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Journal articles on the topic 'Chinese Emperors'
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1
Tang, Kwok-leong. "Reporting to the Sage: Military Monuments in the Imperial Academy in Qing China." Journal of Chinese Military History 7, no. 1 (May 4, 2018): 1–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/22127453-12341322.
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AbstractThis article presents a study of a unique kind of commemorative stele erected by Qing emperors in the Imperial Academy—the symbol of Confucian culture and civilian education—and also replicated in schools across China. Before the Qing dynasty (1644-1911), Chinese rulers did not install military monuments at the academy. In this article, I argue that the Qing emperors erected war monuments in the Imperial Academy to justify and commemorate their wars of conquest. As the emperors required the stelae to be replicated at some of the local schools across China, they became widely accessible to the public. However, the Qing emperors, particularly the Qianlong emperor, were concerned that the stelae could become symbols of abusive warfare, thereby undermining their claims to rule in accordance with Confucian ideals. For this reason, they carefully selected the campaigns to commemorate and ensured that inscriptions on the stelae explained that they had no choice but to embark on war in these instances.
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Zhao, Hai-Lu, Xun Zhu, and Yi Sui. "THE SHORT-LIVED CHINESE EMPERORS." Journal of the American Geriatrics Society 54, no. 8 (August 2006): 1295–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-5415.2006.00821.x.
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Chin-Hsiung, Hsü, and James C. H. Hsu. "21. An Epigraphic Interpretation of Historical Stages in Ancient Chinese History." Early China 9, S1 (1986): 48–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0362502800003084.
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ABSTRACTSince the end of the Warring States period (221 B.C.), the traditional history of China has always been said to have begun with the “Three August Sovereigns” and the “Five Emperors.” The stages in Chinese civilization were thus personified and ancient society was conceived of as having been ruled by an uninterrupted line of emperors. This early period of Chinese history may be divided into three periods, each of which may be typified by one oracle-graph.The first period is the era of the legendary personages. This is before the period of the Yellow Emperor and may be represented by the oracle-bone graph for “sage.” The second period is the era of the emperors who created social institutions, an era which may be represented by the oracle-bone graph for “jade pendant.” The final period is the era of authentic dynastic history, covering the Hsia, Shang, and Chou dynasties. This period may be represented by the oracle-bone graph for “king.”The oracle-bone character for “sage” is a pictograph of a man with extremely keen hearing. This implies exceptional physical or mental capabilities which would enable that person to bring great benefits to the community. This period of the sage saw the invention and development of a series of technological skills and tools which improved the standard of living of the community, but the stage had still not been reached when the social system necessary for political organization could come into being; that is to say, society had not yet reached the stage of true civilization.
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Hecker, Felicia J. "A Fifteenth-Century Chinese Diplomat in Herat." Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 3, no. 1 (April 1993): 85–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1356186300003692.
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In 1405 Sino–Iranian relations hit a nadir. Tīmūr (1336?–1405), never one to bother with the niceties of diplomacy, had detained and executed Chinese ambassadors sent to his court by the Ming emperors Hung-wu (r. 1368–98) and Yung-lo (r. 1403–24) in 1395, 1402 and 1403, had amused himself by regularly insulting Emperor Hung-wu, publicly calling him the “Pig Emperor”, and had finally decided to invade China to claim it for himself and Islam. Fortunately, for all concerned, Tīmūr drank himself into a stupor on the night of 18 February 1405 and expired at his base camp at Utrār where his troops were assembling for their march to China. The Chinese campaign was immediately abandoned as succession suddenly became a more pressing matter. It would continue to occupy Timurid energies until 1411 when Tīmūr's fourth son, Shāhrukh (1377–1447) gained control of the empire.
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Song, ChaeEun. "Study on the Acceptance Pattern of BaiLiang style in Early Chosŏn." Daedong Hanmun Association 76 (September 30, 2023): 161–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.21794/ddhm.2023.76.161.
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This article analyzes the concept of the BaiLiang style, a literary style derived from a literary genre called BaiLiang poem, known as the origin of the heptasyllabic and stanzaic poem, while examining how it was accepted and developed in Korea. The BaiLiang poem is a stanzaic poem collaboratively written by the Wu Emperor of the Han Dynasty and his twenty-five subjects. After that, poets began to produce heptasyllabic poems, leading to the formation of the genre, BaiLiang style.
It stands to reason that not only Chinese authors but also Korean literati wrote and enjoyed the BaiLiang style. Since Choi Chi-won composed the <智證和尙碑銘>, several Korean writers during the Koryŏ and Chosŏn Dynasties produced poems with the BaiLiang style. In China, the stanzaic poems were continuously produced collaboratively by Emperors and their subjects from the time of the Wu Emperor's reign to the Qing dynasty. On the contrary, the BaiLiang style by individual poets was more significant in Korean literature.
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Wang, Cheng-hua. "One Painting, Two Emperors, and Their Cultural Agendas." Archives of Asian Art 70, no. 1 (April 1, 2020): 85–117. http://dx.doi.org/10.1215/00666637-8124988.
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Abstract This research focuses on one of the most famous paintings made at the court of the Qing dynasty (1644–1911)—Qingming shanghe (Up the River during Qingming). Commissioned by the Yongzheng emperor (r. 1723–1735) and completed in the second year of the Qianlong emperor's reign (1736–1795), the painting is a rare example of Qing court art that reveals how Qianlong furthered his father's artistic vision while formulating his own in the first fifteen years of his long tenure as ruler. This vision involved how to reinterpret and reinvent the Chinese painting tradition through time-honored themes. The article is divided into four sections. In the first, it brings attention to the salient and crucial but long neglected stylistic features of the painting—those that emphasize theatricality and spectatorship. These interconnected features link and characterize the paintings commissioned by Yongzheng. The second section shifts to discuss the emerging cultural agenda of Yongzheng as seen through the manner in which court art references the Chinese painting tradition. The most remarkable act regards the reinterpretation of old painting themes that include Qingming shanghe and Baijun tu (One Hundred Horses). The third section analyzes how the paratextual elements of Qingming shanghe, especially Qianlong's poem and inscription, inform us of the emperor's views about the production mechanism of court painting and the political meaning of this work. The last section, based on Qianlong's understanding of the painting, highlights the emperor's cultural agenda associated with the idea of yuanben, which pointed to new versions of old themes made by his painting academy.
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Szonyi, Michael. "National Gods and Local Contexts: Distinguishing the Five Emperors and the Five Manifestations in Late Imperial China." Montréal 1995 6, no. 1 (February 9, 2006): 59–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.7202/031088ar.
