 9,7mln. people over the years of independence, in the Vinnytsia region – by 667 thousand. There are a number of objective prerequisites for further depopulation, rejuvenation of death rates from most diseases, high levels demographic old age etc. It is necessary to develop a new long-term targeted comprehensive intersectoral program "Health of the Nation", the main section of which should be measures to overcome the demographic crisis, which would cover not only the issues of simple reproduction of the population, but also its development in a broad social context. The target program should include the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and monitor their implementation at the highest level.

IntroductionOn 4 December 2016, a man entered a Washington, D.C., pizza parlor armed with an AR-15 assault rifle in an attempt to save the victims of an alleged satanic pedophilia ring run by prominent members of the Democratic Party. While the story had already been discredited (LaCapria), at the time of the incident, nearly half of Trump voters were found to give a measure of credence to the same rumors that had apparently inspired the gunman (Frankovic). Was we will discuss here, the bizarre conspiracy theory known as "Pizzagate" had in fact originated a month earlier on 4chan/pol/, a message forum whose very raison d’être is to protest against “political correctness” of the liberal establishment, and which had recently become a hub for “loose coordination” amongst members the insurgent US ‘alt-right’ movement (Hawley 48). Over a period of 25 hours beginning on 3 November 2016, contributors to the /pol/ forum combed through a cache of private e-mails belonging to Hillary Clinton’s campaign manager John Podesta, obtained by Russian hackers (Franceschi-Bicchierai) and leaked by Julian Assange (Wikileaks). In this short time period contributors to the forum thus constructed the basic elements of a narrative that would be amplified by a newly formed “right-wing media network”, in which the “repetition, variation, and circulation” of “repeated falsehoods” may be understood as an “important driver towards a ‘post-truth’ world” (Benkler et al). Heavily promoted by a new class of right-wing pundits on Twitter (Wendling), the case of Pizzagate prompts us to reconsider the presumed progressive valence of social media protest (Zuckerman).While there is literature, both popular and academic, on earlier protest movements associated with 4chan (Stryker; Olson; Coleman; Phillips), there is still a relative paucity of empirical research into the newer forms of alt-right collective action that have emerged from 4chan. And while there have been journalistic exposés tracing the dissemination of the Pizzagate rumors across social media as well as deconstructing its bizarre narrative (Fisher et al.; Aisch; Robb), as of yet there has been no rigorous analysis of the provenance of this particular story. This article thus provides an empirical study of how the Pizzagate conspiracy theory developed out of a particular set of collective action techniques that were in turn shaped by the material affordances of 4chan’s most active message board, the notorious and highly offensive /pol/.Grammatised Collective ActionOur empirical approach is partially inspired by the limited data-scientific literature of 4chan (Bernstein et al.; Hine et al.; Zannettou et al.), and combines close and distant reading techniques to study how the technical design of 4chan ‘grammatises’ new forms of collective action. Our coinage of grammatised collective action is based on the notion of “grammars of action” from the field of critical information studies, which posits the radical idea that innovations in computational systems can also be understood as “ontological advances” (Agre 749), insofar as computation tends to break the flux of human activity into discrete elements. By introducing this concept our intent is not to minimise individual agency, but rather to emphasise the ways in which computational systems can be conceptualised in terms of an individ­ual-milieu dyad where the “individual carries with it a certain inheritance […] animated by all the potentials that characterise [...] the structure of a physical system” (Simondon 306). Our argument is that grammatisation may be thought to create new kinds of niches, or affordances, for new forms of sociality and, crucially, new forms of collective action — in the case of 4chan/pol/, how anonymity and ephemerality may be thought to afford a kind of post-truth protest.Affordance was initially proposed as a means by which to overcome the dualistic tendency, inherited from phenomenology, to bracket the subject from its environment. Thus, affordance is a relational concept “equally a fact of the environment and a fact of behaviour” (Gibson 129). While, in the strictly materialist sense affordances are “always there” (Gibson 132), their capacity to shape action depends upon their discovery and exploitation by particular forms of life that are capable of perceiving them. It is axiomatic within ethology that forms of life can be understood to thrive in their own dynamic, yet in some real sense ontologically distinct, lifeworlds (von Uexküll). Departing from this axiom, affordances can thus be defined, somewhat confusingly but accurately, as an “invariant combination of variables” (Gibson 134). In the case of new media, the same technological object may afford different actions for specific users — for instance, the uses of an online platform appears differently from the perspective of the individual users, businesses, or a developer (Gillespie). Recent literature within the field of new media has sought to engage with this concept of affordance as the methodological basis for attending to “the specificity of platforms” (Bucher and Helmond 242), for example by focussing on how a platform’s affordances may be used as a "mechanism of governance" (Crawford and Gillespie 411), how they may "foster democratic deliberation" (Halpern and Gibbs 1159), and be implicated in the "production of normativity" (Stanfill 1061).As an anonymous and essentially ephemeral peer-produced image-board, 4chan has a quite simple technical design when compared with the dominant social media platforms discussed in the new media literature on affordances. Paradoxically however in the simplicity of their design 4chan boards may be understood to afford rather complex forms of self-expression and of coordinated action amongst their dedicated users, whom refer to themselves as "anons". It has been noted, for example, that the production of provocative Internet memes on 4chan’s /b/ board — the birthplace of Rickrolling — could be understood as a type of "contested cultural capital", whose “media literate” usage allows anons to demonstrate their in-group status in the absence of any persistent reputational capital (Nissenbaum and Shiffman). In order to appreciate how 4chan grammatises action it is thus useful to study its characteristic affordances, the most notable of which is its renowned anonymity. We should thus begin by noting how the design of the site allows anyone to post anything virtually anonymously so long as comments remain on topic for the given board. Indeed, it was this particular affordance that informed the emergence of the collective identity of the hacktivist group “Anonymous”, some ten years before 4chan became publicly associated with the rise of the alt-right.In addition to anonymity the other affordance that makes 4chan particularly unique is ephemerality. As stated, the design of 4chan is quite straightforward. Anons post comments to ongoing threaded discussions, which start with an original post. Threads with the most recent comments appear first in order at the top of a given board, which result in the previous threads getting pushed down the page. Even in the case of the most popular threads 4chan boards only allow a finite number of comments before threads must be purged. As a result of this design, no matter how popular a discussion might be, once having reached the bump-limit threads expire, moving down the front page onto the second and third page either to be temporarily catalogued or else to disappear from the site altogether (see Image 1 for how popular threads on /pol/, represented in red, are purged after reaching the bump-limit).Image 1: 55 minutes of all 4chan/pol/ threads and their positions, sampled every 2 minutes (Hagen)Adding to this ephemerality, general discussion on 4chan is also governed by moderators — this in spite of 4chan’s anarchic reputation — who are uniquely empowered with the ability to effectively kill a thread, or a series of threads. Autosaging, one of the possible techniques available to moderators, is usually only exerted in instances when the discussion is deemed as being off-topic or inappropriate. As a result of the combined affordances, discussions can be extremely rapid and intense — in the case of the creation of Pizzagate, this process took 25 hours (see Tokmetzis for an account based on our research).The combination of 4chan’s unique affordances of anonymity and ephemerality brings us to a third factor that is crucial in order to understand how it is that 4chan anons cooked-up the Pizzagate story: the general thread. This process involves anons combing through previous discussion threads in order to create a new thread that compiles all the salient details on a given topic often archiving this data with services like Pastebin — an online content hosting service usually used to share snippets of code — or Google Docs since the latter tend to be less ephemeral than 4chan.In addition to keeping a conversation alive after a thread has been purged, in the case of Pizzagate we noticed that general threads were crucial to the process of framing those discussions going forward. While multiple general threads might emerge on a given topic, only one will consolidate the ongoing conversation thereby affording significant authority to a single author (as opposed to the anonymous mass) in terms of deciding on which parts of a prior thread to include or exclude. While general threads occur relatively commonly in 4chan, in the case of Pizzagate, this process seemed to take on the form of a real-time collective research effort that we will refer to as bullshit accumulation.The analytic philosopher Harry Frankfurt argues that bullshit is form of knowledge-production that appears unconcerned with objective truth, and as such can be distinguished from misinformation. Frankfurt sees bullshit as “more ambitious” than misinformation defining it as “panoramic rather than particular” since it is also prepared to “fake the context”, which in his estimation makes bullshit a “greater enemy of the truth” than lies (62, 52). Through an investigation into the origins of Pizzagate on /pol/, we thus are able to understand how grammatised collective action assists in the accumulation of bullshit in the service of a kind of post-truth political protest.Bullshit Accumulation4chan has a pragmatic and paradoxical relationship with belief that has be characterised in terms of kind of quasi-religious ironic collectivism (Burton). Because of this "weaponizing [of] irony" (Wilson) it is difficult to objectively determine to what extent anons actually believed that Pizzagate was real, and in a sense it is beside the point. In combination then with the site’s aforementioned affordances, it is this peculiar relationship with the truth which thus makes /pol/ so uniquely productive of bullshit. Image 2: Original pizzagate post on 4chan/pol/When #Pizzagate started trending on Twitter on 4 November 2017, it became clear that much of the narrative, and in particular the ‘pizza connection’, was based on arcane (if not simply ridiculous) interpretations of a cache of e-mails belonging to Hillary Clinton’s campaign manager John Podesta released by Wikileaks during the final weeks of the campaign. While many of the subsequent journalistic exposé would claim that Pizzagate began on 4chan, they did not explore its origins, perhaps because of the fact that 4chan does not consistently archive its threads. Our analysis overcame this obstacle by using a third party archive, Archive4plebs, which allowed us to pinpoint the first instance of a thread (/pol/) that discussed a connection between the keyword “pizza” and the leaked e-mails (Image 2).Image 3: 4chan/pol/ Pizzagate general threadsStarting with the timestamp of the first thread, we identified a total of 18 additional general threads related to the topic of Pizzagate (see Image 3). This establishes a 25-hour timeframe in which the Pizzagate narrative was formed (from Wednesday 2 November 2016, 22:17:20, until Thursday 3 November 2016, 23:24:01). We developed a timeline (Image 4) identifying 13 key moments in the development of the Pizzagate story such as the first attempts at disseminating the narrative to other platforms such as the Reddit forum r/The_Donald a popular forum whose reactionary politics had arguably set the broader tone for the Trump campaign (Heikkila).Image 4: timeline of the birth of Pizzagate. Design by Elena Aversa, information design student at Density Design Lab.The association between the Clinton campaign and pedophilia came from another