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Journal articles on the topic 'Chinese tributary system'
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Hompot, Sebestyén. "A Discourse Analysis of Recent Mainland Chinese Historiography on the Sinocentric Tributary System of the Ming and Qing Dynasties (1368–1912)." Vienna Journal of East Asian Studies 12, no. 1 (December 1, 2020): 149–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/vjeas-2020-0006.
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AbstractThe article investigates the recent (2000–2019) mainland Chinese historiography on the Sinocentric tributary system of the Míng and Qīng periods (1368–1912). The theoretical approach of the article is based on Foucauldian discourse theory, as well as Chinese theoretical scholarship on the evolution of Chinese thought. Its methodology is primarily based on Reiner Keller’s sociological discourse research method. The main body of the article is structured upon the major fields of argumentation of the discourse, identified by the author as “the validity of the term ‘tributary system,’” “the tributary system and pre-modern Chinese culture,” “the tributary system and Míng-Qīng Chinese socio-economic history,” and “the tributary system and the regional political order.” The article argues that the ‘discursive struggle’ in recent historiography on the tributary system is primarily a result of its contested interpretation and evaluation under current dominant framings of an ideal international order—one centred around the principles of national sovereignty and “win-win” economic cooperation.
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Chen (陳尚勝), Shangsheng. "The Chinese Tributary System and Traditional International Order in East Asia during the Ming and Qing Dynasties from the Sixteenth to Nineteenth Century." Journal of Chinese Humanities 5, no. 2 (July 6, 2020): 171–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/23521341-12340079.
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Abstract Throughout the history of East Asia, various polities in modern-day Korea, Japan, and Vietnam accepted investitures bestowed by the Chinese royal court. Many of these states also established their own vassal structures based on this tributary system. In light of this, it would be more accurate to describe the traditional international order of East Asia as a system of investitures and tributes, an “investiture-tribute system.” The significance of this system is the royal court being revered by its tributaries, which acknowledge it as the superior power. Looking at the vassal relationship between the Ming [1368-1644] and Qing [1644-1911] courts and the states of Joseon 朝鮮, Ryukyu 琉球, and Vietnam under various names, it is clear that the tributary system was a basic mechanism that facilitated bilateral trade, cultural exchange, border control, and judicial cooperation. Moreover, when vassal states encountered threats to their national security, the Chinese government assisted them with diplomatic and military resources befitting its position as the imperial court. Yet, although the tributary system enabled a relationship in which the royal court enjoyed a position of superiority and its vassal states an inferior one, none of the vassal states formed an alliance that revolved around the Chinese empire. Hence, in the near-modern period, the system struggled to contend with both the great world powers that made use of the treaty system and the expansion of Japan in East Asia.
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Spruyt, Hendrik. "Collective Imaginations and International Order: The Contemporary Context of the Chinese Tributary System." Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 77, no. 1 (2017): 21–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/jas.2017.0003.
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INOGUCHI, TAKASHI. "Introduction to the Special Issue: Japanese Studies in Japan and its Vicinities: Economics and Sociology." Japanese Journal of Political Science 13, no. 2 (May 1, 2012): 163–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1468109912000011.
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Studies of foreign countries often depend on the lure of the image of an unknown market. The lure of the China market led King George III to send his emissary, Lord MacCartney, to China to meet Emperor Jianlung in 1793 and to give the Emperor a letter as well as an enormous collection of gifts. The purpose of this envoy to China was to convince the Emperor to ease restrictions on trade between Great Britain and China. In 1816, in the chronicles of Emperor Jiaqing, foreign countries were categorized in two ways: tributary countries and trading countries. By tributary country is meant a country, usually a smaller and less-advanced country, which pays loyal respect and is compliant and in return is given many rare and precious gifts, and is thus bestowed a position in what is considered as the Pax Sinica (Latin for Chinese Peace). By trading country is meant a country which is devoid of the meaning in the Pax Sinica in Chinese understanding. England was categorized as a tributary country, whereas in English history England was portrayed as one of the Western countries which tried to open the country and ports, thereby expanding its commercial ties. According to the Jiaqing huidian (imperial chronicles) England, Korea, and Vietnam are categorized as tributary countries, whereas France, the Netherlands, and Japan are categorized as a trading countries. During most of the Qing period (1644–1911), Japan adopted the system of trading with foreign countries whereby the Tokugawa central government monopolized external commerce, which traded only with Dutch and Chinese merchants. In 1949, the People's Republic of China was proclaimed to change the content of history. Instead of tributary-networked Pax Sinica, Western and later Japanese imperialism and colonialism started the destruction of the Pax Sinica which was replaced by Western hegemony spearheaded by England.