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Abstract Many scholars of late imperial China have argued that the imperial state's sanctioning of certain cults was an important factor in the standardization of Chinese culture. This paper is a case study of the Five Emperors, a local cult which was not only not sanctioned, but actively suppressed by state officials. In response, worshippers of thecult concealed their deities behind the Five Manifestations, a cult which was state sanctioned. But the cult retained distinctive rituals, iconography, and representations in local popular culture. The conflation of the Five Emperors with other trans-local cultures demonstrates that the standardization of Chinese culture was often only illusory, concealing enduring local distinctiveness.
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Moskalev, Petr E. "On the history of Chinese-Siamese relations in the 13th - the first half of the 15th centuries." South East Asia: Actual problems of Development 1, no. 1(50) (2021): 262–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.31696/2072-8271-2021-1-1-50-262-270.
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The article is dedicated to providing a description of the development of Chinese-Siamese relations: diplomatic, economic and cultural during the 13th – first half of the 15th centuries. The specific conditions of both the official relations between the Chinese emperors and the Siamese kings and of the private liaisons between the two peoples are analyzed.
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Moyer, Jessica Dvorak. "The Textual Architecture of Empire in Two Early Qing Anthologies." Journal of Chinese Literature and Culture 8, no. 2 (November 1, 2021): 371–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1215/23290048-9299684.
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Abstract During the first half century of the Qing dynasty, Manchu emperors commissioned massive publication projects on the Chinese classics. In early Qing interpretations of classics on the family, negotiations between Manchu and Han family and gender norms furthered the empire-building project. This article compares the spatial form of the Yuding Nei ze yanyi 御定内則衍義 (1656), an expansion of the “Inner Standards” chapter of the Classic of Rites commissioned by the Shunzhi emperor, to that of the Yuding Xiao jing yanyi 御定孝經衍義 (1682), an expansion of the Classic of Filial Piety commissioned by the Kangxi emperor. These works are textual spaces where the cultural and political negotiations of the early Qing empire play out; they use spatial strategies of juxtaposition and hierarchy to balance different messages for different constituencies, creating textual models of empire.
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Wang, Y. "Portraits of Chinese Emperors in the Works of G. Castiglione." Университетский научный журнал, no. 57 (2020): 148–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.25807/pbh.22225064.2020.57.148.157.
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Mu, Xia, and Ying Huang. "Study on Traditional Chinese Architecture." Advanced Materials Research 575 (October 2012): 11–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.575.11.
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Green Dragon, White Tiger, Red Phoenix and Black Tortoise constitute four Gods in the ancient China. comprehension of these four Gods is of great help to realize Chinese culture. As the representatives of ancient Chinese gods, these four administer the East, the West, the South and the North respectively. They are always respected and revered by Chinese people, and people take them as the gods to suppress evils. Especially the dragon, it is the god representing the spirit of Chinese nation and also symbolizing the emperors in ancient China. For this reason, the image of four Gods express incomparable role in the traditional Chinese architectural ornament.
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Wuryandari, Nurni W. "The Tradition Of Recording And Preserving Manuscripts In China." Bambuti 4, no. 2 (November 14, 2022): 29–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.53744/bambuti.v4i2.43.
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China can be called a country with a consistent attitude in recording various events. Conditions and figures that are considered essential. Besides having a strong tradition of taking notes, China also has a habit of trying to preserve records. One of the crucial figures who contributed to the preservation of the manuscript was the emperor Qian Long (1736-1796), one of the emperors during the Qing dynasty (1644-1911). He collected valuable and rare books into a series of publications called Siku Quanshu (四庫全書), which is often referred to as the Imperial Collection of Four. In addition to collecting various information about their own country, Siku Quanshu also gathers information about other countries, including the Archipelago.
This short paper aims to introduce the tradition of note-taking and the efforts to preserve manuscripts carried out in China, along with its benefits for researchers in China and foreign. Good Chinese language skills are the decisive key to penetrating the collection of knowledge stored in these precious Chinese manuscripts.
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Lin, Xiwen. "A Comparative Study of The Palace of Versailles and Imperial Garden Yuanmingyuan." Communications in Humanities Research 32, no. 1 (April 26, 2024): 72–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.54254/2753-7064/32/20240015.
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The Palace of Versailles was constructed in the enchanting city of Paris, while the majestic Yuanmingyuan was erected in the imperial capital of Beijing. Built during the same era, they serve as splendid exemplars of Western and Eastern royal gardens and architectural marvels respectively. The purpose of this paper is to compare the Palace of Versailles and the Imperial Garden Yuanmingyuan, two historic royal palaces, and discuss the differences in their construction background, planning layout, architectural style and garden features. Because of the disparity in the personalities of the two emperors, the palace possesses its own distinctive attributes. The Palace of Versailles is famous for its magnificent architecture and French gardens, which demonstrated the power and luxury of Louis XIV; the Yuanmingyuan, on the other hand, is famous for its unique Chinese garden style and exquisite architectural complex, which reflects Emperor Kangxis love and pursuit of traditional Chinese culture. By comparing the two palaces, we can better understand the differences in architecture and garden design across diverse cultural backgrounds, as well as their profound impact on architecture styles, landscaping techniques and cultural heritage.
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Fu, Xiaojiao. "MUSICAL ACTIVITY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONARIES AT THE COURT OF THE QING EMPERORS OF THE 17TH–18TH CENTURIES." Scientific and analytical journal Burganov House. The space of culture 19, no. 6 (December 10, 2023): 31–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.36340/2071-6818-2023-19-6-31-45.
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The article raises the problem of the significance of European missionaries’ musical activities at the court of the Qing emperors during the Golden Age and attempts to integrate Western art into palace musical life. A critical review of existing Russian-language sources leads the author to the conclusion that there is a lack of information on the topic of the article as well as some freedom in the interpretation of known historical facts in scientific articles. The author sees the possibility of filling gaps in this area of musicology in a detailed study of documents of the era, primarily diaries, letters, reports and other missionaries’ correspondence. Primary scholarly sources include Father Ripa's Diary, Father Du Halde's Description of the Chinese Empire, compiled from the correspondence of French Jesuits, and Father Amiot's work on the history of Chinese music. The author considers these books to be significant; however, they are not, of course, the only documents that help shed light on the scale and depth of the functioning of European music, theory and practice in the space of Chinese musical culture, which is closed, self-sufficient and by its nature not related to Europe. Works on music theory, created by order of and jointly with the Kangxi Emperor, are proof of a considerable interest in the West. In the palaces, the presence of a large number of European instruments, with which a Western-style ensemble could be formed, as well as attention to European clothing and wigs in which the emperor dressed his musicians, is indicative. In conclusion, the author finds that the musical activities of Christian missionaries produced certain results. On the one hand, organic interaction with European music and its deep understanding did not happen at the end of the 18th century. On the other hand, regardless of the subjective attitude of one or another emperor towards the Jesuits, the idea of introducing musical theoretical ideas and practices of European music-making into everyday life gradually became a reality only owing to their persistent, regular and purposeful promotion. At the same time, a reverse process was underway - the missionaries’ research instinct led to the creation of memoirs and books on the history and acoustics of Chinese music, and contributed to its active promotion in European intellectual circles.