narrative on 4chan known as ‘Orgy Island’, which alleged the Clintons flew to a secret island for sex tourism aboard a private jet called "Lolita Express" owned by Jeffrey Epstein, an American financier who had served 13 months in prison for soliciting an underage prostitute. As with the Pizzagate story, this narrative also appears to have developed through the shared infrastructure of Pastebin links included in general posts (Pastebin) often alongside Wikileaks links.Image 5: Clues about “pizza” being investigatedOrgy Island and other stories were thus combined together with ‘clues’, many of which were found in the leaked Podesta e-mails, in order to imagine the connections between pedophila and pizza. It was noticed that several of Podesta’s e-mails, for example, mentioned the phrase ‘cheese pizza’ (see Image 5), which on 4chan had long been used as a code word for ‘child pornography’ , the latter which is banned from the site.Image 6: leaked Podesta e-mail from Marina AbramovicIn another leaked e-mail, for example, sent to Podesta from the renowned performance artist Marina Abramovich (see Image 6), a reference to one of her art projects, entitled ‘Spirit Cooking’ — an oblique reference to the mid-century English occultist Aleister Crowley — was interpreted as evidence of Clinton’s involvement in satanic rituals (see Image 7). In the course of this one-day period then, many if not most of the coordinates for the Pizzagate narrative were thus put into place subsequently to be amplified by a new breed of populist social media activists in protest against a corrupt Democratic establishment.Image 7: /pol/ anon’s reaction to the e-mail in Image 6During its initial inception on /pol/, there was the apparent need for visualisations in order make sense of all the data. Quite early on in the process, for example, one anon posted:my brain is exploding trying to organize the connections. Anyone have diagrams of these connections?In response, anons produced numerous conspiratorial visualisations, such as a map featuring all the child-related businesses in the neighbourhood of the D.C. pizza parlor — owned by the boyfriend of the prominent Democratic strategist David Brock — which seemed to have logos of the same general shape as the symbols apparently used by pedophiles, and whose locations seems furthermore to line up in the shape of a satanic pentagram (see Image 8). Such visualisations appear to have served three purposes: they helped anons to identify connections, they helped them circumvent 4chan’s purging process — indeed they were often hosted on third-party sites such as Imgur — and finally they helped anons to ultimately communicate the Pizzagate narrative to a broader audience.Image 8. Anonymously authored Pizzagate map revealing a secret pedophilia network in D.C.By using an inductive approach to categorise the comments in the general threads a set of non-exclusive codes emerged, which can be grouped into five overarching categories: researching, interpreting, soliciting, archiving and publishing. As visualised in Image 9, the techniques used by anons in the genesis of Pizzagate appears as a kind of vernacular rendition of many of the same “digital methods” that we use as Internet researchers. An analysis of these techniques thus helps us to understanding how a grammatised form of collective action arises out of anons’ negotiations with the affordances of 4chan — most notably the constant purging of threads — and how, in special circumstances, this can lead to bullshit accumulation.Image 9: vernacular digital methods on /pol/ ConclusionWhat this analysis ultimately reveals is how 4chan/pol/’s ephemerality affordance contributed to an environment that is remarkably productive of bullshit. As a type of knowledge-accumulation, bullshit confirms preconceived biases through appealing to emotion — this at the expense of the broader shared epistemic principles, an objective notion of “truth” that arguably forms the foundation for public reason in large and complex liberal societies (Lynch). In this sense, the bullshit of Pizzagate resonates with Hannah Arendt’s analysis of totalitarian discourse which nurtures a conspiratorial redefining of emotional truth as “whatever respectable society had hypocritically passed over, or covered with corruption" (49).As right-wing populism establishes itself evermore firmly in many countries in which technocratic liberalism had formerly held sway, the demand for emotionally satisfying post-truth, will surely keep the new online bullshit factories like /pol/ in business. 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IntroductionTwo recent romantic comedies—Friends with Benefits and Friends with Kids—seek to re-situate the cultural logics of marriage by representing that supposed impossibility: the friendship between people of different sexes. These friendships are chosen as the site for particular kinds of intimacy—sex, in one case, and parenting in another—through a rejection or disenchantment with the limitations of heteronormative approaches to relationships. This initial, but of course not final, rejection of the investment in romance is obviously not entirely unheard of in the genre of romantic comedies—indeed, ambivalence about or even rejection of romance is central to many a romcom plotline, especially on the part of men. But the shift marked by these two films lies in the explicit and thorough problematisation of the optimistic investment in the marriage-like relationship (if not marriage itself), with the couples in both films proposing that the problem lies in expecting the marriage-like relationship to live up to the expectation that it will fulfil all of their needs. Heteronormativity is a term used to capture the ways in which heterosexuality is produced as normal, natural and normative (Warner), the “straight” line, the supposed “life line,” with which everyone is expected to align (Ahmed 19-21). It is a truism to say that romantic comedies both display and reinforce heteronormativity, but as a result of their representations of it, they can also model and give voice to the anxieties, uncertainties and renegotiations that are being staged with this supposedly timeless institution. Both films, then, offer a critique not simply of heteronormativity itself, but also a critique of what Lauren Berlant names “cruel optimism.” The alignment with heteronormativity that Ahmed describes is shaped by the recognition of normative, romantic, marriage-like heterosexual relationships as “good objects,” essential to a properly “good” life. But as Berlant demonstrates, this recognition is an attachment, and one which is sincerely and overly hopeful, as this object is unable to fulfil all of these hopes. This is “cruel optimism:” a relation of attachment to compromised conditions of possibility. What is cruel about these attachments... is that the subjects who have x in their lives might not well endure the loss of their object or scene of desire, even though its presence threatens their well-being, because whatever the content of the attachment, the continuity of the form of it provides something of the continuity of the subject’s sense of what it means to keep on living on and to look forward to being in the world. (21) In other words, there are numerous aspects of life that we believe are “good,” and enhance our lives and happiness, promising futures that we consider promising. But this commitment—attachment—to believing them to be key to the good life means that we miss, more and less consciously, the fact that they are frequently not giving, and perhaps not capable of giving, us happiness. We remain optimistic, but this optimism is cruel, because even when we arrange our lives around these “goods” and what they promise, they will almost disappoint us, wearing us out, threatening our well-being and undermining our relationships. But we remain committed to them because this has come to be what we understand life to be, and these “goods” remain core to our capacity to be future-oriented. The protagonists in Friends with Kids and Friends with Benefits critique the optimism involved in being attached to marriage-like relationships, namely, the hope that they will fulfil most or all of the needs for romance, sex, intimacy, parenting and so on. As a result, they participate in the kind of creative relationship-formation that Foucault identified as the value of friendship. Thus, this critique is thorough-going, articulate and lived, especially in the dialogue-focussed Friends with Kids, and the friendships—and what they enable—are depicted in both films as transgressive and significant. The turn back towards normativity at the close of both films, then, brings with it a peculiar significance, especially for the relationship between cruel optimism and heteronormativity. Let’s Be Friends: Friendship as the Recognition of Cruel Optimism Friends with Benefits and Friends with Kids are two recent movies that, at least to begin with, explore contemporary challenges to the heteronormative monogamous coupledom formula. In both movies, a man and a woman who are already very close friends make the (apparently, according to the films, very unusual) choice to share a part of their life they usually reserve for their (potential) love-relationships: in Friends with Benefits, Jamie and Dylan begin having sex together, and in Friends with Kids, Jules and Jason have a baby together. These decisions are both made because the arrangement enables the individuals to fulfil a desire that is conventionally associated with a love-relationship, while also pursuing their love-relationships separately, enabling the fulfilment of a range of needs. This decision is a form of resistance to heteronormative requirements of love-relationships, situating intimate, different-sex friendship as a site of potential resistance in a similar way to Foucault’s description of the potentials of homosexuality: “Homosexuality is a historic occasion to reopen affective and relational virtualities... because the “slantwise” position of the [homosexual], as it were, the diagonal lines he can lay out in the social fabric allow these virtualities to come to light” (206). That is, as a result of these apparent transgressions of the usual line between friendship and relationship, both films lay out, though also undermine, some interesting critiques of heteronormative dating and married life. Throughout Friends with Benefits, Jamie and Dylan explicitly refer to, and reject, the heteronormative fantasies depicted in porn and (more often) in romantic comedies. This playful self-reflexivity has been characteristic of romantic comedies over the past few decades, so that this generic referentiality in fact becomes part of the signalling that despite the title, the film falls firmly within the genre. Indeed, the occasion of the “deal” developed by Jamie and Dylan follows the shared viewing of a made-up romantic comedy, in an echo of a number of earlier romantic comedies which also use the watching of a romantic films to situate themselves generically (McDonald 94). This kind of self-reflexivity goes beyond generic self-referentiality, however, and demonstrates both an awareness of, and engagement with, entertainment-consumption as “public pedagogy” (Giroux). Their conversation following the film critiques the role that entertainment-consumption plays, first, in the constitution of heteronormativity in its broadest sense—that is, including complementary and distinct gender roles, models for romance, models for proper heterosex, and the goal-defined temporality of dating leading to commitment—and second, in the cruel optimism involved in becoming attached to heteronormativity. In an articulation of self-aware and self-reflexively critical cruel optimism, Jamie says “God, I wish my life was a movie sometimes. You know, I'd never have to worry about my hair, or having to go to the bathroom. And then when I'm at my lowest point, some guy would chase me down the street, pour his heart out and we'd kiss. Happily ever after.” Dylan rolls his eyes over her sentimentality and suggests that women’s problematic tendency to imagine their own lives and desires through these filmic fantasies is part of what complicates sex. He suggests, that is, that women’s cruel optimism with regard to relationships unnecessarily complicates the shared fulfilment of sexual needs, because they perpetually laden such encounters with impossible hopes. This is reasonably well-trod ground for romantic comedies, with He’s Just Not That Into You, for example, both sustaining and critiquing women’s cruel optimism surrounding relationships. But uncharacteristically, Jamie challenges the implication that only women are gullible enough to form their fantasies through film, arguing that the pedagogical significance of romantic comedies for women is matched by men’s sexual education through watching porn, and their resultant inability and unwillingness to fulfil women’s hopes, not only in terms of romance, but also in terms of fulfilling sex. She suggests that the disjunction in men’s and women’s investments in heterosexual sex result from different attachments to different objects—easy, fulfilling, exciting sex in which women’s pleasure inevitably follows from men