Journal articles on the topic 'Choral writing for Samba'

La casa di peste drum [At the House across the Road] is, perhaps, Tudor Jarda`s most emblematic choral work, being the first composition of the 10 carols for mixed choir included in the volume Coruri [Choral Works] (1981). Dedicated to Maestro Dorin Pop and the Cappella Transylvanica choir, this work has been part of the ensemble`s repertoire since the publication of the collection, being also found in the repertoire of the most important Cluj and Transylvanian choirs. This paper aims to detail aspects of musical grammar in the choral work La casa di peste drum, highlighting the close connection between the text and music and its implications in the choral interpretation. The morphological and syntactic analysis also highlights certain characteristics of Tudor Jarda`s choral writing.

This article appeared in the July 1963 issue of Musical Times, whose regular choral music supplement of that month was Christopher Shaw's anthem for chorus and organ A Lesson from Ecclesiastes. It was the first writing of substance to appear about this composer, and very nearly the last to date.

The purpose of the article is to focus on the features of theUkrainian choral miniature genre and to identify the main aspects of theirimplementation in choral works by V. Stetsenko. The article deals with thestyle of writing of choral miniatures of the composer, influenced by thetraditions coming from M. Lysenko, K. Stetsenko, M. Leontovich. Themethods of the research are based on historical-typological, genre,stylistic and functional methods of analysis. The structurally analytical investigative method have had weighty significance into process theregularization of scientific material and improvement of the conclusions.The comparative method was applied by author for profound formation ofthe results concerning the scientific studying of series compositions inreference to the choir miniature genre. The performing analysis of choralmasterpieces is also employed by writer in the process of the researchwork. The scientific novelty of the article is the circulation and analysis ofchoral works by V. Stetsenko, which are first studied in musicology; inrevealing the specifics of linguistic means, compositional features and theformation of choral miniatures. Conclusions. Proceeding from thepeculiarities of the figurative content of texts used in miniatures as theprimary source, V. Stetsenko uses a whole complex of intonations thatreproduce the musical-intonational populist basis. One of the ways ofconstructing works is a combination of harmonic and polyphonic tools inthe choral text. The verse is complemented by the introduction and thecode. The analysis of choral miniatures of folk type by V. Stetsenkoshowed their interconnection with the traditions of Ukrainian folk-danceculture.In this case, the composer does not seek to use genuine folkmelodies, but uses the method of stylization of song folklore, taking as itsbasis the basic intonational, fashion, texture features.

The purpose of the article is to study the creative aspects of the performance interpretation of the choral work “Lux Aurumque” by the modern American composer E. Whitacre in the perspective of comparative analysis of performance versions. The research methodology includes classical musicological methods – analytical, interpretive and comparative methods. The concept of the article was created in the process of developing the ideas of I. Polusmyak and K. Timofeyeva. The scientific novelty is based on the fact of virtualization of choral singing that has not become the subject of a separate scientific study yet. The overriding task of the study is to clarify the specifics of the communicative conditions for the coexistence of national and cultural traditions of American and Ukrainian choral cultures. The influence of the semantics of the poetic source and the peculiarities of the composer’s choral writing are considered. The ways and possibilities of choral performance in the synthesis of traditional conditions and tendencies of cultural communication of modern society in the global network Internet are investigated. The specifics of the communicative conditions of coexistence of national and cultural traditions of American and Ukrainian choral culture are clarified. Comparative methods in this study include the analysis of several performance varieties – Virtual Choir 1.0., singing of the choir Eric Whitacre Singers under the direction of the author and the performance of the Student Choir of Kharkiv I. P. Kotlyarevsky National University of Arts. In the process of studying the cognitive possibilities of comparative analysis of performing interpretations of the selected composition, common and different features dui to various physical conditions and vocal-technological approaches were revealed. Conclusions. Consideration of the features of performance drama in the process of creation virtual and real choral work versions has revealed that the selected performance versions can be divided into two types: correspondence (the first two author’s options) and adaptation (Student Choir). This topic provides a perspective area for further research and will have an exceptional scientific result in case of cooperation of specialists in several spheres – musicology, sound design, acoustics and sociology.