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Collani, Claudia von. "Jesuits as Diplomats in the Service of Chinese Emperors in Early Modern Times." Comillas Journal of International Relations, no. 29 (April 22, 2024): 41–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.14422/cir.i29.y2024.003.
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In East Asia, China played a special role spreading its superior culture to other nations. The relations between Europe and China, however, were besides trade destined by the attempts to spread Catholicism and later also Protestantism in China. Especially during the 17th and 18th centuries some of the Western missionaries bringing Western religion to China also tried to interpret traditional Chinese rituals like the veneration of Confucius and the ancestors in a pejorative way declaring these rites to be superstitious and to forbid them for Chinese Christians. The legation of the papal delegate Charles-Thomas Maillard de Tournon (1668- 1710) to China brought the latent quarrel between the adherents and the adversaries of the Rites to an outbreak. The Kangxi Emperor (1662-1722) tried to explain his attitude to the Holy See in Rome. Therefore, after several more general delegations of Jesuits to Europe Kangxi sent special embassies to Rome concerning the Chinese Rites. His efforts, however, to solve the problems and to protect Christianity and missionaries respecting the Chinese culture failed and the Rites were condemned.
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Dubrovskaya, Dinara V. "EXCEPTION TO THE RULE: HOW ADAPTATION GENIUS MATTEO RICCI FAILED TO UNDERSTAND CHINESE PAINTING." Journal of the Institute of Oriental Studies RAS, no. 4 (14) (2020): 126–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.31696/2618-7302-2020-4-126-135.
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The article looks into an interesting case of artistic accommodation, which for a number of reasons did not happen during the time of the leader and one of the founders of the Jesuit mission in China, Matteo Ricci (1552–1610), a successful preacher and author of the so called ‘Matteo Ricci Rules’, justifying the need to adapt missionary activities and preaching to the beliefs, traditions and culture of the host country. The author proposes for her analysis two opposite figures — the Chinese Jesuit of the second generation, provincial landscape painter Wu Li (1632–1718) and Italian painter who worked at the court of the emperors of the Manchu Qing dynasty Giuseppe Castiglione (Lan Shining; 1688–1766), trying to show the long way of the adaptation of artistic techniques from the time of the mission’s founder Matteo Ricci, who did not accept and did not understand Chinese painting, and Wu Li, who did not see the value of European painting, to Lan Shining and his patrons, the Qing emperors, who created a sophisticated ‘Occidentalist’ style, combining features of Western and Chinese painting. The author concludes that Matteo Ricci, even though he used visual materials in his sermons as an aid to verbal preaching, missed the great opportunity of preaching through the brush, while Giuseppe Castiglione and his colleagues, European masters working at court, essentially continued to use ‘Ricci’s Rules’ and the accommodative method of preaching through the adaptation of European painting techniques to the Chinese ones, using the appropriate direct wishes and orders of the crowned representatives of the non-Chinese dynasty.
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Zanous, Hamidreza Pasha, and Juping Yang. "Arsacid Cities in the Hanshu and Houhanshu." Iran and the Caucasus 22, no. 2 (June 22, 2018): 123–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573384x-20180202.
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In the reports of Chinese travellers submitted to the Emperors, they mentioned the places they had visited or heard of. Although some scholars have tried to identify these Chinese names as specific places in the Iranian Plateau and its bordering plains, their locations are still somewhat vague and debatable. This article discusses the place-names mentioned in Chinese sources and attempts to verify that they could have denoted the localities along the ancient Great Khorasan Road and other routes, which were once the main sections of the Silk Road. Among them, the route that Chinese traveller Gan Ying might have passed before he reached the western frontier of the Arsacid Empire will also be discussed in this study.
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Paramore, Kiri. "Confucian Ritual and Sacred Kingship: Why the Emperors Did not Rule Japan." Comparative Studies in Society and History 58, no. 3 (July 2016): 694–716. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0010417516000323.
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AbstractThis article examines the political role of Confucian ritual in early Japanese history. New research on early Chinese ritual has recast it as a deliberately transformative social tool, a manufactured “as if” realm in which ideal relations are played out in full knowledge of their disjunction with the real world, in an attempt to order it. This article uses this understanding of ritual to analyze Confucianism in the practice of sacred kingship in early Japan, and by contrast in Tang China. I reexamine a number of well-known primary sources of early Japanese history in comparison with parallel Chinese sources of the Tang dynasty. Placing that comparison within the context of new developments in the historiography of China, Korea, and Japan, I argue that Confucianism's comparatively weak ritual positioning in Japan disabled its capacity to legitimate imperial rule there. The early Japanese state thus lacked one of the primary ritual tools employed in other parts of premodern East Asia to legitimate the power of new emperors and kings. I thus unpack one component in a wider process of East Asian cultural reproduction, which in the case of Japan contributed to the emergence of a state ultimately not ruled through imperial institutions or the emperor for most of its premodern history. The bifurcation of ritual and political power in sacred kingship, a seemingly geographically and temporally widespread phenomenon currently studied in various global histories, is explained in this article in terms of complex processes of cultural reproduction and transmission.
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Deopik, Dega V., and Bogdan K. Ganshin. "The worldview of Chinese dynasties: cultural continuity and rupture in the reign names of emperors." China: society and culture 1, no. 2 (March 5, 2023): 7–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.17816/ch112066.
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This paper continues the research of the symbolic aspect of Chinese history through study of the reign names (nianhao) of the monarchs. The current part of the research is focused mainly on the question of the cultural continuity of the worldview in different epochs of Chinese state development. This also implicates questioning the consistency of Chinese history and its self-perception over the course of two millennia. The proposed solution of the problem in question consists in classifying reign names into a small set of groups and analyzing the historical change in proportions of these groups. The research shows that, despite the fact, that different regional models of the reign names systems arose through the history of China, still the tradition itself retained consistency even in the eras of nomadic conquest. It is also shown, that the discontinuity of the said tradition was caused by no external force, but arose through its own evolution in the deep layers of Chinese culture.