pursuing theirs, as apparently depicted in porn, and romantic, intimate, fulfilling and relationship-oriented sex, as depicted in romantic films. This shared critique becomes the grounds on which Dylan and Jamie decide to reject these norms and add the “benefits” of sex to their friendship because they don’t “like [each other] like that,” and so are able to perform the “physical act [of sex]… like a game of tennis.” Instead of retaining their attachment to the “happy objects” of the romantic relationship that will fulfil them sexually, they seek to meet their “needs” for sex while avoiding “complications… emotions… and guilt” that they associate with sex within love-relationships as a result of mismatched expectations. This critique is extended into their initial sex scene, which explicitly challenges the heteronormative Hollywood depiction of “normal” heterosexual penis-in-vagina sex which is supposed to come naturally to both parties, through the man’s activity, while the woman generally remains passive. It also challenges the generic conventions of mainstream porn, which depict men as in control, and women as extremely easily orgasmic. This depiction, then, becomes a funny and self-aware pedagogical moment which draws attention to the space that can be found in giving up the object of heteronormativity. The first lies in the challenge to heteronormative gender roles. Jamie refuses normative femininity, telling Dylan, “Since we’re just friends, I don’t need to be insecure about my body.” She also refuses the normative characterisation of women’s sexuality as passive and receptive, listing her likes and dislikes in the expectation that they will be respected: “My nipples are sensitive, I don’t like dirty talk, and if I’d known this was going to happen, I would have shaved my legs this morning.” Dylan echoes her rejection of normative gender roles, refusing hegemonic masculinity (Connell and Messerschmidt), especially in its claim to physical control, when he responds with “My chin is ticklish, I sneeze sometimes after I come, and if I’d have known this was going to happen, I wouldn’t have shaved my legs this morning.” Their friendship, then, allows them greater explicitness in their requests, refusals, demands and negotiations in the encounter, and in their appreciation and rejection of various sensations, body parts and behaviours (well beyond PIV sex) than they are permitted in the heteronormative sex they have with potential love-interests. This level of honesty and sexual agency, especially from Jamie but also from Dylan, counters heteronormative depictions of sex, and instead presents sex as an explicit negotiation. It also reveals the extent to which heteronormative dating rituals, depicted throughout the movie, frequently undermine rather than enhance communication because sex is situated as “coming naturally,” resulting in sex which is inherently compromising for all those involved, whatever their investments in the encounter. The critique of cruel optimism is well-developed and articulate in Friends with Kids, primarily because it is dialogue-heavy, and depicts some of the complex realities of parenting and relationships. The main characters, Jules and Jason, do not explicitly reject fantasies about heteronormative parenting, relationship and lifestyles, as Jamie and Dylan do. Indeed, such fantasies are implicitly recognised as unachieveable, but their focus is on avoiding the compulsory drudgery that seems to be associated with having children. They recognise the cruel optimism that leads people into conventional familial and parenting lives because their friends, the two couples of Missy and Ben, and Leslie and Alex, are already living evidence (for them, at least) of an attachment that undermines their well-being, in Berlant’s terms. Missy and Ben have a passionate history, but their relationship breaks down over the course of the film, supposedly under the pressures of “real life” (that is, life with kids). Leslie and Alex have two children, and are deeply in love, emotionally and physically exhausted, and argue very frequently. It is the difficult lives these couples live that shapes the protagonists’ decision to have a child together without being in a relationship with one another: Jason: Why don’t we just do it?… We love each other, we trust each other, we’re responsible, gainfully employed and totally not attracted to each other physically.Jules: Yeah, that’d be perfect. Beat the system.Jason: Right. We have the kid, share all the responsibility and just skip over the whole marriage and divorce nightmare. The challenge to the “happy object” of heteronormative family life is extremely explicit. When Jules and Jason announce their plan to Leslie and Alex, they refer to their friends’ situations as “tragic”, a “trap” and as ‘kill[ing] the romance.” And indeed, for at least a large portion of the movie, this pragmatic assessment and their solution to it does seem to provide them both with happiness: they both have romance with other people, while raising a child together. Leslie and Alex, however, provide a counterpoint to the challenge to cruel optimism that Jules and Jason embody. They are sympathetically depicted, with real warmth and honesty towards each other, even in the presence of their flaws, and this, as I will shortly show, becomes a way that the film holds open the possibility of the optimistic attachment to heteronormative relationship styles. But Leslie’s response to Jules and Jason’s plan to co-parent while not in a relationship together displays some of the characteristics of cruel optimism, as Berlant describes them. Alex understands Jules’s and Jason’s plan, summarising “you want to have a kid, but without all the shit that comes with marriage,” but Leslie is insulted. She argues that Jules’s and Jason’s plan is “an affront to us… to all normal people who struggle and make sacrifices and make commitments to make a relationship work, yes, it’s insulting! To us specifically and us in general… You don’t think it’s insulting to our way of life?” This appeal to a “way of life,” as a justification for struggling and making sacrifices reveals this way of life as a “continuity of the form of [attachment, which] provides something of the continuity of the subject’s sense of what it means to keep on living on and to look forward to being in the world,” as Berlant puts it. Alex responds that “We don’t exactly have a way of life, babe… it’s a brave new world!” This exchange goes to the heart of the film’s later resolution of the question of cruel optimism. It leaves open the question, resolved by Jules and Jason, about whether the heteronormative marriage and parenting style is, in fact, a normative “way of life,” an object deemed “good,” which one makes sacrifices to remain attached to or aligned with; or whether heteronormativity is the simple product of romantic feeling, a “reality” denied by Jules’s and Jason’s supposed reliance on reason and pragmatics, at least until the climax of the film. Transgression to Normativity: Romantic Feeling as Real, not Optimistic In both films, despite these robust declarations of the awareness of the traps of “cruel optimism” as attached to heteronormative love relationships, the climax is true “rom-com,” with the unusual friendships inevitably becoming love-relationships. The apparent impossibility of arranging one’s life around what Foucault identifies as a “multiplicity of relationships” (204) beyond conventional institutions becomes clear in a number of key scenes. This impossibility arises because of the recalcitrance of romantic feeling, which is situated as challenging the “sensible” and apparently overly pragmatic solutions developed by the protagonists in response to their particular situations. Despite romantic feeling being situated as problematically encouraging people to attach to normative relationship forms that continually disappoint and require compromise, both films return to romantic feeling to suggest that if you love someone else enough, that feeling will ensure that the relationship never becomes a threat to well-being; it, in other words, is the sufficient grounds for an optimism that is not cruel. Disappointment, as manifested in the worn-down Missy and Ben in Friends with Kids, and in Jamie’s hapless romance with the apparently perfect but actually manipulative and self-absorbed Parker, becomes synonymous with an optimistic misrecognition of lust for love: cruel optimism resituated as the result of personal error rather than the inadequacy of the “good object” of heteronormative marriage relationships. In other words, romantic feeling (which these same films have robustly critiqued for its role in ensuring people accept normative relationship formations which threaten their well-being, rather than working towards alternatives that suit their needs), becomes the ground for the protagonists doing precisely that. In Friends with Benefits, it is Jamie’s unconventional mother, who has herself rejected normative relationship styles, who reminds Jamie of her attachment to the “happy object” of a conventional relationship, and warns her that her friendship with Dylan might prevent her from finding her fantasied love-relationship. This motherly advice, then, functions to remind Jamie of her original optimistic attachment, and situate her current friendship—for all of her enjoyment of it—as problematic. Dylan’s sister is instead amused that Dylan’s pragmatic commitment to his friends-with-benefits arrangement with Jamie blocks his recognition that he is already in a love-relationship, brought about by his feelings for Jamie. In Friends with Kids, it is Jules’s jealousy, a hallmark of conventional monogamous coupledom, of Jason’s current love interest that becomes her “clue” that she is already in love with Jason. Jason, of course, fulfilling the heteronormative stereotype of the emotionally insensitive man, hurts her repeatedly until he, too, waiting at a red traffic light that turns green, realises that he is in love with Jules and does a U-turn. In both films, the achievement of coupledom out of friendship is treated as a successful reconfiguration of heteronormative love-relationships, beyond normativity, and certainly beyond the dangers of a cruel optimism. Heteronormative love-relationships become no longer the problem. The problem is, instead, the protagonists’ fantasies about them, their desires for more and other styles of relationships, and, most of all, the privileging of creative, pragmatic reason over the inevitable reality of their romantic feelings. In Friends with Benefits, Jamie is told that she must give up her attachment to the white-knight fantasy, and instead discover the reality of being in love with her best friend. Dylan goes down on one knee, reconfiguring the proposal scene, playing on but reconfiguring the “happy object” to which Jamie is attached, and asks “Will you be my best friend again?” following this up with “Look, I can live without ever having sex with you again… It’d be really hard. I want my best friend back because I’m in love with her.” This implies that the cruel optimism involved in the attachment to heteronormative love-relationships, which the two have critiqued together, lies solely in their fantasies about them, and not in the structure of their relationship. This is apparently the case even though the final scene involves Jamie sacrificing, apparently happily, the dream of the horse-and-carriage romantic date as depicted in the end of the made-up film watched at the beginning of their “deal.” In Friends with Kids, Jules follows her emotional reaction to Jason’s romantic life to discover her romantic feelings for him, and from this, despite their creative rethinking of relationships and friendships earlier in the film, concludes that she must be seeking a conventional, heteronormative love-relationship with him. Jason has to overcome his nightmarish fantasies about nuclear familial life and his associated aversion to conventional love-relationships in order to recognise how profoundly he loves Jules. Again, the film implies that this feeling inevitably leads to a life that is surprisingly conventional. This conventionality is even attached to heterosexual sexual intimacy, the supposed “missing piece” which distinguished their friendship from a romantic relationship. They have avoided sex together throughout their lives except for the single occasion required to conceive their son Joel, as is made clear in the final words of the film: Please, please, just let me fuck the shit out of you right now. And if you're not convinced afterwards that I am into you in every possible way a person can be into another person, then I promise I will never try to kiss you, or fuck you, or impregnate you ever again, as long as I live. It also, as with Friends with Benefits, demonstrates the apparently authentic inhabitation of heteronormative relationships through the on-the-fly allusion to marriage vows (Dylan’s going down on one knee, Jason’s “as long as I live”) in a “new” context. In both cases, then, the transgressive and creative restructuring of their intimate lives becomes a step on a teleological journey towards heteronormativity, one which situates the protagonists as uniquely able to