Among the Russian composers of the turn of the 17th and 18th centuries a special position is held by the sacred choral works of Vassily Titov (ca. 1650 — ca. 1715), one of the bright representatives of the polyphonic part singing, in which the originality of the Russian Baroque musical culture. The music of Vassily Titov, an outstanding master of choral writing, is diverse in terms of its genres, it comprises nearly two hundred compositions, many of which predominated in the church music repertoire of Russian churches during the course of the 18th century. A study of Vassily Titov’s choral works has made it possible to disclose the characteristic features of the composer’s polyphonic style. The latter include the multi-choral presentation with its bright spatial effects, the antiphonic juxtapositions of large choral masses, the principles of concertizing based on the succession of solo voices and tutti, on the juxtaposition of the chordal-harmonic and the polyphonic exposition, as well as the skillful mastery of imitational counterpoint, up to polyphonic variation. Features of national originality reveal themselves most vividly in the musical thematicism of the compositions, where along with the ornamental design of the intertwining melodic lines and turns of an instrumental type, use is made of intonations of folk songs, cants and church chants. In his musical oeuvres Vassily Titov revised and reevaluated the basic characteristic traits and forms of Western European Baroque music in correspondence with the particularities of Russian musical culture, thereby preserving and enriching the traditions of the Russian national style.

Background. The substantiation of the logic of stylistic synthesis in the light of the choral component of the dramaturgy of this composition opens up the prospect of studying choral counterpoint of the twentieth century as universals and also helps to identify patterns of artistic thinking. Objectives. The article is devoted to the identification of semantic function of the choral counterpoint in the context of the overall dramaturgy in Canticum Sacrum ad honorem Sancti Marci Nominis by Stravinsky. Methods. The author used hermeneutic, structural-functional, semantic research methods. The performing approach to the studying fragments of Stravinsky’s compositions reflects the specificity of choral art. Results. Choral counterpoint in the context of the overall dramaturgy Canticum sacrum develops into a separate layer, which is more than others, depends on strict norms of counterpoint. Stravinsky, relying on the traditions of the cantata genre, distinguishes the choral component into a peculiar counterpoint, which contrasts with others layers of the dramaturgy (orchestra, organ, soloists). It has been found that the solo parts of the score have a more subjective embodiment, in which there are both an expressive recitation of lyric lines (Song of Solomon 4:16, 5:1) and an emotional appeal to the God (Mark 9:23-24) while the choral layer of dramaturgy represents the main tenets of the Faith: Preaching the Gospel and Three Christian Virtues – Love, Faith and Hope. The counterpoint as a reflection of the idea of “absolute harmony” in the context of the composition is the Divine Word and the main precept with which there is sacrificial Love, Faith and Hope for the salvation. Features of the pitch organization are the result of the composer’s reference to the serialism. The combination of the principles of the classical 12-tone technique with the elements of serialism determines the specific interpretation of melodic material, intervallic structure and voice leading. Conclusions. Analysis of the fragments of Canticum sacrum score set that the choral counterpoint performs the function of objectification to express basic postulate ideas. That is why the norms of poetics of the strict counterpoint are the dominant stylistic components in the choral writing of Stravinsky. They appear in the symmetry or proportionality of the forms, the partial usage of the textural features of the samples of this stylistic direction, as well as the whole apparatus of canonic techniques.