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Pan, Linglong, Man Zhou, Haiyan Zhuang, and Juan Wang. "Construction Forms and Seismic Performance of the Ancient Chinese Buildings Joined by Tenon–Mortise Joints." Applied Sciences 12, no. 15 (July 26, 2022): 7505. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/app12157505.
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Zijincheng, also known as the Forbidden City, is the largest and best-preserved ancient palace-type wooden building in China, built without using a single nail. Since it was built in 1420, it has served as a palace where the emperor lives and works. Almost 600 years old, it has gone through two dynasties (i.e., the Ming and Qing dynasties (AD 1368–AD 1912)) and 24 emperors. It has survived more than 200 devastating earthquakes throughout its history, and it is still standing strong. In this paper, the authors introduce the construction technology of the ancient Chinese wooden structure as well as the greatest secret of the well seismic performance of the Forbidden City. The study found that the secret to the Forbidden City’s ability to withstand many powerful earthquakes lies in the flexibility of its timber structure, which is mainly reflected in the application of the tenon-mortise joints, energy-dissipation capacity of Dougong brackets and shallow-buried columns. The seismic responses of a 1:5 reduced-scale model of Shoukang Palace of the Forbidden City under different earthquake magnitudes are studied through a series of shaking table tests.
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Chow, Kai-Wing. "Identities and Literary Culture in Qing China: Manchu Emperors as Chinese Poets, Readers, and Publishers." Journal of Chinese Literature and Culture 6, no. 2 (November 1, 2019): 359–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1215/23290048-8041957.
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Abstract The Qianlong emperor bequeathed the largest number of Chinese poems of any emperor, and perhaps of any poet, in the history of imperial China. But how do we make sense of the fact that Qianlong had been adamant in maintaining and preserving what he considered the essence of Manchu culture: the Manchu language and hunting skills? This articles argues that, despite deliberate staging through various fashions of his image as the ruler of a multiethnic empire, Qianlong failed in sending his message to his diverse subjects because, truly enthralled by Chinese poetry, he could not restrain himself from writing poetry in Chinese. In light of the theory of multiple identities and acculturation of John Berry, it is reasonable to argue that Qianlong, despite his unambiguous identification with the Manchus as the conquering ethnic group, in tortuous ways had come to embrace the identity of a Chinese poet of the host society, in which the technologies of culture to a large degree overdetermine the form of identities and how they can be articulated, internalized, embodied, and staged.
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Popova, Irina F. "Emperor Tang Taizong on the Founders of the Jin Dynasty." Письменные памятники Востока 19, no. 4 (January 26, 2023): 74–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.55512/wmo112405.
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The subject of state governance always occupied an important place in traditional Chinese ideology. It is noteworthy that there were periods when it was becoming a matter of even greater importance and urgency due to the monarchs personal interest in justifying their own legitimacy as convincingly as possible. This happened in the reign of the second emperor of the Tang Dynasty, Taizong (627649) (Li Shi-min, 599649), who entered the history of China as one of the greatest rulers of the Celestial Empire. Taizong came to power as a result of a political upheaval and felt for a long time that his ascent to power was somewhat incomplete as regards its ritual aspect. To substantiate his right to rule, he turned to historical examplesin particular, to the assessment of the role of the founding emperors of the Jin dynasty (265420), which united China for a short while after its division during the Three Kingdoms (220289).
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Davis, Robert V. "Science, Technology and Religion: The Exchange Between Enlightenment Europe and Imperial China." HoST - Journal of History of Science and Technology 15, no. 2 (December 1, 2021): 149–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/host-2021-0016.
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Abstract The European Enlightenment fostered a sense of progress through a delineation of universal human rights as well as through a reductionist mathematization of nature. Science, technology and religion became a form of cultural currency between Europe and Imperial China. The Jesuits bartered mathematics, geographic surveys and military technology to win religious permissions with Chinese emperors. Other Europeans were convinced ancient Chinese texts corresponded to the Old Testament. China sent to Europe a Confucian model of a social ethic that demonstrated non-Christian civic virtues. This article examines this exchange using the intercourse in science, technology and religion as the metric.
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Byun, Sang-Eun, Shuying Long, and Manveer Mann. "Drivers and dynamics of brand prominence preferences among the Chinese little emperors residing in the US." Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management: An International Journal 24, no. 1 (March 13, 2020): 66–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/jfmm-01-2019-0007.
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PurposeThis study investigates drivers and dynamics of preferences for brand prominence among the Chinese little emperors (LEs) residing in the US, a unique but powerful consumer group with dual-cultural characteristics.Design/methodology/approachUsing an online survey, the proposed model was tested with a convenience sample of the Chinese LE generation residing in the USFindingsSusceptibility to normative influence was a significant cultural driver of conspicuous, social, and unique value perceptions of luxury consumption among the Chinese LE generation residing in the US Perceived conspicuous and social values of luxury consumption were the primary drivers of this group's brand prominence preference for luxury fashion bags. However, perceived unique value of luxury consumption did not necessarily lead these consumers to prefer prominent logos or marks on a luxury bag. Furthermore, sociodemographic factors (gender, age, and time lived in the US) significantly affected perceptions and preferences related to luxury consumption among this consumer group.Research limitations/implicationsThis study advances the luxury literature by examining the drivers and dynamics of brand prominence preference among the Chinese LE generation residing in the US By testing the role of different sociodemographic factors, we demonstrate heterogeneity within this group and the evolving nature of their perceptions and preferences related to luxury consumption as they are acculturated to Western culture. We used a convenient sample and focused on luxury fashion bags for measuring preference for brand prominence, limiting the generalizability of the findings.Practical implicationsLuxury brands should effectively convey conspicuous and social values in product designs, advertising and promotions as these values play integral roles in determining the Chinese LE generation's preference for brand prominence. Our findings also highlight the importance of fine-tuned approaches to different segments within the LE generation cohort.Originality/valueThis study fills several gaps in the luxury literature by empirically investigating various factors affecting preference for brand prominence among the Chinese LE generation residing in the US, an important but under-researched luxury segment.
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Yue, Teng. "Shi Jing culture of the song dynasty in China - song dynasty Ci in a musical context." OOO "Zhurnal "Voprosy Istorii" 2020, no. 10-4 (October 1, 2020): 159–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.31166/voprosyistorii202010statyi99.