choose, with apparent freedom from both the seemingly coercive pedagogy of both entertainment and real life, and from the cruel optimism so frequently associated with it, the “happy object” of heteronormativity. Through their counternormative creativity, then, heteronormativity is given a new lease of life, apparently the natural and inevitable outcome of love. Conclusion This exploration of the recent films Friends with Kids and Friends with Benefits has elaborated the recent turn towards depicting “unconventional” relationship and friendship styles in romantic comedies. Both films provide a critique of the cruel optimism associated with heteronormative love relationships, especially in their institutionalised form. They go beyond earlier more cynical romantic comedies such as Annie Hall, however, in that the protagonists do not merely recognise the inadequacies, compromises, sacrifices and dissatisfaction produced by going along with the fantasised “good object” of conventional marriage. Instead, as if following Foucault, they get creative with their relationship styles, reallocating certain forms of relating and sharing conventionally associated solely with the romantic relationship—sex and parenting—to their friendships. In both cases, however, the creative mode of relating becomes a temporary matter. Whilst this could have been an Annie Hall-style challenge to the ideal of stability in relationships of all kinds, and a rethinking of the problematic equation which sees relationship worth in its longevity, it instead becomes an occasion to recuperate the cruel optimism associated with heteronormativity. The rejection of “cruel optimism” is finally depicted in both films as an overly pragmatic denial of feeling, and the “threats to well-being” which have been recognised in the critique of heteronormativity are re-situated as erroneous fantasy-nightmares: apparently the marriage-like relationship is not necessarily a threat to well-being, if you choose the right partner; and on the other hand, if you are too busy creatively fulfilling your needs, you might miss the right partner—a cruel cynicism of attachment to non-normativity, perhaps. In this way, the attachment to the critique becomes situated, in the denouement of both films—namely each man recognising that they do love the woman—as the site of “cruel optimism.” For both couples, it turns out that the transgressive deployment of friendship becomes inadequate for the fulfilment of their needs apparently because of their feelings for each other, though it is never entirely clear how this stands in the way. This reproduction of the “happy object” of a marriage-style relationship, then, is primarily situated as allowing the romantic attachment to simply be whatever it “really” is. Echoing throughout these films is a recurrent theme: the claim is that participating in conventional heteronormative arrangement of love-relationships and friendships because it is dominant could, indeed, be problematic in the way that Berlant’s notion of cruel optimism clarifies. As a pedagogical form, explicitly and self-reflexively noted by Jamie and Dylan, then, this storyline “test-drives” non-normativity only to discover heteronormativity at the heart of romantic feeling. Monogamy, heteronormativity, and profoundly normative modes of relating, here, are situated not as conformity, but as both the natural outcome of a man and a woman falling in love and a choice made from a place of knowing non-normativity and its apparent inability to fulfil desires. It thus becomes possible to choose heteronormativity because it works as an expression of the truth of romantic feeling; indeed, the implication becomes that heterornormativity is not the “good object” we are, in more and less forcible ways, aligned with and required to be attached to, but the coincidentally frequent outcome of choosing romantic feeling over other needs. The critique of cruel optimism and the depiction of non-normative styles of relating thus becomes an occasion for the reconstitution of a supposed “true” optimism, guaranteed by, in rom-com terms, finding “the one.” References Ahmed, Sara. Queer Phenomenology: Orientations, Objects, Others. Durham: Duke University Press, 2006. Annie Hall. Dir. Woody Allen. MG, 1997. Berlant, Lauren.“Cruel Optimism.” Differences 17.3 (2006): 20–36. Connell, R. W., and James W. Messerschmidt. “Hegemonic Masculinity Rethinking the Concept.” Gender & Society 19.6 (2005): 829–59. Foucault, Michel. “Friendship as a Way of Life.” In Foucault Live: Interviews, 1966–84, Boston, MA: The MIT Press, 1996. 204–07. Friends with Benefits. Dir. Will Gluck, Will. Screen Gems, 2011. Friends with Kids. Dir. Jennifer Westfeldt. Roadside Attractions, 2012. Giroux, Henry. “Breaking into the Movies: Pedagogy and the Politics of Film.” JAC Online: A Journal of Rhetoric, Culture & Politics 21.3 (2001): 583–98. —. “Public Pedagogy and the Politics of Neo-liberalism: Making the Political More Pedagogical.” Policy Futures in Education 2.3 (2004): 494–503. He’s Just Not That Into You. Dir. Ken Kwapis. Newline Cinema, 2009. McDonald, Tamar Jeffers. Romantic Comedy: Boy Meets Girl Meets Genre. New York: Colombia UP, 2007. Warner, Michael. “Introduction: Fear of a Queer Planet.” Social Text 29 (1991): 3–17.

This article investigates the possibilities for understanding waste as a resource, with a particular focus on understanding food waste as a food resource. It considers the popular yeast spread Vegemite within this frame. The spread’s origins in waste product, and how it has achieved and sustained its status as a popular symbol of Australia despite half a century of Australian gastro-multiculturalism and a marked public resistance to other recycling and reuse of food products, have not yet been a focus of study. The process of producing Vegemite from waste would seem to align with contemporary moves towards recycling food waste, and ensuring environmental sustainability and food security, yet even during times of austerity and environmental concern this has not provided the company with a viable marketing strategy. Instead, advertising copywriting and a recurrent cycle of product memorialisation have created a superbrand through focusing on Vegemite’s nutrient and nostalgic value.John Scanlan notes that producing waste is a core feature of modern life, and what we dispose of as surplus to our requirements—whether this comprises material objects or more abstract products such as knowledge—reveals much about our society. In observing this, Scanlan asks us to consider the quite radical idea that waste is central to everything of significance to us: the “possibility that the surprising core of all we value results from (and creates even more) garbage (both the material and the metaphorical)” (9). Others have noted the ambivalent relationship we have with the waste we produce. C. T. Anderson notes that we are both creator and agent of its disposal. It is our ambivalence towards waste, coupled with its ubiquity, that allows waste materials to be described so variously: negatively as garbage, trash and rubbish, or more positively as by-products, leftovers, offcuts, trimmings, and recycled.This ambivalence is also crucial to understanding the affectionate relationship the Australian public have with Vegemite, a relationship that appears to exist in spite of the product’s unpalatable origins in waste. A study of Vegemite reveals that consumers can be comfortable with waste, even to the point of eating recycled waste, as long as that fact remains hidden and unmentioned. In Vegemite’s case not only has the product’s connection to waste been rendered invisible, it has been largely kept out of sight despite considerable media and other attention focusing on the product. Recycling Food Waste into Food ProductRecent work such as Elizabeth Royte’s Garbage Land and Tristram Stuart’s Waste make waste uncomfortably visible, outlining how much waste, and food waste in particular, the Western world generates and how profligately this is disposed of. Their aim is clear: a call to less extravagant and more sustainable practices. The relatively recent interest in reducing our food waste has, of course, introduced more complexity into a simple linear movement from the creation of a food product, to its acquisition or purchase, and then to its consumption and/or its disposal. Moreover, the recycling, reuse and repurposing of what has previously been discarded as waste is reconfiguring the whole idea of what waste is, as well as what value it has. The initiatives that seem to offer the most promise are those that reconfigure the way waste is understood. However, it is not only the process of transforming waste from an abject nuisance into a valued product that is central here. It is also necessary to reconfigure people’s acculturated perceptions of, and reactions to waste. Food waste is generated during all stages of the food cycle: while the raw materials are being grown; while these are being processed; when the resulting food products are being sold; when they are prepared in the home or other kitchen; and when they are only partly consumed. Until recently, the food industry in the West almost universally produced large volumes of solid and liquid waste that not only posed problems of disposal and pollution for the companies involved, but also represented a reckless squandering of total food resources in terms of both nutrient content and valuable biomass for society at large. While this is currently changing, albeit slowly, the by-products of food processing were, and often are, dumped (Stuart). In best-case scenarios, various gardening, farming and industrial processes gather household and commercial food waste for use as animal feed or as components in fertilisers (Delgado et al; Wang et al). This might, on the surface, appear a responsible application of waste, yet the reality is that such food waste often includes perfectly good fruit and vegetables that are not quite the required size, shape or colour, meat trimmings and products (such as offal) that are completely edible but extraneous to processing need, and other high grade product that does not meet certain specifications—such as the mountains of bread crusts sandwich producers discard (Hickman), or food that is still edible but past its ‘sell by date.’ In the last few years, however, mounting public awareness over the issues of world hunger, resource conservation, and the environmental and economic costs associated with food waste has accelerated efforts to make sustainable use of available food supplies and to more efficiently recycle, recover and utilise such needlessly wasted food product. This has fed into and led to multiple new policies, instances of research into, and resultant methods for waste handling and treatment (Laufenberg et al). Most straightforwardly, this involves the use or sale of offcuts, trimmings and unwanted ingredients that are “often of prime quality and are only rejected from the production line as a result of standardisation requirements or retailer specification” from one process for use in another, in such processed foods as soups, baby food or fast food products (Henningsson et al. 505). At a higher level, such recycling seeks to reclaim any reusable substances of significant food value from what could otherwise be thought of as a non-usable waste product. Enacting this is largely dependent on two elements: an available technology and being able to obtain a price or other value for the resultant product that makes the process worthwhile for the recycler to engage in it (Laufenberg et al). An example of the latter is the use of dehydrated restaurant food waste as a feedstuff for finishing pigs, a reuse process with added value for all involved as this process produces both a nutritious food substance as well as a viable way of disposing of restaurant waste (Myer et al). In Japan, laws regarding food waste recycling, which are separate from those governing other organic waste, are ensuring that at least some of food waste is being converted into animal feed, especially for the pigs who are destined for human tables (Stuart). Other recycling/reuse is more complex and involves more lateral thinking, with the by-products from some food processing able to be utilised, for instance, in the production of dyes, toiletries and cosmetics (Henningsson et al), although many argue for the privileging of food production in the recycling of foodstuffs.Brewing is one such process that has been in the reuse spotlight recently as large companies seek to minimise their waste product so as to be able to market their processes as sustainable. In 2009, for example, the giant Foster’s Group (with over 150 brands of beer, wine, spirits and ciders) proudly claimed that it recycled or reused some 91.23% of 171,000 tonnes of operational waste, with only 8.77% of this going to landfill (Foster’s Group). The treatment and recycling of the massive amounts of water used for brewing, rinsing and cooling purposes (Braeken et al.; Fillaudeaua et al.) is of significant interest, and is leading to research into areas as diverse as the development microbial fuel cells—where added bacteria consume the water-soluble brewing wastes, thereby cleaning the water as well