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Zewei, Yang. "Western International Law and China's Confucianism in the 19th Century. Collision and Integration." Journal of the History of International Law 13, no. 2 (2011): 285–306. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15718050-13020002.
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The Confucian world view in China was based on the concept of the Celestial Empire of China and embodied in the Tributary System. The Chinese view could not fit into the equal international relationship asserted among European countries. In the mid-19th century, especially after the Opium Wars, international law embarked on a furious collision with Chinese traditional Confucianism. Threatened by forces of Western powers, the Qing government had no choice but to come to compromise with the Western powers. Consequently, the Confucian world order based on the Celestial Empire of China collapsed and Chinese officials and scholars began to learn, accept and apply international law.
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Shih, Chih-Yu. "Friendship in Chinese International Relations." Communist and Post-Communist Studies 53, no. 4 (December 1, 2020): 177–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/j.postcomstud.2020.53.4.177.
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Confucian friendship adds to the literature on friendship distance sensibilities and aims to maintain and even reinforce the Confucian ethical order, whereas contemporary international politics fails to provide any clear ethical order. The use of friendship and the concomitant creation of a friendly role by China indicate an intended move away from the improper order, including the tributary system, the Cold War, imperialism, and socialism. Confucian friendship continues to constitute contemporary Chinese diplomacy under the circumstance of indeterminate distance sensibilities. It highlights the relevance of the prior relations that are perceived to have constituted friendship. This article explores several illustrative practices of a Confucian typology of friendly international relations, divided into four kinds of friendship, according to (1) the strength of prior relations and (2) the asymmetry of capacity, including the policies toward Russia, North Korea, and Vietnam, among others. Such a Confucian friendship framework additionally alludes to foreign policy analysis in general. The US policies for China and North Korea are examples that indicate this wide scope of application.
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Kim, Bongjin. "Rethinking of the Pre-Modern East Asian Region Order." Journal of East Asian Studies 2, no. 2 (August 2002): 67–101. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1598240800000916.
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The preconceived image of the pre-modern East Asian region order, known commonly as the tributary system, is problematic. That is because it is represented by ‘the Other’ — not only the external (Westerners) but also the internal (Asians) — and in turn the inaccurate image has gone on reproducing, expanding, and dominating. In order to solve this problem, in question, this paper will first critically review the preconceived image of the pre-modern Chinese world order and identify the problems of Orientalism and modernism. Then, in search for a real image, the paper reinterprets Confucian ideas and concepts as the principles undergirding the pre-modern East Asian regional order. The paper also discusses the Korean kyorin system, one of the subsystems of the pre-modern East Asian order. The objective is to decipher the ways in which Korea interpreted and institutionalized the Confucian ideas on foreign policy or international relationships during the Choson dynasty (1392–1910).By doing these, we can describe a more real image of the pre-modern East Asian region order. The more “real” interstate relationship was based on li (principle) and li* (rites), and harmonized with another concept of gong (the public/publicness), as shown by pingfen or junfen (the fairly allocated). Based on such conceptions of the human world, the pre-modern East Asian regional order was divided into different territories and dominions, each with its own sovereign. Once the formality of the suzerain and tributary state was recognized, moreover, China did not intervene in the internal and external affairs of the tributary as well as hushi (a foreign trade system) states. Like interpersonal relationships, interstate ones were hierarchic, but they were also based on the idea of reciprocity, fair allocation as well as impartiality, harmony, and coexistence.
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Phillips, Andrew. "Contesting the Confucian peace: Civilization, barbarism and international hierarchy in East Asia." European Journal of International Relations 24, no. 4 (July 4, 2017): 740–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1354066117716265.