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The song dynasty (960-1279) in Chinese history is divided into two stages: the Northern and southern song, and includes a total of eighteen emperors who reigned for a total of three hundred and nineteen years. The song dynasty attached great importance to literature and despised force. The song dynasty era is an era of prosperity for China’s commodity economy, culture, education, science. The song dynasty’s “Ci” genre is a kind of musical literature. The full name of the genre is “song dynasty Ci”, abbreviated as “Ci”. The song dynasty Ci are an integral treasure of Chinese culture and are cultural symbols of the era that cannot be ignored.
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Verellen, Franciscus. "Taoism." Journal of Asian Studies 54, no. 2 (May 1995): 322–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2058739.
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Circumscribing the place of taoists in Chinese society is not straightforward for any period: honored by emperors and members of the nobility, they were scorned, as a rule, by literati-officials and treated with a mixture of reverence and familiarity by ordinary people. The paradoxical strength of passivity, the power of compliance, and the endurance of the peripheral already form a central theme in the mystical writings gathered in the fourth and third centuryb.c.Lao-tzuandChuang-tzu. The Taoism of these ancient texts advanced a doctrine of liberation through submission, of control by means of noninterference, and of transcendence as a result of physiological and mental regimens. The ideal of liberation from the physical, epistemological, and social constraints of the human condition in time translated into a quest for immortality which, by the Ch'in unification of the empire, became quite explicit. Huang-Lao thought, named for the Yellow Emperor and patron of the immortals (Huang-ti) and Lao-tzu, dominated court politics from this period through the middle of the second centuryb.c.
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Ma, Kan-Wen. "The Roots and Development of Chinese Acupuncture: From Prehistory to Early 20Th Century." Acupuncture in Medicine 10, no. 1_suppl (November 1992): 92–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/aim.10.suppl.92.
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The use of stone Acupuncture needles, the “Bian Shi”, is reported in several ancient Chinese manuscripts, pointing the origin of this form of medical treatment to Western China in the stone age. Early writings on silk fabrics and on stone have been retrieved from tombs and elsewhere to provide a fascinating insight on the useage and developement of acupuncture. Over many centuries the tradition has been passed between generations of physician-acupuncturist families who were the attendants of Emperors, and the leaders of the medical profession, teaching and writing texts that were studied throughout the East.
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Magli, Giulio. "The Sacred Landscape of the “Pyramids” of the Han Emperors: A Cognitive Approach to Sustainability." Sustainability 11, no. 3 (February 2, 2019): 789. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su11030789.
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The so-called “Chinese pyramids” are huge burial mounds covering the tombs of the Emperors of the Western Han dynasty. If we include also the mounds of the members of the royal families, these monuments sum up to more than 40, scattered throughout the western and the southern outskirts of modern Xi’an. They are mostly unexcavated and poorly known, although taken together, they form a fascinating sacred landscape, which was conceived as a perennial witness of one of the most magnificent Chinese dynasties. This sacred landscape is today encroached by the frenetic urban development of the Xi’an urban area. We discuss and elaborate here some of the results of a recent, new satellite-imagery survey of these monuments, highlighting the aspects which may contribute to solutions for sustainable and compatible development within this important ancient landscape.
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Yangutov, Leonid, and Marina Orbodoeva. "Buddhism in the history of China in Southern and Northern kingdoms." OOO "Zhurnal "Voprosy Istorii" 2020, no. 10-4 (October 1, 2020): 216–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.31166/voprosyistorii202010statyi83.
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The article is devoted to the history of Buddhism in China during the period of the Southern and Northern Kingdoms (Nanbeichao, 386-589). The features of the development of Buddhism in the North and South are shown. Three aspects were identified: 1) the attitude of emperors of kingdoms to Buddhism; 2) the relationship of the state apparatus and the Buddhist sangha; 3) the process of further development of Buddhism in China in the context of its adaptation to the Chinese mentality, formed on the basis of the traditional worldview. It was revealed that Buddhism in the context of its adaptation to the Chinese mentality, both in the North and in the South, developed with the traditions of Buddhism of the Eastern Jin period to the same extent.
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Zheng, Dongmei, and Yunzhen Yin. "Taking History as a Mirror - Study of Images of Chinese Emperors in Chinese Poems Included in Selected Oriental Literature -." Studies of Korean & Chinese Humanities 77 (December 31, 2022): 321–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.26528/kochih.2022.77.321.
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Yu, Junwei. "Be a Sedentary Confucian Gentlemen: The Construction of Anti-Physical Culture by Chinese Dynasts using Confucianism and the Civil Service Examination." Physical Culture and Sport. Studies and Research 51, no. 1 (June 1, 2011): 80–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/v10141-011-0004-x.
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Be a Sedentary Confucian Gentlemen: The Construction of Anti-Physical Culture by Chinese Dynasts using Confucianism and the Civil Service ExaminationAlthough there has been a growing body of research that explores Chinese masculinities within imperial China, the connection between masculinity and physical culture has been neglected. In this article, the author argues that Chinese emperors used Confucianism and the civil service examination (keju) to rule the country, and at the same time, created a social group of sedentary gentlemen whose studiousness and bookishness were worshiped by the public. In particular, the political institution of keju played a crucial role in disciplining the body. Behavior that did not conform to the Confucian standards which stressed civility and education were considered barbaric. As a result, a wen-version of masculinity was constructed. In other words, an anti-physical culture that strengthened the gross contempt towards those who chose to engage in physical labor.
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Shen, Zhongwei. "Phonological Features of Yuan Colloquial Chinese as Seen in Rashid al-Din's History of China." Bulletin of Chinese Linguistics 7, no. 1 (January 24, 2013): 15–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/2405478x-90000108.
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Rashid al-Din (1247-1318)'s History of China, written in Persian, contains the names of the dynasties, and of kings and emperors, from prehistoric legends up to the Yuan dynasty. The phonetic transcription of these proper names is an important piece of information for us to understand the Chinese phonology of the Yuan dynasty. in order to correctly understand the phonological features of old Mandarin the possible phonological contrasts that can be represented in the Persian script are examined. it is shown that the Persian transcriptions did not create new letters for Chinese sounds. Thus all the phonological categories of Chinese are only represented by the available Persian letters. After analyzing these transcriptions, this article shows that although many phonological distinctions of old Mandarin are not very well represented in this material, there are enough phonological features to identify the underlying phonological system, which is unambiguously Mandarin.