as releasing chemical energy that is then converted into electricity (Lagan)—to using nutrient-rich wastewater as the carbon source for creating bioplastics (Yu et al.).In order for the waste-recycling-reuse loop to be closed in the best way for securing food supplies, any new product salvaged and created from food waste has to be both usable, and used, as food (Stuart)—and preferably as a food source for people to consume. There is, however, considerable consumer resistance to such reuse. Resistance to reusing recycled water in Australia has been documented by the CSIRO, which identified negative consumer perception as one of the two primary impediments to water reuse, the other being the fundamental economics of the process (MacDonald & Dyack). This consumer aversion operates even in times of severe water shortages, and despite proof of the cleanliness and safety of the resulting treated water. There was higher consumer acceptance levels for using stormwater rather than recycled water, despite the treated stormwater being shown to have higher concentrations of contaminants (MacDonald & Dyack). This reveals the extent of public resistance to the potential consumption of recycled waste product when it is labelled as such, even when this consumption appears to benefit that public. Vegemite: From Waste Product to Australian IconIn this context, the savoury yeast spread Vegemite provides an example of how food processing waste can be repurposed into a new food product that can gain a high level of consumer acceptability. It has been able to retain this status despite half a century of Australian gastronomic multiculturalism and the wide embrace of a much broader range of foodstuffs. Indeed, Vegemite is so ubiquitous in Australian foodways that it is recognised as an international superbrand, a standing it has been able to maintain despite most consumers from outside Australasia finding it unpalatable (Rozin & Siegal). However, Vegemite’s long product history is one in which its origin as recycled waste has been omitted, or at the very least, consistently marginalised.Vegemite’s history as a consumer product is narrated in a number of accounts, including one on the Kraft website, where the apocryphal and actual blend. What all these narratives agree on is that in the early 1920s Fred Walker—of Fred Walker and Company, Melbourne, canners of meat for export and Australian manufacturers of Bonox branded beef stock beverage—asked his company chemist to emulate Marmite yeast extract (Farrer). The imitation product was based, as was Marmite, on the residue from spent brewer’s yeast. This waste was initially sourced from Melbourne-based Carlton & United Breweries, and flavoured with vegetables, spices and salt (Creswell & Trenoweth). Today, the yeast left after Foster Group’s Australian commercial beer making processes is collected, put through a sieve to remove hop resins, washed to remove any bitterness, then mixed with warm water. The yeast dies from the lack of nutrients in this environment, and enzymes then break down the yeast proteins with the effect that vitamins and minerals are released into the resulting solution. Using centrifugal force, the yeast cell walls are removed, leaving behind a nutrient-rich brown liquid, which is then concentrated into a dark, thick paste using a vacuum process. This is seasoned with significant amounts of salt—although less today than before—and flavoured with vegetable extracts (Richardson).Given its popularity—Vegemite was found in 2009 to be the third most popular brand in Australia (Brand Asset Consulting)—it is unsurprising to find that the product has a significant history as an object of study in popular culture (Fiske et al; White), as a marker of national identity (Ivory; Renne; Rozin & Siegal; Richardson; Harper & White) and as an iconic Australian food, brand and product (Cozzolino; Luck; Khamis; Symons). Jars, packaging and product advertising are collected by Australian institutions such as Sydney’s Powerhouse Museum and the National Museum of Australia in Canberra, and are regularly included in permanent and travelling exhibitions profiling Australian brands and investigating how a sense of national identity is expressed through identification with these brands. All of this significant study largely focuses on how, when and by whom the product has been taken up, and how it has been consumed, rather than its links to waste, and what this circumstance could add to current thinking about recycling of food waste into other food products.It is worth noting that Vegemite was not an initial success in the Australian marketplace, but this does not seem due to an adverse public perception to waste. Indeed, when it was first produced it was in imitation of an already popular product well-known to be made from brewery by-products, hence this origin was not an issue. It was also introduced during a time when consumer relationships to waste were quite unlike today, and thrifty re-use of was a common feature of household behaviour. Despite a national competition mounted to name the product (Richardson), Marmite continued to attract more purchasers after Vegemite’s launch in 1923, so much so that in 1928, in an attempt to differentiate itself from Marmite, Vegemite was renamed “Parwill—the all Australian product” (punning on the idea that “Ma-might” but “Pa-will”) (White 16). When this campaign was unsuccessful, the original, consumer-suggested name was reinstated, but sales still lagged behind its UK-owned prototype. It was only after remaining in production for more than a decade, and after two successful marketing campaigns in the second half of the 1930s that the Vegemite brand gained some market traction. The first of these was in 1935 and 1936, when a free jar of Vegemite was offered with every sale of an item from the relatively extensive Kraft-Walker product list (after Walker’s company merged with Kraft) (White). The second was an attention-grabbing contest held in 1937, which invited consumers to compose Vegemite-inspired limericks. However, it was not the nature of the product itself or even the task set by the competition which captured mass attention, but the prize of a desirable, exotic and valuable imported Pontiac car (Richardson 61; Superbrands).Since that time, multinational media company, J Walter Thompson (now rebranded as JWT) has continued to manage Vegemite’s marketing. JWT’s marketing has never looked to Vegemite’s status as a thrifty recycler of waste as a viable marketing strategy, even in periods of austerity (such as the Depression years and the Second World War) or in more recent times of environmental concern. Instead, advertising copywriting and a recurrent cycle of cultural/media memorialisation have created a superbrand by focusing on two factors: its nutrient value and, as the brand became more established, its status as national icon. Throughout the regular noting and celebration of anniversaries of its initial invention and launch, with various commemorative events and products marking each of these product ‘birthdays,’ Vegemite’s status as recycled waste product has never been more than mentioned. Even when its 60th anniversary was marked in 1983 with the laying of a permanent plaque in Kerferd Road, South Melbourne, opposite Walker’s original factory, there was only the most passing reference to how, and from what, the product manufactured at the site was made. This remained the case when the site itself was prioritised for heritage listing almost twenty years later in 2001 (City of Port Phillip).Shying away from the reality of this successful example of recycling food waste into food was still the case in 1990, when Kraft Foods held a nationwide public campaign to recover past styles of Vegemite containers and packaging, and then donated their collection to Powerhouse Museum. The Powerhouse then held an exhibition of the receptacles and the historical promotional material in 1991, tracing the development of the product’s presentation (Powerhouse Museum), an occasion that dovetailed with other nostalgic commemorative activities around the product’s 70th birthday. Although the production process was noted in the exhibition, it is noteworthy that the possibilities for recycling a number of the styles of jars, as either containers with reusable lids or as drinking glasses, were given considerably more notice than the product’s origins as a recycled product. By this time, it seems, Vegemite had become so incorporated into Australian popular memory as a product in its own right, and with such a rich nostalgic history, that its origins were no longer of any significant interest or relevance.This disregard continued in the commemorative volume, The Vegemite Cookbook. With some ninety recipes and recipe ideas, the collection contains an almost unimaginably wide range of ways to use Vegemite as an ingredient. There are recipes on how to make the definitive Vegemite toast soldiers and Vegemite crumpets, as well as adaptations of foreign cuisines including pastas and risottos, stroganoffs, tacos, chilli con carne, frijole dip, marinated beef “souvlaki style,” “Indian-style” chicken wings, curries, Asian stir-fries, Indonesian gado-gado and a number of Chinese inspired dishes. Although the cookbook includes a timeline of product history illustrated with images from the major advertising campaigns that runs across 30 pages of the book, this timeline history emphasises the technological achievement of Vegemite’s creation, as opposed to the matter from which it orginated: “In a Spartan room in Albert Park Melbourne, 20 year-old food technologist Cyril P. Callister employed by Fred Walker, conducted initial experiments with yeast. His workplace was neither kitchen nor laboratory. … It was not long before this rather ordinary room yielded an extra-ordinary substance” (2). The Big Vegemite Party Book, described on its cover as “a great book for the Vegemite fan … with lots of old advertisements from magazines and newspapers,” is even more openly nostalgic, but similarly includes very little regarding Vegemite’s obviously potentially unpalatable genesis in waste.Such commemorations have continued into the new century, each one becoming more self-referential and more obviously a marketing strategy. In 2003, Vegemite celebrated its 80th birthday with the launch of the “Spread the Smile” campaign, seeking to record the childhood reminisces of adults who loved Vegemite. After this, the commemorative anniversaries broke free from even the date of its original invention and launch, and began to celebrate other major dates in the product’s life. In this way, Kraft made major news headlines when it announced that it was trying to locate the children who featured in the 1954 “Happy little Vegemites” campaign as part of the company’s celebrations of the 50th anniversary of the television advertisement. In October 2006, these once child actors joined a number of past and current Kraft employees to celebrate the supposed production of the one-billionth jar of Vegemite (Rood, "Vegemite Spreads" & "Vegemite Toasts") but, once again, little about the actual production process was discussed. In 2007, the then iconic marching band image was resituated into a contemporary setting—presumably to mobilise both the original messages (nutritious wholesomeness in an Australian domestic context) as well as its heritage appeal. Despite the real interest at this time in recycling and waste reduction, the silence over Vegemite’s status as recycled, repurposed food waste product continued.Concluding Remarks: Towards Considering Waste as a ResourceIn most parts of the Western world, including Australia, food waste is formally (in policy) and informally (by consumers) classified, disposed of, or otherwise treated alongside garden waste and other organic materials. Disposal by individuals, industry or local governments includes a range of options, from dumping to composting or breaking down in anaerobic digestion systems into materials for fertiliser, with food waste given no special status or priority. Despite current concerns regarding the security of food supplies in the West and decades of recognising that there are sections of all societies where people do not have enough to eat, it seems that recycling food waste into food that people can consume remains one of the last and least palatable solutions to these problems. This brief study of Vegemite has attempted to show how, despite the growing interest in recycling and sustainability, the focus in both the marketing of, and public interest in, this iconic and popular product appears to remain rooted in Vegemite’s nutrient and nostalgic value and its status as a brand, and firmly away from any suggestion of innovative and prudent reuse of waste product. That this is so for an already popular product suggests that any initiatives that wish to move in this direction must first reconfigure not only the way waste itself is seen—as a valuable product to be used, rather than as a troublesome nuisance to be disposed of—but also our own understandings of, and reactions to, waste itself.Acknowledgements Many thanks to the reviewers for their perceptive, useful, and generous comments on this article. All errors are, of course, my own. The research for this work was carried out with funding from the Faculty of Arts, Business, Informatics and Education, CQUniversity, Australia.ReferencesAnderson, C. T. “Sacred Waste: Ecology, Spirit, and the American Garbage Poem.” Interdisciplinary Studies in Literature and Environment 17 (2010): 35-60.Blake, J. The Vegemite Cookbook: Delicious Recipe Ideas. Melbourne: Ark Publishing, 1992.Braeken, L., B. Van der Bruggen and C. 