Background. Choral work of American composers of the second half of the XX century is characterized by new qualities that have appeared because of not only musical but also non-musical factors generated by the system of cultural, historical and social conditions. Despite of a serious amount of scientific literature on the history of American music, the choral layer of American music remains partially unexplored, especially, in Ukrainian musical science, that bespeaks the science and practical novelty of the research results. The purpose of this study is to discover and to analyze the peculiarities of the historical formation and identity of American choral art of the second half of the twentieth century using the the works of famous American artists as examples. The research methodology is based on theoretical, historical and analytical methods, generalization and specification. Results. The general picture of the development of American composers’ practice in the genre of choral music is characterized by genre and style diversity. In our research we present portraits of iconic figures of American choral music in the period under consideration. So, the choral works of William Dawson (1899–1990), one of the most famous African-American composers, are characterized by the richness of the choral texture, intense sonority and demonstration of his great understanding of the vocal potential of the choir. Dawson was remembered, especially, for the numerous arrangements of spirituals, which do not lose their popularity. Aaron Copland (1899–1990), which was called “the Dean of American Composers”, was one of the founder of American music “classical” style, whose name associated with the America image in music. Despite the fact that the composer tends to atonalism, impressionism, jazz, constantly uses in his choral opuses sharp dissonant sounds and timbre contrasts, his choral works associated with folk traditions, written in a style that the composer himself called “vernacular”, which is characterized by a clearer and more melodic language. Among Copland’s famous choral works are “At The River”, “Four Motets”, “In the Beginning”, “Lark”, “The Promise of Living”; “Stomp Your Foot” (from “The Tender Land”), “Simple Gifts”, “Zion’s Walls” and others. Dominick Argento’s (1927–2019) style is close to the style of an Italian composer G. C. Menotti. Argento’s musical style, first of all, distinguishes the dominance of melody, so he is a leading composer in the genre of lyrical opera. Argento’s choral works are distinguished by a variety of performers’ stuff: from a cappella choral pieces – “A Nation of Cowslips”, “Easter Day” for mixed choir – to large-scale works accompanied by various instruments: “Apollo in Cambridge”, “Odi et Amo”, “Jonah and the Whale”, “Peter Quince at the Clavier”, “Te Deum”, “Tria Carmina Paschalia”, “Walden Pond”. For the choir and percussion, Argento created “Odi et Amo” (“I Hate and I Love”), 1981, based on the texts of the ancient Roman poet Catullus, which testifies to the sophistication of the composer’s literary taste and his skill in reproducing complex psychological states. The most famous from Argento’s spiritual compositions is “Te Deum” (1988), where the Latin text is combined with medieval English folk poetry, was recorded and nominated for a Grammy Award. Among the works of Samuel Barber’s (1910–1981) vocal and choral music were dominating. His cantata “Prayers of Kierkegaard”, based on the lyrics of four prayers by this Danish philosopher and theologian, for solo soprano, mixed choir and symphony orchestra is an example of an eclectic trend. Chapter I “Thou Who art unchangeable” traces the imitation of a traditional Gregorian male choral singing a cappella. Chapter II “Lord Jesus Christ, Who suffered all lifelong” for solo soprano accompanied by oboe solo is an example of minimalism. Chapter III “Father in Heaven, well we know that it is Thou” reflects the traditions of Russian choral writing. William Schumann (1910–1992) stands among the most honorable and prominent American composers. In 1943, he received the first Pulitzer Prize for Music for Cantata No 2 “A Free Song”, based on lyrics from the poems by Walt Whitman. In his choral works, Schumann emphasized the lyrics of American poetry. Norman Luboff (1917–1987), the founder and conductor of one of the leading American choirs in the 1950–1970s, is one of the great American musicians who dared to dedicate most of their lives to the popular media cultures of the time. Holiday albums of Christmas Songs with the Norman Luboff Choir have been bestselling for many years. In 1961, Norman Luboff Choir received the Grammy Award for Best Performance by a Chorus. Luboff’s productive work on folk song arrangements, which helped to preserve these popular melodies from generation to generation, is considered to be his main heritage. The choral work by Leonard Bernstein (1918–1990) – a great musician – composer, pianist, brilliant conductor – is represented by such works as “Chichester Psalms”, “Hashkiveinu”, “Kaddish” Symphony No 3)”,”The Lark (French & Latin Choruses)”, “Make Our Garden Grow (from Candide)”, “Mass”. “Chichester Psalms”, where the choir sings lyrics in Hebrew, became Bernstein’s most famous choral work and one of the most successfully performed choral masterpieces in America. An equally popular composition by Bernstein is “Mass: A Theater Piece for Singers, Players, and Dancers”, which was dedicated to the memory of John F. Kennedy, the stage drama written in the style of a musical about American youth in searching of the Lord. More than 200 singers, actors, dancers, musicians of two orchestras, three choirs are involved in the performance of “Mass”: a four-part mixed “street” choir, a four-part mixed academic choir and a two-part boys’ choir. The eclecticism of the music in the “Mass” shows the versatility of the composer’s work. The composer skillfully mixes Latin texts with English poetry, Broadway musical with rock, jazz and avant-garde music. Choral cycles by Conrad Susa (1935–2013), whose entire creative life was focused on vocal and dramatic music, are written along a story line or related thematically. Bright examples of his work are “Landscapes and Silly Songs” and “Hymns for the Amusement of Children”; the last cycle is an fascinating staging of Christopher Smart’s poetry (the18 century). The composer’s music is based on a synthesis of tonal basis, baroque counterpoint, polyphony and many modern techniques and idioms drawn from popular music. The cycle “Songs of Innocence and of Experience”, created by a composer and a pianist William Bolcom (b. 1938) on the similar-titled poems by W. Blake, represents musical styles from romantic to modern, from country to rock. More than 200 vocalists take part in the performance of this work, in academic choruses (mixed, children’s choirs) and as soloists; as well as country, rock and folk singers, and the orchestral musicians. This composition successfully synthesizes an impressive range of musical styles: reggae, classical music, western, rock, opera and other styles. Morten Lauridsen (b. 1943) was named “American Choral Master” by the National Endowment for the Arts (2006). The musical language of Lauridsen’s compositions is very diverse: in his Latin sacred works, such as “Lux Aeterna” and “Motets”, he often refers to Gregorian chant, polyphonic techniques of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, and mixes them with modern sound. Lauridsen’s “Lux Aeterna” is a striking example of the organic synthesis of the old and the new traditions, or more precisely, the presentation of the old in a new way. At the same time, his other compositions, such as “Madrigali” and “Cuatro Canciones”, are chromatic or atonal, addressing us to the technique of the Renaissance and the style of postmodernism. Conclusions. Analysis of the choral work of American composers proves the idea of moving the meaningful centers of professional choral music, the gradual disappearance of the contrast, which had previously existed between consumer audiences, the convergence of positions of “third direction” music and professional choral music. In the context of globalization of society and media culture, genre and stylistic content, spiritual meanings of choral works gradually tend to acquire new features such as interaction of ancient and modern musical systems, traditional and new, modified folklore and pop. There is a tendency to use pop instruments or some stylistic components of jazz, such as rhythm and intonation formula, in choral compositions. Innovative processes, metamorphosis and transformations in modern American choral music reveal its integration specificity, which is defined by meta-language, which is formed basing on interaction and dialogue of different types of thinking and musical systems, expansion of the musical sound environment, enrichment of acoustic possibilities of choral music, globalization intentions. Thus, the actualization of new cultural dominants and the synthesis of various stylistic origins determine the specificity of American choral music.