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TRUONG, Anh Thuan. "The Attitude of The Chinese and Vietnamese Ruling Class Towards Western Astronomy From the 16th to the 18th Centuries." Asian Studies 12, no. 1 (January 18, 2024): 307–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.4312/as.2024.12.1.307-321.
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From the 16th century to the 18th century, in order to realize the goal of promoting its propaganda and strengthening the influence of Christianity in China and Vietnam, Western missionaries, especially Jesuit missionaries, applied the method of “missionary academic” and “missionary bibliography” thoroughly, effectively and creatively. As a result, Western science and technology in general, and astronomy in particular, were gradually introduced into these two countries. The ruling class in China and Vietnam still had a few critical and negative reactions to such moves, but in general openness to and active acceptance of Western astronomical achievements were always the dominant attitudes of emperors, kings and mandarins in these two countries.On the basis of taking advantage of the original historical data sources and research achievements of Chinese, Vietnamese and international scholars, and at the same time combining the application of the research method of historical science along with other approaches, especially the comparative research method, this article will thoroughly analyse the attitude of the ruling class of China and Vietnam in receiving Western astronomy. This article also clarifies the main cause for the difference in the reception of Western astronomy by emperors, kings and mandarins in these two countries, thereby making a contribution to the study of the history of East-West cultural exchanges in China and Vietnam in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries.
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Weatherley, Robert, and Coirle Magee. "Using the Past to Legitimise the Present: The Portrayal of Good Governance in Chinese History Textbooks." Journal of Current Chinese Affairs 47, no. 1 (January 2018): 41–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/186810261804700102.
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This article examines how Chinese middle-school history textbooks are written as a means of legitimising the rule of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), by carefully utilising China's past. The authors identify (or perhaps “construct”) a sinified model of good governance in the textbooks that derives from the teachings of Confucius and Mencius, and the subsequent practises of certain revered Chinese emperors. This model is then applied to CCP leaders in the modern-era textbooks in order to cast them as diligently upholding a time-honoured Chinese tradition of legitimate rule. In a broader context, our analysis fits within the ongoing discussions about the continuing legacy of Confucianism in contemporary China and the CCP's efforts to locate itself within this as a way of fortifying its own legitimacy. We also note how some of the themes of good governance contained in the textbooks are closely linked to contemporary government policies and priorities, such as anti-corruption schemes and constitutionalism. The objective in so doing is to propagate the importance of these themes to a young audience.
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Bourgon, Jérôme. "Historians at the Court: How Cultural Expertise in Qing Law Contributes to the Invention of Hong Kong “Chinese Customary Law”." Law and History Review 38, no. 1 (January 13, 2020): 85–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0738248019000580.
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This paper relies on the narrative of a renowned historian of Qing law from China mainland who has been called by Hong Kong High Court in 2007, to witness as an expert in “Chinese customary law.” At the opening of the trial, he recognized one well-known and estimated colleague from Taiwan in the expert engaged by the other party. During one week, these two legal historians called up a vast array of knowledge in Chinese history, culture, and law, to ensure the triumph of their party. The contest opposed the representatives of two branches of a same lineage who claimed their right to manage the lineage common wealth. As both were collaterals with dubious link with the original lineage, experts engaged in sophisticated arguments to make their cause prevail. Successively were adduced lineage registers the tabooing of fathers and emperors' personal name in the Chinese tradition, the degree of kinships as represented by “mourning charts” included in the Qing penal code. Even though it was “privately settled” before any judicial decision, this case raises questions on the very nature of “Chinese customary law”, and the role of “cultural expertise” at Common law in a Chinese environment.
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Fang, Cheng. "Past, Present and Future of Chinese Astronomy." Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union 10, H16 (August 2012): 19–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1743921314004621.
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AbstractThrough out the ancient history, Chinese astronomers had made tremendous achievements. Since the main purpose of the ancient Chinese astronomy was to study the correlation between man and the universe, all the Emperors made ancient Chinese astronomy the highly regarded science throughout the history. After a brief introduction of the achievement of ancient Chinese astronomy, I describe the beginnings of modern astronomy research in China in the 20th century. Benefiting from the fast development of Chinese economy, the research in astronomy in China has made remarkable progress in recent years. The number of astronomers has doubled in the past ten years, and the number of graduate students has grown over 1300. The current budget for astronomy research is ten times larger than that ten years ago. The research covers all fields in astronomy, from galaxies to the Sun. The recent progress in both the instruments, such as the Guo Shoujing's telescope, a Large Sky Area Multi-Object Fiber Spectroscopic Telescope (LAMOST), and the theoretical research will be briefly presented. The ongoing and future projects on the space- and ground-based facilities will be described, including the Five Hundred Meter Aperture Spherical Radio Telescope (FAST), “Chang E” (Lunar mission) project, Hard X-ray Modulate Telescope (HXMT), DArk Matter Particle Explorer (DAMPE), Deep Space Solar Observatory (DSO), Chinese Antarctic Observatory (CAO), 65m steerable radio telescope, Chinese Spectral Radioheliogaph (CSRH) etc.
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Zhang, Chunfeng, and Jianjun Zhu. "The Scripture on the Five Emperors in the Five Directions: Evidence of the Spread of Taoism Amongst the Naxi." SAGE Open 13, no. 1 (January 2023): 215824402311531. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/21582440231153125.
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As residents of the Sino-Tibetan borderlands, the Naxi people have their own native religion, which manifests a mixture of indigenous beliefs with Tibetan Bon and Buddhism. A pictographic Scripture on the Five Emperors in the Five Directions discovered in Lijiang reveals in detail for the first time the influence of Chinese Taoism on the Naxi manuscripts. By analyzing the manuscript and the related religious rituals, it is proved that the prototype of the main figure in the manuscript comes from the Taoist classic of TaiShang DongYuan Zhao ZhuTianLongWang WeiMiao ShangPin 太上洞淵召諸天龍王微妙上品and its narrative is derived mainly from “LingBao WuDi GuanJiang Hao靈寶五帝官將號,” of the TaiShang LingBao WuFuXu太上洞玄靈寶五符序. It is also the only Naxi manuscript published to date that shows Han Chinese dragon worship among the Naxi people, though the detailed narrations are not identical to those in Chinese or Tibetan sources.
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Huan, Wang. "Femininity and masculinity in Chinese culture." Psychoanalysis and Psychotherapy in China 3, no. 1 (June 1, 2020): 30–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.33212/ppc.v3n1.2020.30.