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International Relations scholars have turned to China’s tributary system to broaden our understanding of international systems beyond the ‘states-under-anarchy’ model derived from European history. This scholarship forms the inspiration and foil for this article, which refines International Relations scholars’ conceptualizations of how international hierarchy arose and endured in East Asia during the Manchu Qing Dynasty — China’s last and most territorially expansive imperial dynasty. I argue that existing conceptions of East Asian hierarchy overstate the importance of mutual identification between the region’s Confucian monarchies in sustaining Chinese hegemony. Instead, we can understand Qing China’s dominance only once we recognize the Manchus as a ‘barbarian’ dynasty, which faced unique challenges legitimating its rule domestically and internationally. As ‘barbarian’ conquerors, Manchus did not secure their rule by simply conforming to pre-existing Sinic cultural norms. Instead, like other contemporary Eurasian empires, they maintained dominance through strategies of heterogeneous contracting. Domestically, they developed customized legitimacy scripts tailored to win the allegiance of the empire’s diverse communities. Internationally, meanwhile, the Manchus strategically appropriated existing Confucian norms and practices of tributary diplomacy in ways that mitigated — but did not eliminate — Confucian vassals’ resentment of ‘barbarian’ domination. East Asian hierarchy may have been more peaceful than Westphalian anarchy, but the absence of war masks a more coercive reality where the appearance of Confucian conformity obscured more fractious relations between Qing China and even its ostensibly most loyal vassals.
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OKIMORI, Takuya. "Korean and Japanese as Chinese-Characters Cultural Spheres." Acta Linguistica Asiatica 4, no. 3 (February 17, 2015): 43–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.4312/ala.4.3.43-70.
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Korea and Japan belong to Chinese-characters cultural spheres. In the time of Han Dynasty and thereafter, tributary states connected with the monarchy of Chinese Kingdom and its surrounding countries. They imported Chinese state regulations, accepted and developed many thoughts and cultures by bringing in Chinese characters of Chinese classics. However, there have been some different points in the treatment of Chinese characters in each nation. The Korean modern writing system does not use Chinese characters in general, while on the contrary in Japanese, there is a tendency to increase the number of regularly-used Chinese characters, for example in the official list of jōyō kanji 常用漢字 announced by the Ministry of Education, with the latest increase in 2010. Therefore, it is necessary to observe more about some aspects of the languages to know why this different treatment occurred. The oldest Korean document is the History of the Three Kingdoms, Samguk Sagi 『三国史記』 that contains geographical proper names. The Buyeo-Kingdom languages were recorded there, including place names. It is no doubt that the use of Chinese characters of Silla have significantly affected Goguryeo and Paekche. The Silla and Buyeo-Kingdom languages have closed syllables with a consonant at the end of each syllable, while in Japanese, the syllables end with vowels as open syllables. There are further phonological characteristics as well. This article discusses how each language encountered Chinese characters, and how they related to their specific languages, and also how Chinese characters particularly reflected syllable structures of different languages. It can be said that the use of Chinese characters in proper names estranged the futures of Korean and Japanese in history. Focus is laid on the history of Korean and Japanese through Chinese characters, with their falsely similar language dispositions.
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Sanin, Konstantin A. "Chinese empire or a prototype of responsible global power: discussions on the Great Qing in China and the West." Vostok. Afro-aziatskie obshchestva: istoriia i sovremennost, no. 4 (2021): 185. http://dx.doi.org/10.31857/s086919080014533-3.
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In the light of China’s rise, it is of great interest to consider the views that are widespread in the PRC on the nature of Chinese state and the proper mode of international relations. Considering that Chinese leadership has proclaimed the goal of "rejuvenation" of the Chinese nation, modern assessments of China's historical past allow us to take a fresh look at the prospects for China's internal development as well as Chinese foreign policy in Asia. In this regard the era of the Qing Dynasty is of particular interest. During that period Chinese territory expanded approximately to its modern borders, and the relations with the neighbors underwent a transition from the tributary system to the modern Westphalian type of international relations. There exist various interpretations of Chinese foreign policy’s traditions. Those interpretations are largely determined by the attitude to China's current behavior at the international stage. While the Chinese rulers have adopted the concept of traditional Chinese world order that is of Western origin, many Western researchers nowadays question this concept and tend to describe pre-revolutionary China as one of many expansionist empires in Eurasia. That point of view is subject to sharp criticism from Chinese authors. The portrayal of Qing China as one of the empires can entail serious consequences for international relations as well as the territorial integrity of the PRC. In order to achieve their goals in domestic and foreign policy, Chinese leaders strive to build a historical narrative in such a way that it combines the elements of various historical periods which are most profitable in the current circumstances, including the history of Silk Road.