Vasif Adigozalov was one of the artists who attracted attention during the brilliant development of the Azerbaijani composition school in the 70 s of the XX century. Born in Karabakh, a fascinating sorner of Azerbaijan, in the family of the famous and talented singer Zulfu Adigozalov’s works reflected the priceless pages of the national music culture. The story-based opera “The Dead”, which entered the history of literature as a comedy, is also regarded as the first comedy opera in our music history. However, every Azerbaijani who knows the work realizes what a great tragedy is actually happening here. V.Adigozalov began writing this work after graduating from the conservatory. The play was performed at the Azerbaijan State Opera and Ballet Theater named after M.F.Akhundof, in 1963. In V.Adigozalov’s opera, the choir acts as one of the main characters in the dramatic development of the work. Each choral stage server as a driving force within, as well as conditioning the course of events. The choir also represents the image of the public and character that expresses the main idea of the work. In this respect, particular attention should be paid to women’s choir. Because women who are victims of this ignorance. Therefore, the screams, deep tragedies and dramas of the women’s choir are reflected. Another concrete example of the women’s theme is seen in the scenes with Nazli and her mother. In particular, choral scenes, which express Nazli’s belief in the return of his dead sister, eventually lost all hope, and the moaning of traumatized young girls, are the dramatic culmination of the tragedy in opera. When we look at the musical language of the choirs, national intonation and rhythmic features draw attention. The intonations of folk music, characteristic of the composer’s musical language, are clearly felt in all stages of the opera and in the choir. Considering the unique melodies of V.Adigozalov’s vocal music in the vocal and choral performance is important. This direction is also reflevted in other music and stage work, including the composer’s vocal music.

Object. The article considers the issues of the future singers` and choral conductors` creative self-expression in the process of conductor-choral education. Methods. Analytical, historical-comparative, retrospective method was used in writing the article. Results. As a result of the analysis and generalization of scientific psychological-pedagogical and art-literary literature, comparison, comparison of different opinions the definition of the concept «creative self-expression of students» is presents. It means a conscious act of discovering and affirming the individual, personal and subjective capabilities of the «I am» as a professional, defining himself as a creative person and individuality. The advantages of the study are to identify the specifics of future singers` and choir conductors` creative self-expression as students of higher education. The success of individual psychological self-expression is determined by good health, muscle activity, development of singing and conducting apparatus, students` cognitive and emotional sphere. A positive factor in the student` personal and professional self-expression is the formation cognitive and professional interests, spiritual values, character traits that are regulators of singers` and conductors` professional growth as creative individuals. Prominent indicators of the growth of singers` and choir conductors` creative self-expressio, their leading professionally important qualities are musicality as an integrative musical ability (musical hearing, metro-rhythmic ability, musical memory, musical thinking, musical imagination) and performing skills (performing reliability, artistry, instrumental, vocal and choral, conducting skills). The specifics of future singers` and choir conductors` personal self-expression are determined (on the basis of diagnosis) as a level of cognitive and professional interests, ideals and value orientations on spiritual and national-civic values. Conclusions. The study summarizes a set of character traits that form the basis of singers` and choir conductors` professional success of (honesty, loyalty to the beauty, the ability to consciously and artistically embody it in the choral sound; friendliness, responsibility, optimism). It was found that the level of students` creative self-expression as a subject of his own professional development depends on the timely diagnosis, stimulation, content and procedural support the process of his professional «I am» –concept formation. It is proved that the contradiction between the real and the ideal «I am» becomes the source of the singers` or choir conductors` personal and professional development. On the basis of scientific research on professional acmeology the ways of singers` and choir conductors` creative self-expression as bright individuals (integration of individual, personal, subjective structures into integrity, identification of specificity of individuality, selection of content of own «I am», systematization and generalization of individual and specificity self-expression taking into account all factors, identifying the uniqueness of the relationship of all substructures, determining the social orientation of their own self-expression in further professional activities).