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Background “The sense of taste,” write Nelson and colleagues in a 2002 issue of Nature, “provides animals with valuable information about the nature and quality of food. Mammals can recognize and respond to a diverse repertoire of chemical entities, including sugars, salts, acids and a wide range of toxic substances” (199). The authors go on to argue that several amino acids—the building blocks of proteins—taste delicious to humans and that “having a taste pathway dedicated to their detection probably had significant evolutionary implications”. They imply, but do not specify, that the evolutionary implications are positive. This may be the case with some amino acids, but contemporary tastes, and changes in them, are far from universally beneficial. Indeed, this article argues that modern food production shapes and distorts human taste with significant implications for health and wellbeing. Take the western taste for fried chipped potatoes, for example. According to Schlosser in Fast Food Nation, “In 1960, the typical American ate eighty-one pounds of fresh potatoes and about four pounds of frozen french fries. Today [2002] the typical American eats about forty-nine pounds of fresh potatoes every year—and more than thirty pounds of frozen french fries” (115). Nine-tenths of these chips are consumed in fast food restaurants which use mass-manufactured potato-based frozen products to provide this major “foodservice item” more quickly and cheaply than the equivalent dish prepared from raw ingredients. These choices, informed by human taste buds, have negative evolutionary implications, as does the apparently long-lasting consumer preference for fried goods cooked in trans-fats. “Numerous foods acquire their elastic properties (i.e., snap, mouth-feel, and hardness) from the colloidal fat crystal network comprised primarily of trans- and saturated fats. These hardstock fats contribute, along with numerous other factors, to the global epidemics related to metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease,” argues Michael A. Rogers (747). Policy makers and public health organisations continue to compare notes internationally about the best ways in which to persuade manufacturers and fast food purveyors to reduce the use of these trans-fats in their products (L’Abbé et al.), however, most manufacturers resist. Hank Cardello, a former fast food executive, argues that “many products are designed for ‘high hedonic value’, with carefully balanced combinations of salt, sugar and fat that, experience has shown, induce people to eat more” (quoted, Trivedi 41). Fortunately for the manufactured food industry, salt and sugar also help to preserve food, effectively prolonging the shelf life of pre-prepared and packaged goods. Physiological Factors As Glanz et al. discovered when surveying 2,967 adult Americans, “taste is the most important influence on their food choices, followed by cost” (1118). A person’s taste is to some extent an individual response to food stimuli, but the tongue’s taste buds respond to five basic categories of food: salty, sweet, sour, bitter, and umami. ‘Umami’ is a Japanese word indicating “delicious savoury taste” (Coughlan 11) and it is triggered by the amino acid glutamate. Japanese professor Kikunae Ikeda identified glutamate while investigating the taste of a particular seaweed which he believed was neither sweet, sour, bitter, or salty. When Ikeda combined the glutamate taste essence with sodium he formed the food additive sodium glutamate, which was patented in 1908 and subsequently went into commercial production (Japan Patent Office). Although individual, a person’s taste preferences are by no means fixed. There is ample evidence that people’s tastes are being distorted by modern food marketing practices that process foods to make them increasingly appealing to the average palate. In particular, this industrialisation of food promotes the growth of a snack market driven by salty and sugary foods, popularly constructed as posing a threat to health and wellbeing. “[E]xpanding waistlines [are] fuelled by a boom in fast food and a decline in physical activity” writes Stark, who reports upon the 2008 launch of a study into Australia’s future ‘fat bomb’. As Deborah Lupton notes, such reports were a particular feature of the mid 2000s when: intense concern about the ‘obesity epidemic’ intensified and peaked. Time magazine named 2004 ‘The Year of Obesity’. That year the World Health Organization’s Global Strategy on Diet, Physical Activity and Health was released and the [US] Centers for Disease Control predicted that a poor diet and lack of exercise would soon claim more lives than tobacco-related disease in the United States. (4) The American Heart Association recommends eating no more than 1500mg of salt per day (Hamzelou 11) but salt consumption in the USA averages more than twice this quantity, at 3500mg per day (Bernstein and Willett 1178). In the UK, a sustained campaign and public health-driven engagement with food manufacturers by CASH—Consensus Action on Salt and Health—resulted in a reduction of between 30 and 40 percent of added salt in processed foods between 2001 and 2011, with a knock-on 15 percent decline in the UK population’s salt intake overall. This is the largest reduction achieved by any developed nation (Brinsden et al.). “According to the [UK’s] National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE), this will have reduced [UK] stroke and heart attack deaths by a minimum of 9,000 per year, with a saving in health care costs of at least £1.5bn a year” (MacGregor and Pombo). Whereas there has been some success over the past decade in reducing the amount of salt consumed, in the Western world the consumption of sugar continues to rise, as a graph cited in the New Scientist indicates (O’Callaghan). Regular warnings that sugar is associated with a range of health threats and delivers empty calories devoid of nutrition have failed to halt the increase in sugar consumption. Further, although some sugar is a natural product, processed foods tend to use a form invented in 1957: high-fructose corn syrup (HFCS). “HFCS is a gloopy solution of glucose and fructose” writes O’Callaghan, adding that it is “as sweet as table sugar but has typically been about 30% cheaper”. She cites Serge Ahmed, a French neuroscientist, as arguing that in a world of food sufficiency people do not need to consume more, so they need to be enticed to overeat by making food more pleasurable. Ahmed was part of a team that ran an experiment with cocaine-addicted rats, offering them a mutually exclusive choice between highly-sweetened water and cocaine: Our findings clearly indicate that intense sweetness can surpass cocaine reward, even in drug-sensitized and -addicted individuals. We speculate that the addictive potential of intense sweetness results from an inborn hypersensitivity to sweet tastants. In most mammals, including rats and humans, sweet receptors evolved in ancestral environments poor in sugars and are thus not adapted to high concentrations of sweet tastants. The supranormal stimulation of these receptors by sugar-rich diets, such as those now widely available in modern societies, would generate a supranormal reward signal in the brain, with the potential to override self-control mechanisms and thus lead to addiction. (Lenoir et al.) The Tongue and the Brain One of the implications of this research about the mammalian desire for sugar is that our taste for food is about more than how these foods actually taste in the mouth on our tongues. It is also about the neural response to the food we eat. The taste of French fries thus also includes that “snap, mouth-feel, and hardness” and the “colloidal fat crystal network” (Rogers, “Novel Structuring” 747). While there is no taste receptor for fats, these nutrients have important effects upon the brain. Wang et al. offered rats a highly fatty, but palatable, diet and allowed them to eat freely. 33 percent of the calories in the food were delivered via fat, compared with 21 percent in a normal diet. The animals almost doubled their usual calorific intake, both because the food had a 37 percent increased calorific content and also because the rats ate 47 percent more than was standard (2786). The research team discovered that in as little as three days the rats “had already lost almost all of their ability to respond to leptin” (Martindale 27). Leptin is a hormone that acts on the brain to communicate feelings of fullness, and is thus important in assisting animals to maintain a healthy body weight. The rats had also become insulin resistant. “Severe resistance to the metabolic effects of both leptin and insulin ensued after just 3 days of overfeeding” (Wang et al. 2786). Fast food restaurants typically offer highly palatable, high fat, high sugar, high salt, calorific foods which can deliver 130 percent of a day’s recommended fat intake, and almost a day’s worth of an adult man’s calories, in one meal. The impacts of maintaining such a diet over a comparatively short time-frame have been recorded in documentaries such as Super Size Me (Spurlock). The after effects of what we widely call “junk food” are also evident in rat studies. Neuroscientist Paul Kenny, who like Ahmed was investigating possible similarities between food- and cocaine-addicted rats, allowed his animals unlimited access to both rat ‘junk food’ and healthy food for rats. He then changed their diets. “The rats with unlimited access to junk food essentially went on a hunger strike. ‘It was as if they had become averse to healthy food’, says Kenny. It took two weeks before the animals began eating as much [healthy food] as those in the control group” (quoted, Trivedi 40). Developing a taste for certain food is consequently about much more than how they taste in the mouth; it constitutes an individual’s response to a mixture of taste, hormonal reactions and physiological changes. Choosing Health Glanz et al. conclude their study by commenting that “campaigns attempting to change people’s perception of the importance of nutrition will be interpreted in terms of existing values and beliefs. A more promising strategy might be to stress the good taste of healthful foods” (1126). Interestingly, this is the strategy already adopted by some health-focused cookbooks. I have 66 cookery books in my kitchen. None of ten books sampled from the five spaces in which these books are kept had ‘taste’ as an index entry, but three books had ‘taste’ in their titles: The Higher Taste, Taste of Life, and The Taste of Health. All three books seek to promote healthy eating, and they all date from the mid-1980s. It might be that taste is not mentioned in cookbook indexes because it is a sine qua non: a focus upon taste is so necessary and fundamental to a cookbook that it goes without saying. Yet, as the physiological evidence makes clear, what we find palatable is highly mutable, varying between people, and capable of changing significantly in comparatively short periods of time. The good news from the research studies is that the changes wrought by high salt, high sugar, high fat diets need not be permanent. Luciano Rossetti, one of the authors on Wang et al’s paper, told Martindale that the physiological changes are reversible, but added a note of caution: “the fatter a person becomes the more resistant they will be to the effects of leptin and the harder it is to reverse those effects” (27). Morgan Spurlock’s experience also indicates this. In his case it took the actor/director 14 months to lose the 11.1 kg (13 percent of his body mass) that he gained in the 30 days of his fast-food-only experiment. Trivedi was more fortunate, stating that, “After two weeks of going cold turkey, I can report I have successfully kicked my ice cream habit” (41). A reader’s letter in response to Trivedi’s article echoes this observation. She writes that “the best way to stop the craving was to switch to a diet of vegetables, seeds, nuts and fruits with a small amount of fish”, adding that “cravings stopped in just a week or two, and the diet was so effective that I no longer crave junk food even when it is in front of me” (Mackeown). Popular culture indicates a range of alternative ways to resist food manufacturers. In the West, there is a growing emphasis on organic farming methods and produce (Guthman), on sl called Urban Agriculture in the inner cities (Mason and Knowd), on farmers’ markets, where consumers can meet the producers of the food they eat (Guthrie et al.), and on the work of advocates of ‘real’ food, such as Jamie Oliver (Warrin). Food and wine festivals promote gourmet tourism along with an emphasis upon the quality of the food consumed, and consumption as a peak experience (Hall and Sharples), while