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Meng, Weizhan, and Weixing Hu. "Reacting to China’s rise throughout history: balancing and accommodating in East Asia." International Relations of the Asia-Pacific 20, no. 1 (September 11, 2018): 119–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/irap/lcy022.
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AbstractThe rise of China and how other countries respond to China’s rising is widely studied. But little has been done on how other countries reacted to the rise of China throughout history and how China strategically interacted with them. The conventional wisdom holds East Asian international relations did not operate in the Westphalian way and China’s rising in history did not trigger regional balancing actions. In this article, we challenge that view. We argue East Asian international relations were not exceptional to basic rules of the Westphalian system. Each time China rose up, it triggered balancing actions from neighboring regimes, including nomadic empires and settled kingdoms. The neighboring regimes would accommodate China only after they were defeated by China or pro-China regimes propped up in these countries. The Chinese hegemony in East Asian history could not be taken for granted. Over last 2,000 plus years, only during three periods of time (the Qin-Han 秦汉, Sui-Tang 隋唐, and Ming-Qing 明清 dynasties) China could successfully overpower regional resistance and enjoyed a stable tributary relationship with neighboring states. In the rest of time, the Chinese state could not retain hegemony in East Asia.
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Choi, Jung-Bum. "A reassessment of so-called Hwangyongsa-style metal belt." Yeongnam Archaeological Society, no. 82 (September 30, 2018): 125–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.47417/yar.2018.82.125.
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Discoveries of Hwangnyongsa-style metal belts, usually brackets and belts as well as round and edge ornaments, excavated from the lower part of the pillar built in the center of this wooden pagoda in Gyeongju led the existence of this site to become known. Subsequent excavations have intermittently targeted local burial tombs but few cases have so far been found; it is nevertheless important to carefully consider the appearance, development, and extinction of these tombs as occurrences are only known from a limited time period between the late sixth century and early seventh century. One characteristic feature of Hwangnyongsa-style metal belts is that the ornament and the pattern are raised together; this means that when a belt is worn it buckled by inserting a bracket needle into a round ornament. This is different from the inverted leap-like shape of a metal belt and somewhat similar to the way that these items are depicted as being buckled in Chinese burial mound and mural figures. Most of the patterns seen on these metal belts are also shared with decorative designs seen on reliefs and murals from North dynasty and Sui dynasty ancient tombs; on this basis, these artifacts can be viewed as Chinese-influenced Silla metal belts. Hwangnyongsa-style and Tang-style metal belts have also not been differentiated from one another in conventional interpretations and it has been considered reasonable to assume that the method of ornament making innovatively changed from the use of patterns to none. Hwangnyongsa-style metal belts can therefore be included within the same category as their Tang-style counterparts, as part of the evolution of these items in China. It is known that the Silla dynasty formed political ties with the Chinese dynasty at some point during the middle of the sixth century via the tributary appointment system. This led to a transformation of cultures and products inside China to fit the situation within the Silla dynasty which was then utilized for regional control; the Silla dynasty ruled rural areas by providing Oewie to local forces newly incorporated into the area and by including numerous local owners into the Gyeongwie system subsequent to unification. The time between the mid-sixth century and the early seventh century when the Oewie system was functioning within the Silla dynasty therefore functioned as a tool for regional control and is consistent with the timing of the appearance of Hwangnyongsa-style metal belts in rural areas and changes in their form.
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Labecka, Anna Maria, and Jozef Domagala. "Two pathways for spermatogenesis in Sinanodonta woodiana (Lea, 1834) (Bivalvia: Unionidae)." Journal of Molluscan Studies 85, no. 3 (April 9, 2019): 300–310. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/mollus/eyz012.