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n traditional Chinese culture, the concepts of femininity and masculinity are “plural categories” which are based on family and society, hence they are not clearly distinguished nor opposite to each other. In ancient times, people valued the power of women, channelling it by saying that women should devote themselves to benefiting the state. Meanwhile, society oppressed women by limiting them to their marital homes in order to eradicate men’s unconscious fear of the destructive side of feminine power. On the other hand, for Chinese men, sexual pleasure and aggression were unwelcome, while the mother–son relationship was most important within the family, and comradeship and brotherhood between men another important aspect of relationships. Profoundly mutual relationships were not encouraged between men and women in ancient China. Even until now, all men and women and their intimate relationships have been in the service of politics. The interests of the family and state are placed above individual interests. However, the one-child policy, as the product of government decision based on population numbers rather than human factors, and implemented by coercion, has produced a generation of empowered daughters and “little emperors” who increasingly value and appreciate individualism. The new generations must learn how to develop new forms of mutuality between the partners, with evolving implications for masculinity and femininity.
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Doménech-Carbó, Antonio, María Teresa Doménech-Carbó, Elena Montagna, Carla Álvarez-Romero, and Yu Lee. "Electrochemical discrimination of mints: The last Chinese emperors Kuang Hsü and Hsüan T'ung monetary unification." Talanta 169 (July 2017): 50–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.talanta.2017.03.025.
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Schuler, Douglas A., Wei Shi, Robert E. Hoskisson, and Tao Chen. "Windfalls of emperors' sojourns: Stock market reactions to Chinese firms hosting high-ranking government officials." Strategic Management Journal 38, no. 8 (January 30, 2017): 1668–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/smj.2622.
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Montoya, Noemí, Elena Montagna, Yu Lee, María Teresa Doménech-Carbó, and Antonio Doménech-Carbó. "Raman spectroscopy characterization of 10-cash productions from the late Chinese emperors to the Republic." Journal of Raman Spectroscopy 48, no. 10 (July 28, 2017): 1337–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jrs.5218.
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Liu, Yuqing. "A New Model in the Study of Chinese Mythology." Journal of Chinese Humanities 3, no. 1 (February 8, 2017): 1–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/23521341-12340040.
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Chinese mythology [shenhua 神話] does not exist independently as a cultural medium like mythology does in the West but, rather, comprises ideological and narrative forms that emerge according to historical and cultural trends. Not only have myths withstood humanity’s conquest of nature, but they have drawn and continue to draw on the mysteries of scientific development for new content. It is possible to identify three highpoints of creativity in the history of Chinese mythology, each corresponding to shifts in the function and nuance of myths. The first highpoint occurred very early on in China’s ancient history, in the period of the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors [wudi sanwang 五帝三王], when myths were a way to articulate history—that is, history as myth. The second highpoint occurred in the period from the Qin through Jin dynasties, when mythology mainly expounded on philosophy and theory—that is, philosophy as myth. The third highpoint occurred during the Yuan and Ming dynasties, when the narrative content of mythology turned toward the religious—that is, religion as myth.
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Wu, Xiang. "Cultural Background of Carved Stone Sculpture of Ancient Chinese Mausoleums." Scientific and analytical journal Burganov House. The space of culture 17, no. 2 (June 10, 2021): 45–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.36340/2071-6818-2021-17-2-45-52.
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The article explores the ideas, characteristic for religious mindset and philosophy of Confucianism (儒 家思想), about spiritual immortality, filial piety and ethics, which have been firmly established in funerary culture. Harmonic balance of Confucianism, Daoism (道教) and Buddhism brought forth the ideology and concept of immortal soul, according to which the soul does not die after person’s death, and the tomb is its dwelling place. Thus, the construction of tombs gained great significance. The author analyzes Confucian idea of ‘filial piety’, which, merging with ritual funeral concept, developed into a concept of ‘meticulous following of funerary rituals, mourning of parents and worship of ancestors’ (慎终 追远), where the main emphasis is on the organization of parents’ funeral, devotion to ancestors and diligent care of their remains. Furthermore, as Ancient China was an agricultural society which was deliberately devoted to earth, it was believed that the earth is crucial for survival, and one can only rest after death if one’s body is committed to earth. So, to show filial affection, properly make sacrifices, pray for protection, protect the remains and ensure eternal peaceful rest, the internment in the ground became an obligatory condition. And various funeral arrangements, such as marking the grave, its decoration, etc., gradually transformed into funerary plastic art. Consequently, burial in the ground allowed for the possibility and resources to form the funerary plastic art. Ceremonial ideas presented by Mencius (孟子) have become firmly established in the concept of funeral. In a feudal society, for the convenience of government and maintaining the stability of society, etiquette, contributing to the systematization of the hierarchical order of all strata of society, as well as extreme admiration for the imperial power, became a powerful ideological weapon of the rulers. In this ideology, sculptures in the tombs of the supreme rulers – emperors and wangs – are not only guards protecting from evil, but to a greater extent they are also a symbol of imperial power. Therefore, the themes, the number and the size of the sculptures in the tombs of the emperors and wangs were of the highest importance. There is also a strict hierarchical order in the sculptures in front of the tombs of government officials of various levels. Thus, etiquette established standards and order in burial plastic art.
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Pang, Tatiana A. "Bichurin N.Ya. (f. Iakinf). <em>Everyday Exercises of the Chinese Monarch</em>." Письменные памятники Востока 20, no. 3 (September 29, 2023): 104–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.55512/wmo546034.
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One of the earliest papers by N.Ya. Bichurin, Daily Exercises of the Chinese Monarch, was published in The Moscow Messenger journal in 1828. It is one of the numerous popular science publications by Fr. Iakinf about the life in the China of his time. The article was devoted to the inner life of the imperial court, regulations concerning ceremonies and the emperors private life. The text is based on the Da Qing huidian (Collected Statutes of the Great Qing) that was translated into Russian by Iakinf Bichurin. The text of the article was partly used in Bichurins book China in Its Civil and Moral Condition published in 1848, and was included in a chapter on court ceremonies.
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Bregnbaek, Susanne. "A public secret: 'education for quality' and suicide among Chinese elite university students." Learning and Teaching 4, no. 3 (December 1, 2011): 19–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.3167/latiss.2011.040303.
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This article is based on anthropological fieldwork undertaken at two elite universities in Beijing. It addresses the paradoxical situation of the many instances of suicide among Chinese elite university students in Beijing, which constitute a public secret. The pressure of education weighs heavily on the shoulders of China's only child in each family, known as the generation of little emperors and little empresses. Since the 1980s, the suzhi jiaoyu reforms (education for quality) have involved various attempts to reduce the pressure of education. However, simultaneously the aim is to increase the competitiveness of individuals. Drawing on existential and phenomenological thought, I suggest that the discourse seems to objectify and quantify a concern for well-being, rather than recognising its intersubjective character. Finally, I argue that the suicides are controversial since they are seen as a form of social criticism.