environmental perspectives prompt awareness of ‘food miles’ (Weber and Matthews), fair trade (Getz and Shreck) and of land degradation, animal suffering, and the inequitable use of resources in the creation of the everyday Western diet (Dare, Costello and Green). The burgeoning of these different approaches has helped to stimulate a commensurate growth in relevant disciplinary fields such as Food Studies (Wessell and Brien). One thing that all these new ways of looking at food and taste have in common is that they are options for people who feel they have the right to choose what and when to eat; and to consume the tastes they prefer. This is not true of all groups of people in all countries. Hiding behind the public health campaigns that encourage people to exercise and eat fresh fruit and vegetables are the hidden “social determinants of health: The conditions in which people are born, grow, live, work and age, including the health system” (WHO 45). As the definitions explain, it is the “social determinants of health [that] are mostly responsible for health iniquities” with evidence from all countries around the world demonstrating that “in general, the lower an individual’s socioeconomic position, the worse his or her health” (WHO 45). For the comparatively disadvantaged, it may not be the taste of fast food that attracts them but the combination of price and convenience. If there is no ready access to cooking facilities, or safe food storage, or if a caregiver is simply too time-poor to plan and prepare meals for a family, junk food becomes a sensible choice and its palatability an added bonus. For those with the education, desire, and opportunity to break free of the taste for salty and sugary fats, however, there are a range of strategies to achieve this. There is a persuasive array of evidence that embracing a plant-based diet confers a multitude of health benefits for the individual, for the planet and for the animals whose lives and welfare would otherwise be sacrificed to feed us (Green, Costello and Dare). Such a choice does involve losing the taste for foods which make up the lion’s share of the Western diet, but any sense of deprivation only lasts for a short time. The fact is that our sense of taste responds to the stimuli offered. It may be that, notwithstanding the desires of Jamie Oliver and the like, a particular child never will never get to like broccoli, but it is also the case that broccoli tastes differently to me, seven years after becoming a vegan, than it ever did in the years in which I was omnivorous. When people tell me that they would love to adopt a plant-based diet but could not possibly give up cheese, it is difficult to reassure them that the pleasure they get now from that specific cocktail of salty fats will be more than compensated for by the sheer exhilaration of eating crisp, fresh fruits and vegetables in the future. Conclusion For decades, the mass market food industry has tweaked their products to make them hyper-palatable and difficult to resist. They do this through marketing experiments and consumer behaviour research, schooling taste buds and brains to anticipate and relish specific cocktails of sweet fats (cakes, biscuits, chocolate, ice cream) and salty fats (chips, hamburgers, cheese, salted nuts). They add ingredients to make these products stimulate taste buds more effectively, while also producing cheaper items with longer life on the shelves, reducing spoilage and the complexity of storage for retailers. Consumers are trained to like the tastes of these foods. Bitter, sour, and umami receptors are comparatively under-stimulated, with sweet, salty, and fat-based tastes favoured in their place. Western societies pay the price for this learned preference in high blood pressure, high cholesterol, diabetes, and obesity. Public health advocate Bruce Neal and colleagues, working to reduce added salt in processed foods, note that the food and manufacturing industries can now provide most of the calories that the world needs to survive. “The challenge now”, they argue, “is to have these same industries provide foods that support long and healthy adult lives. And in this regard there remains a very considerable way to go”. If the public were to believe that their sense of taste is mutable and has been distorted for corporate and industrial gain, and if they were to demand greater access to natural foods in their unprocessed state, then that journey towards a healthier future might be far less protracted than these and many other researchers seem to believe. References Bernstein, Adam, and Walter Willett. “Trends in 24-Hr Sodium Excretion in the United States, 1957–2003: A Systematic Review.” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 92 (2010): 1172–1180. Bhaktivedanta Book Trust. 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Through my last lengthy writing project, it did not take long to I realise I had become obsessed with paths. The proof of it was there in my notebooks, and, most prominently, in the backlog of photographs cluttering the inner workings of my mobile phone. Most of the photographs I took had a couple of things in common: first, the astonishing greenness of the world they were describing; second, the way a road or path or corridor or pavement or trail led off into distance. The greenness was because I was in England, in summer, and mostly in a part of the country where green seems at times the only colour. I am not sure what it was about tailing perspective that caught me.Image 1: a) Undercliffe Cemetery, Bradford; b) Undercliffe Cemetery, Bradfordc) Leeds Road, Otley; d) Shibden Park, Halifax Image 2: a) Runswick Bay; b) St. Mary's Churchyard, Habberleyc) The Habberley Road, to Pontesbury; d) Todmorden, path to Stoodley Pike I was working on a kind of family memoir, tied up in my grandmother’s last days, which were also days I spent marching through towns and countryside I once knew, looking for clues about a place and its past. I had left the north-west of England a decade or so before, and I was grappling with what James Wood calls “homelooseness”, a sensation of exile that even economic migrants like myself encounter. It is a particular kind of “secular homelessness” in which “the ties that might bind one to Home have been loosened” (105-106). Loosened irrevocably, I might add. The kind of wandering which I embarked on is not unique. Wood describes it in himself, and in the work of W.G. Sebald—a writer who, he says, “had an exquisite sense of the varieties of not-belonging” (106).I walked a lot, mostly on paths I used to know. And when, later, I counted up the photographs I had taken of that similar-but-different scene, there were almost 500 of them, none of which I can bring myself to delete. Some were repeated, or nearly so—I had often tried to make sure the path in the frame was centred in the middle of the screen. Most of the pictures were almost entirely miscellaneous, and if it were not for a feature on my phone I could not work out how to turn off (that feature which tracks where each photograph was taken) I would not have much idea of what each picture represented. What’s clear is that there was some lingering significance, some almost-tangible metaphor, in the way I was recording the walking I was doing. This same significance is there, too (in an almost quantifiable way), in the thesis I was working on while I was taking the photographs: I used the word “path” 63 times in the version I handed to examiners, not counting all the times I could have, but chose not to—all the “pavements”, “trails”, “roads”, and “holloways” of it would add up to a number even more substantial. For instance, the word “walk”, or derivatives of it, comes up 115 times. This article is designed to ask why. I aim to focus on that metaphor, on that significance, and unpack the way life writing can intersect with both the journey of a life being lived, and the process of writing down that life (by process of writing I sometimes mean anything but: I mean the process of working towards the writing. Of going, of doing, of talking, of spending, of working, of thinking, of walking). I came, in the thesis, to view certain kinds of prose as a way of imitating the rhythms of the mind, but I think there’s something about that rhythm which associates it with the feet as well. Rebecca Solnit thinks so too, or, at least, that the processes of thinking and walking can wrap around each other, helixed or concatenated. In Wanderlust she says that:the rhythm of walking generates a kind of rhythm of thinking, and the passage through a landscape echoes or stimulates the passage through a series of thoughts. This creates an odd consonance between internal and external passage, one that suggests that the mind is also a landscape of sorts and that walking is one way to traverse it. (5-6)The “odd consonance” Solnit speaks of is a kind of seamlessness between the internal and external; it is something which can be aped on the page. And, in this way, prose can imitate the mind thinking. This way of writing is evident in the digression-filled, wandering, sinuous sentences of W.G. Sebald, and of Marcel Proust as well. I don’t want to entangle myself in the question of whether Proust and Sebald count as life writers here. I used them as models, and, at the very least, I think their prose manipulates the conceits of the autobiographical pact. In fact, Sebald often refused to label his own work; once he called his writing “prose [...] of indefinite form” (Franklin 123). My definition of life writing is, thus, indefinite, and merely indicates the field in which I work and know best.Edmund White, when writing on Proust, suggested that every page of Remembrance of Things Past—while only occasionally being a literal page of Proust’s mind thinking—is, nevertheless, “a transcript of a mind thinking [...] the fully orchestrated, ceaseless, and disciplined ruminations of one mind, one voice” (138). Ceaselessness, seamlessness ... there’s also a viscosity to this kind of prose—Virginia Woolf called it “impassioned”, and spoke of the way some prosecan lick up with its long glutinous tongue the most minute fragments of fact and mass them into the most subtle labyrinths, and listen silently at doors behind which only a murmur, only a whisper, is to be heard. With all the suppleness of a tool which is in constant use it can follow the windings and record the changes which are typical of the modern mind. To this, with Proust and Dostoevsky behind us, we must agree. (20)When I read White and Woolf it seemed they could have been talking about Sebald, too: everything in Sebald’s oeuvre is funnelled through what White described in Remembrance as the cyclopean “I” at the centre of the Proustian consciousness (138). The same could be said about Sebald: as Lynne Schwartz says, “All Sebald’s characters sound like the narrator” (15). And that narrator has very particular qualities, encouraged by the sense of homelooseness Wood describes: the Sebald narrator is a wanderer, by train through Italian cities and New York Suburbs, on foot through the empty reaches of the English countryside, exploring the history of each settlement he passes through [...] Wherever he travels, he finds strangely vacant streets and roads, not a soul around [...] Sebald’s books are famously strewn with evocative, gloomy black-and-white photographs that call up the presence of the dead, of vanished places, and also serve as proofs of his passage. (Schwartz 14) I tried to resist the urge to take photographs, for the simple reason that I knew I could not include them all in the finished thesis—even including some would seem (perhaps) derivative. But this method of wandering—whether on the page or in the world—was formative for me. And the linkage between thinking and walking, and walking and writing, and writing and thinking is worth exploring, if only to identify some reason for that need to show proof of passage.Walking in Proust and Sebald either forms the shape of narrative, or one its cruxes. Both found ways to let walking affect the rhythm, movement, motivation, and even the aesthetic of their prose. Sebald’s The Rings of Saturn, for example, is plotless because of the way it follows its narrator on a walking tour of Suffolk. The effect is similar to something Murray Baumgarten noticed in one of Sebald’s other books, The Emigrants: “The [Sebaldian] narrator discovers in the course of his travels (and with him the reader) that he is constructing the text he is reading, a text at once being imagined and destroyed, a fragment of the past, and a ruin that haunts the present” (268). Proust’s opus is a meditation on the different ways we can walk. Remembrance is a book about momentum—a book about movement. It is a book which always forges forward, but which always faces backward, where time and place can still and footsteps be paused in motion, or tiptoed upstairs and across tables or be caught in flight over the body of an octogenarian lying on a beach. And it is the walks of the narrator’s past—his encounters with landscape—that give his present (and future) thoughts impetus: the rhythms of his long-past progress still affect the way he moves and acts and thinks, and will always do so:the “Méséglise way” and the “Guermantes way” remain for me linked with many of the little incidents of that one of all the divers lives along whose parallel lines we are moved, which is the most abundant in sudden reverses of fortune, the richest in episodes; I mean the life of the mind [...] [T]he two “ways” give to those [impressions of the mind] a foundation, depth, a dimension lacking from the rest. They invest them, too, with a charm, a significance which is for me alone. (Swann’s Way 252-255)The two “ways”—walks in and around the town of Combray—are, for the narrator, frames through which he thinks about his childhood, and all the things which happened to him because of that childhood. I felt something similar through the process of writing my thesis: a need to allow the 3-mile-per-hour-connection between mind and body and place that Solnit speaks about seep into my work. I felt the stirrings of old ways; the places I once walked, which I photographed and paced, pulsed and pushed me forwards in the present and towards the future. I felt strangely attached to, and disconnected from, those pathways: lanes where I had rummaged for conkers; streets my grandparents had once lived and worked on; railways demolished because of roads which now existed, leaving only long, straight pathways through overgrown countryside suffused with time and memory. The oddness I felt might be an effect of what Wood describes as a “certain doubleness”, “where homesickness is a kind of longing for Britain and an irritation with Britain: sickness for and sickness of” (93-94). The model of seamless prose offered some way to articulate, at least, the particularities of this condition, and of the problem of connection—whether with place or the past. But it is in this shift away from conclusiveness, which occurs when the writer constructs-as-they-write, that Baumgarten sees seamlessness:rather than the defined edges, boundaries, and conventional perceptions promised by realism, and the efficient account of intention, action, causation, and conclusion implied by the stance of realistic prose, reader and narrator have to assimilate the past and present in a dream state in which they blend imperceptibly into each other. (277)It’s difficult to articulate the way in which the connection between walking, writing, and thinking works. Solnit draws one comparison, talking to the ways in which digression and association mix:as a literary structure, the recounted walk encourages digression and association, in contrast to the stricter form of a discourse or the chronological progression of a biographical or historical narrative [...] James Joyce and Virginia Woolf would, in trying to describe the workings of the mind, develop of style called stream of consciousness. In their novels Ulysses and Mrs Dalloway, the jumble of thoughts and recollections of their protagonists unfolds best during walks. This kind of unstructured, associative thinking is the kind most often connected to walking, and it suggests walking as not an analytical but an improvisational act. (21)I think the key, here, is the notion of association—in the making of connections, and, in my case, in the making of connections between present and past. When we walk we exist in a roving state, and with a dual purpose: Sophie Cunningham says that we walk to get from one place to the next, but also to insist that “what lies between our point of departure and our destination is important. We create connection. We pay attention to detail, and these details plant us firmly in the day, in the present” (Cunningham). The slipperiness of homelooseness can be emphasised in the slipperiness of seamless prose, and walking—situating self in the present—is a rebuttal of slipperiness (if, as I will argue, a rebuttal which has at its heart a contradiction: it is both effective and ineffective. It feels as close as is possible to something impossible to attain). Solnit argues that walking and what she calls “personal, descriptive, and specific” writing are suited to each other:walking is itself a way of grounding one’s thoughts in a personal and embodied experience of the world that it lends itself to this kind of writing. This is why the meaning of walking is mostly discussed elsewhere than in philosophy: in poetry, novels, letters, diaries, travellers’ accounts, and first-person essays. (26)If a person is searching for some kind of possible-impossible grounding in the past, then walking pace is the pace at which to achieve that sensation (both in the world and on the page). It is at walking pace that connections can be made, even if they can be sensed slipping away: this is the Janus-faced problem of attempting to uncover anything which has been. The search, in fact, becomes facsimile for the past itself, or for the inconclusiveness of the past. In my own work—in preparing for that work—I walked and wrote about walking up the flank of the hill which hovered above the house in which I lived before I left England. To get to the top, and the great stone monument which sits there, I had to pass that house. The door was open, and that was enough to unsettle. Baumgarten, again on The Emigrants, articulates the effect: “unresolved, fragmented, incomplete, relying on shards for evidence, the narrator insists on the inconclusiveness of his experience: rather than arriving at a conclusion, narrator and reader are left disturbed” (269).Sebald writes in his usual intense way about a Swiss writer, Robert Walser, who he calls le promeneur solitaire (“The Solitary Walker”). Walser was a prolific writer, but through the last years of his life wrote less and less until he ended up incapable of doing so: in the end, Sebald says, “the traces Robert Walser left on his path through life were so faint as to have almost been effaced altogether” (119).Sebald draws parallels between Walser and his own grandfather. Both have worked their way into Sebald’s prose, along with the author himself. Because of this cocktail, I’ve come to read Sebald’s thoughts on Walser as sideways thoughts on his own prose (perhaps due to that cyclopean quality described by White). The works of the two writers share, at the very least, a certain incandescent ephemerality—a quality which exists in Sebald’s work, crystallised in the form and formlessness of a wasps’ nest. The wasps’ nest is a symbol Sebald uses in his book Vertigo, and which he talks to in an interview with Sarah Kafatou:do you know what a wasp’s nest is like? It’s made of something much much thinner than airmail paper: grey and as thin as possible. This gets wrapped around and around like pastry, like a millefeuille, and can get as big as two feet across. It weighs nothing. For me the wasp’s nest is a kind of ideal vision: an object that is extremely complicated and intricate, made out of something that hardly exists. (32)It is in this ephemerality that the walker’s way of moving—if not their journey—can be felt. The ephemerality is necessary because of the way the world is: the way it always passes. A work which is made to seem to encompass everything, like Remembrance of Things Past, is made to do so because that is the nature of what walking offers: an ability to comprehend the world solidly, both minutely and vastly, but with a kind of forgetting attached to it. When a person walks through the world they are firmly embedded in it, yes, but they are also always enacting a process of forgetting where they have been. This continual interplay between presence and absence is evidenced in the way in which Sebald and Proust build the consciousnesses they shape on the page—consciousnessess accustomed to connectedness. According to Sebald, it was through the prose of Walser that he learned this—or, at least, through an engagement with Walser’s world, Sebald, “slowly learned to grasp how everything is connected across space and time” (149). Perhaps it can be seen in the way that the Méséglise and Guermantes ways resonate for the Proustian narrator even when they are gone. Proust’s narrator receives a letter from an old love, in the last volume of Remembrance, which describes the fate of the Méséglise way (Swann’s way, that is—the title of the first volume in the sequence). Gilberte tells him that the battlefields of World War I have overtaken the paths they used to walk:the little road you so loved, the one we called the stiff Hawthorn climb, where you professed to be in love with me when you were a child, when all the time I was in love with you, I cannot tell you how important that position is. The great wheatfield in which it ended is the famous “slope 307,” the name you have so often seen recorded in the communiqués. The French blew up the little bridge over the Vivonne which, you remember, did not bring back your childhood to you as much as you would have liked. The Germans threw others across; during a year and a half they held one half of Combray and the French the other. (Time Regained 69-70)Lia Purpura describes, and senses, a similar kind of connectedness. The way in which each moment builds into something—into the ephemeral, shifting self of a person walking through the world—is emphasised because that is the way the world works:I could walk for miles right now, fielding all that passes through, rubs off, lends a sense of being—that rush of moments, objects, sensations so much like a cloud of gnats, a cold patch in the ocean, dust motes in a ray of sun that roil, gather, settle around my head and make up the daily weather of a self. (x)This is what seamless prose can emulate: the rush of moments and the folds and shapes which dust turns and makes. And, well, I am aware that this may seem a grand kind of conclusion, and even a peculiarly nonspecific one. But nonspecificity is built by a culmination of details, of sentences—it is built deliberately, to evoke a sense of looseness in the world. And in the associations which result, through the mind of the writer, their narrator, and the reader, much more than is evident on the page—Sebald’s “everything”—is flung to the surface. Of course, this “everything” is split through with the melancholy evident in the destruction of the Méséglise way. Nonspecificity becomes the result of any attempt to capture the past—or, at least, the past becomes less tangible the longer, closer, and slower your attempt to grasp it. In both Sebald and Proust the task of representation is made to feel seamless in echo of the impossibility of resolution.In the unbroken track of a sentence lies a metaphor for the way in which life is spent: under threat, forever assaulted by the world and the senses, and forever separated from what came before. The walk-as-method is entangled with the mind thinking and the pen writing; each apes the other, and all work towards the same kind of end: an articulation of how the world is. At least, in the hands of Sebald and Proust and through their long and complex prosodies, it does. For both there is a kind of melancholy attached to this articulation—perhaps because the threads that bind sever as well. The Rings of Saturn offers a look at this. The book closes with a chapter on the weaving of silk, inflected, perhaps, with a knowledge of the ways in which Robert Walser—through attempts to ensnare some of life’s ephemerality—became a victim of it:That weavers in particular, together with scholars and writers with whom they had much in common, tended to suffer from melancholy and all the evils associated with it, is understandable given the nature of their work, which forced them to sit bent over, day after day, straining to keep their eye on the complex patterns they created. It is difficult to imagine the depths of despair into which those can be driven who, even after the end of the working day, are engrossed in their intricate designs and who are pursued, into their dreams, by the feeling that they have got hold of the wrong thread. (283)Vladimir Nabokov, writing on Swann’s Way, gives a competing metaphor for thinking through the seamlessness afforded by walking and writing. It is, altogether, more optimistic: more in keeping with Purpura’s interpretation of connectedness: “Proust’s conversations and his descriptions merge into one another, creating a new unity where flower and leaf and insect belong to one and the same blossoming tree” (214). This is the purpose of long and complex books like The Rings of Saturn and Remembrance of Things Past: to draw the lines which link each and all together. To describe the shape of consciousness, to mimic the actions of a body experiencing its progress through the world. I think that is what the photographs I took when wandering attempt, in a failing way, to do. They all show a kind of relentlessness, but in that relentlessness is also, I think, the promise of connectedness—even if not connectedness itself. Each path aims forward, and articulates something of what came before and what might come next, whether trodden in the world or walked on the page.Author’s NoteI’d like to express my thanks to the anonymous reviewers who took time to improve this article. I’m grateful for their insights and engagement, and for the nuance they added to the final copy.References Baumgarten, Murray. “‘Not Knowing What I Should Think:’ The Landscape of Postmemory in W.G. 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