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Abstract The Chinese pond mussel, Sinanodonta woodiana, an invasive species indigenous to Asia, naturally colonizes new locations as a glochidium that parasitizes fish. Human activity has facilitated a continental-scale spread of S. woodiana in Europe, where it is found in artificial reservoirs and has begun to invade natural habitats. This study aimed to investigate the reproductive activity of males in a female-biased population of S. woodiana that lives in a riverine channel linked to a power plant with a cooling water system in NW Poland. Cells formed during spermatogenesis and morphological changes in reproductive follicles (acini) were analysed over a 2-year period using light microscopy. Typical and atypical spermatogenic pathways were identified. The atypical spermatozoa were released from multinucleated cysts and had significantly shorter heads than typical spermatozoa. Spermatozoa formed in the typical way occurred consistently in all months over the study period, while the atypical spermatozoa were recorded occasionally in the first year of the study and more frequently in the second study. The highest proportion of males with spent gonads was found in late summer and early autumn. Our data show that mussels produce spermatozoa year-round, but that the levels of typical and atypical spermatogenesis varied. The two pathways of spermatogenesis in S. woodiana provide an important insight into potential mechanisms underlying the evolution of doubly uniparental inheritance of mitochondrial DNA, a phenomenon observed in S. woodiana. Additionally, a detailed understanding of the reproductive cycle of this non-native species can help to understand its reproductive potential and predict the likely direction of population change in a newly colonized area. The breeding population of S. woodiana studied by us inhabits a tributary of the Odra River, one of Poland’s largest rivers, and thus poses a threat to the natural environment. Riverine habitats like our study site are local heat islands and the mussels reproducing in them over time may colonize natural waters and expand the range of their distribution.
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Lim (林 泉 忠), John Chuan-Tiong. "The Alternative Chinatown: Lewchew (Ryukyu) Kume Village and “36 Min Families” (另類唐人街 -「閩人三十六姓」與琉球久米村)." Translocal Chinese: East Asian Perspectives 10, no. 2 (October 20, 2016): 316–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/24522015-01002007.
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Kumemura Village, or Kuninda, has been known as the community of Chinese immigrants with a more than five-hundred year background of scholar-bureaucrat aristocracy in Lewchew, or Ryukyu. They supposedly originated from a group of 36 families from the Southern Chinese Min (閩) ethnic group since 1392. Although much research has been conducted on the subject matter throughout the years, there is almost no scholar who would tackle it on the concept of a “Chinatown.” There are basically two reasons to account for such tendency in academics. Firstly, unlike most Chinese immigrant groups in other parts of the world, the 36 Min Families who had moved to Lewchew did not leave the country of their own accord, for neither private nor economic reasons, but in fact, were ordered by Emperor Hongwu to emigrate for political reasons. Furthermore, Kuninda-chu, the descendants of 36 Min Families, have almost, in the same way as other Okinawa people regard them over the years, never seen themselves as “overseas Chinese.”However, this paper argues that there are still plenty of similarities between Kuninda-chu and other overseas Chinese in the world. The two main points for this paper are: firstly, Kuninda-chu relied excessively on the Chinese World Order and tributary system for its maintenance, so its survival rested primarily on the existence of this political structure, and was eventually disintegrated upon the collapse of the system. Secondly, Chinese culture was largely brought by Kuninda-chu to Ryukyu during the Ming and Qing Dynasties, but it is still kept alive and observed in Okinawa society to this day and in stark contrast with the Yamaonchu, the Japanese in the mainland of Japan, it directly helped shaping and forming the Okinawa people’s self-identity as Uchinan-chu.Truly, Kuninda no longer exists in the Okinawa society today, but Kuninda-chu’s descendants have been upholding their unique ethic image through various traditional activities organized by different groups, Kume-Sosekai notwithstanding. Moreover, Kuninda-chu is also one of the earliest overseas Chinese groups who had assimilated successfully into the local Okinawa community. It is clear that Kuninda is one of the most paramount alternative cases for the studies of overseas Chinese.過去有關琉球「久米村」的歷史研究，鮮有學者以「唐人街」的概念來探討它的歷史與社會形態。其原因係「久米村人」或稱「閩人三十六姓」擁有有別於一般認知的華僑特徵。其一、儘管「久米村人」來自於中國著名僑鄉福建，然而這些移民最初並非個人的意志，亦非家庭因素而來到琉球，因爲他們是「官派」移民。其二、早期第一代閩僑「出外」的目的，乃以經濟為主要誘因，然「閩人三十六姓」則是受明太祖洪武帝派遣，前來琉球以輔助王國之營運及維繫與中國的關係，其政治目的十分清晰。其三、「閩人三十六姓」的子孫之間幾乎不存在「華僑」意識，更多的視自己為琉球人的一部分，而其他琉球人亦如此視之。然而本文認爲「久米村人」與一般認知上的華僑、華人還是有許多共通之處。本文聚焦兩個主要面向，來探討「久米村」及「久米村人」在僑居地琉球的變遷與影響。兩大論點包括一、儘管「久米村」對琉球王國的發展功不可沒，然而過於仰賴「中華世界體系」的存在，故因該體制的興起而生，亦因該體制的衰亡而瓦解；二、「久米村人」是將中國文化大量帶進琉球的重要推手，中國文化至今仍在沖繩社會傳承，並在沖繩人形塑自我認同上發揮不可或缺的重要影響。儘管「久米村」已不復存在，然而擁有500年歷史的「久米村」留下了龐大有跡可尋的歷史紀錄，而「久米村人」的後裔至今仍透過許多聯誼組織，低調地繼續維繫著在琉球社會中獨特族群的形象，而「久米村人」也是歷史上華僑最早「落地生根」的族群之一，提供了華僑、華人研究不可多得的重要個案。 (This article is in Chinese.)