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Deopik, Dega V., and Bogdan K. Ganshin. "Reign Symbols as a Source on Chinese History (Part 1)." China: society and culture 1, no. 1 (June 10, 2022): 19–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.17816/ch81799.
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This paper focuses on exploring the symbolical side of the Chinas emperors reign names as the highest sacral generalizations. Reign symbol is pair of characters, which defines a reign of a monarch (or a part of the reign). The first character is a so-called Attribute, second is an Object. This paper raises the question whether the historical dynamics of these symbols change reflects the real changes of socio-political processes. This question is resolved through methods of quantitative analysis of the entire assembly of the reign names of all the centralized empires in the history of East Asia. Methodologically taking these symbols (reign names) as a system, as one hypertext, we categorized their meaning into groups (semantic categories). By studying the dynamics of these groups proportional change through the epochs of various Chinese empires, we came to the conclusion, that the symbolic dynamic of reign names reflects the change the properties of political ideology, changes in the religious politics, and political institutions. Reign names symbols can be used as a historical source on those topics.
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Yeh, Wen-Hsin. "Dai Li and the Liu Geqing Affair: Heroism in the Chinese Secret Service During the War of Resistance." Journal of Asian Studies 48, no. 3 (August 1989): 545–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2058639.
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The nationalist military intelligence service has long been a controversial topic in the history of the Chinese Republic (1912–49). This organization, known as the Military Bureau of Statistics and Investigation (Junshi Weiyuanhui Tongji Diaocha Ju, or Juntong), first impinged on civilian society in the 1930s, when it carried out violent deeds against urban-based intellectuals critical of the Nationalist party's rule. Newspaper writers and editors subsequently compared Juntong to the infamous Eastern Depot and Embroidered Guards of the despotic Ming emperors, denouncing the “feudal” and “fascist” nature of Nationalist rule in political tracts and assemblies. During the Pacific War the image of Juntong's chief, General Dai Li (1897–1946), was blackened when he was compared to the Nazi Heinrich Himmler by the Western press. In the bitter and protracted civil struggles between the Chinese Communist party (CCP) and the Guomindang (GMD) after 1941, the Communists focused sharply on the atrocities committed by Juntong and portrayed Dai Li as a monstrous instrument of Chiang Kai-shek's dictatorship.
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Song, Jaeyoon. "Redefining Good Government: Shifting Paradigms in Song Dynasty (960-1279) Discourse on "Fengjian"." T'oung Pao 97, no. 4-5 (2011): 301–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/156853211x604125.
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AbstractThis article describes changing political visions of the Chinese literati during the two halves of the Song dynasty, as reflected in their discourse on the fengjian (classical enfeoffment) system of antiquity. In the aftermath of the An Lushan rebellion (755-763), a group of political thinkers criticized that system as an ungrounded historical anachronism. This idea gained currency among a majority of the Northern Song statesmen and literati who supported the centralization project of the founding emperors. With the fall of the Northern Song, the ancient fengjian doctrine resurfaced as a sustained constitutional discourse on government. Contesting the imperial vision of centralization and interventionism, Southern Song literati redefined good government for their time.
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Stein, Patrick. "A New Embassy from Taiwan: The Zheng Regime as Extraterritorial Arbiter of Ethnic Peace in Manila, 1662–1683." Translocal Chinese: East Asian Perspectives 15, no. 2 (October 7, 2021): 247–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/24522015-15020005.
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Abstract In 1662, shortly after conquering Taiwan, Zheng Chenggong wrote to the Spanish governor of Manila, threatening to invade the Philippines if the Spanish did not swear vassalage to his new regime. Although the Spanish refused, Chenggong died before he could carry out his threat, and his successor Zheng Jing wrote a second letter offering terms for peace. These exchanges provide some of the only surviving direct recordings of the Zheng leaders’ beliefs regarding the rights, responsibilities, and boundaries of “Chinese” identity, in particular the relationship between Sangleys and Chinese rulers. Both Zhengs claimed rulership over Manila’s Chinese, but where Zheng Chenggong stated a right to direct rule over this population, Zheng Jing compromised by requesting changes to the Spanish laws which governed his “subjects” in the Philippines. These demands recall modern notions of citizenship and extraterritoriality, and provide a rare contemporary Chinese perspective on colonial Manila’s policies of ethnic segregation. The Zheng state’s active pressure, by contrast to Ming and Qing emperors’ customary disinterest in overseas Chinese, forced the Spanish to reduce their oppression of and reliance on the Chinese, but this also involved expelling thousands of migrants and enforcing long-ignored legal limits on immigration. I argue that this period of conflict clarified the Spaniard’s notion of where chinos fit into their empire’s particular ethno-legal system. This episode thus shows how the Chinese experience in the Philippines was shaped not just by European attitudes, but also by the nature of the Sangleys’ political links to China.
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Maiorova, Natalya S., and Artem Ed Maiorov. "The Far East in Russian foreign policy according to “Memoirs” by S.Yu. Witte." Vestnik of Kostroma State University 29, no. 2 (October 12, 2023): 18–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.34216/1998-0817-2023-29-2-18-23.
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The article is devoted to the analysis of “Memoirs” by S.Yu. Witte in the context of the study of the Far Eastern policy of the Russian Empire and contradictions between Russia and Japan, which had been growing only to cause the war of 1904-1905. S.Yu. Witte was a member of the political elite of Russia in the late 19th and the early 20th centuries and, as Minister of Finance and Chairman of the Committee of Ministers, he was involved in critical decisions on domestic and foreign policy matters. Witte's memoirs reflected his meetings with the Russian and German emperors, Japanese and Chinese statesmen, members of the imperial family, and ministers for the Russian Far East. This information is of great value, containing numerous details, lengthy descriptions and personal observations related to the penetration of Russia into China and the acquisition of new bases for the Pacific Navy. The reverse side of the memoirs is their subjectivity and the author's desire in a special way to emphasise his own historical correctness, despite the erroneous opinions and short-sightedness of Emperor Nicholas II and his ministers. S.Yu. Witte repeatedly reproached the political elite for inconsistency in actions, unwillingness to comply with the obligations assumed, and underestimation of the enemy. All these miscalculations had catastrophic consequences in the form of Russia's defeat by the Japanese and the attempted Revolution of 1905-1907.