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Oh, Si Jin. "Resolving the Misunderstood Historical Order: A Korean Perspective on the Historical Tributary Order in East Asia." Journal of the History of International Law / Revue d’histoire du droit international 21, no. 3 (October 28, 2019): 341–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15718050-12340115.
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Abstract Regarding the historical East Asian order, previous studies appear to have emphasized Chinese and Japanese perspectives, and this academic phenomenon seems to have contributed to solidifying a misunderstanding. This study attempts to present a Korean perspective providing different points of view that challenge previous perspectives on the legal status of Korea in the nineteenth century. One of the critical misunderstandings about the historical relationship between China and Korea is that of vassalage. However, such an analogy is misleading. The East Asian international normative order, which was based on Li, is a particular order that requires a separate treatment. The nature of the tributary order would not necessarily impair sovereignty if it were possible to project and apply the classical international law of the nineteenth century. As the policy of Dongdoseogi represents, however, Korea once seemed to have preferred to maintain the two normative systems simultaneously.
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Embke, Holly S., Patrick M. Kocovsky, Tatiana Garcia, Christine M. Mayer, and Song S. Qian. "Modeling framework to estimate spawning and hatching locations of pelagically spawned eggs." Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 76, no. 4 (April 2019): 597–607. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/cjfas-2018-0047.
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Identifying spawning and hatching locations is vital to controlling invasive fish and conserving imperiled fish, which can be difficult for pelagically spawning species with semi-buoyant eggs. In freshwater systems, this reproductive strategy is common among cyprinid species, such as Chinese carp species currently threatening the Great Lakes. Following the confirmation that one of these species, grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella), was spawning in a Great Lakes tributary, we developed a modeling framework to combine field data with hydraulic models to calculate the most probable spawning and hatching locations for collected eggs. Our results indicate that the estimated spawning location encompassed habitat consistent with spawning sites in grass carp’s native range. Additionally, all eggs were identified to have hatched in the river, increasing the likelihood of successful recruitment. This modeling framework can be used to estimate spawning and hatching locations for Chinese carp species, as well as all pelagic, riverine spawners. Spawning and hatching locations provide key information to researchers about the reproductive requirements of species and to agencies about how best to manage populations for control or restoration.
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Jeyakumar, Uthra. "Chinese Tributary System- the way of maintaining order and stability." Academia Letters, August 11, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.20935/al2886.
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Balci, Ali. "Bringing the Ottoman Order Back into International Relations: A Distinct International Order or Part of an Islamic International Society?" International Studies Review, July 13, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/isr/viab031.
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Abstract Long neglected in international relations (IRs), the Ottoman Empire is now getting the attention it deserves. Leaving its “Westphalian straitjacket” behind, the discipline has finally taken a keen interest in non-Western and historical cases. However, the discipline has long focused disproportionately on the Chinese tributary system and produced a large body of literature about it. Spruyt's The World Imagined presents two crucial innovations. The book, on the one hand, introduces the “Islamic international society” into the mainstream, and on the other hand, balances the dominance of the Chinese tributary system in the historical IR subfield. When Spruyt's book is read together with Mikhail's God's Shadow and White's Piracy and Law in the Ottoman Mediterranean, it becomes clear that the Ottoman Empire should be treated as a distinct international order. By including another book in the debate (Casale's The Ottoman Age of Exploration), this study aims to problematize “Islamic international society” and introduce the Ottoman Empire as a distinct international order.