Introduction. In the article the cycle of children’s choruses of S.Rachmaninov is considered, his characteristic features in subjects, figurative disclosure, the special role of lofty spiritualized lyric poetry; for the first time the appearance in the choral works of the composer of the themes “Dies irae”, “katabasis”; the spiritually-aesthetic value of Rachmaninov “Six Choruses” for secular children’s choral singing and performance is revealed. “Six choirs for children’s or women’s voices” op. 15 were written by S. Rachmaninov in 1895, the date of which he indicated in a letter to B. Asafiev on April 13, 1917. By the time the cycle was created, S. Rachmaninov was already the author of a considerable number of works. In the fall of 1894, he was employed by the Mariinsky Women’s School as a teacher of music theory and an accompanist of the choir. Specially for the choir of students, “Six choirs for children’s or women’s voices” were written: 1) “Glory!”, Words by N. Nekrasov; 2) ”Night”, words by V. Ladyzhensky; 3) “Pine”, words by M. Lermontov (from G. Heine); 4) “The waves dozed off”, words by K. Romanov, 5) “Captivity”, words by N. Tsyganov; 6) “Angel”, words by M. Lermontov. The features of S. Rachmaninov’s musical and artistic thinking, which researchers usually note in his romances – the significant role of accompaniment and a simple 3-part form, having their own historical archetype in the baroque three-part aria da capo (Antipov, 2014: 9) – can be found in “Six choirs”. The enormous artistic role of the piano accompaniment, its developed texture and organic unity with the score should be especially paid attention to. The vivid imagery of the cycle owes much to the instrumental part, which the composer not only went far beyond the accompaniment, but often has independent significance too. At first glance, the choral score of the cycle is uncomplicated – mainly with diatonic two-voice. But behind seeming simplicity, inexhaustible performing tasks for the choir and piano part are in favor. The extreme choral plays frame the cycle with themes of deep ethical and spiritual content that had not previously been encountered in children’s choral music. The middle rooms are dominated by bright lyrics, youthfully light sadness, and harmony between the pictures of nature and the states of the human soul reigns. No. 1 “Glory!” – the character of the work conveys pathetic, prayer (appeal to the Almighty for blessing) and lyrical-patriotic feelings. In the 3rd section of the miniatures, the accompaniment fills the music with fanfare intonations, in the last 6 beats, the dynamic tension within the framework of one tonic harmony is steadily increasing, and in the bass of the piano the bell ringing and ceremonial drum beat are imitated, completing the picture of the celebration. In No. 2 “Night”, the author embodies a dreamy-contemplative mood with the help of the choral cantilena. Frettonal ambiguity of the extreme parts (major-minor), functions languidly lasting for several measures, delicate harmonic colors, flexible ligature of figures, masterful techniques of sound-visualization contribute to a special refinement of moods and miniature images and are associated with impressionist music. No. 3 “Pine” – S. Rachmaninov chose M. Lermontov’s translation as the theme of loneliness and dreams of happiness, giving contrast to the musical images of northern Pine and southern Palma. No. 4 “The waves dosed off” – to convey the state of spiritual harmony and dreamy peace S. Rachmaninov found a set of expressive compositional techniques. Here we emphasize the special independence of the piano part, which does not contain a choral theme, but plays an important soundvisual role, enriching the narration of the choir. No. 5 “Captivity” – the image of a gentle bird, imprisoned in a golden cage, is widespread in fairy tales and poetry of the peoples of the world, as well as in choral music. In N. Tsyganov’s verses, the denouement is optimistic – the nightingale is set free. S. Rachmaninov relies intonationally on the Russian peasant cry-lamentation. The melody has a touching colour, the miniature is distinguished by a bright national color. No. 6 “Angel”. The poem tells of the great sacrament of conception in the spiritual world of a new person’s life. The Angel carries this person’s soul from heaven to earth to connect it with the body of the unborn child. In flight, an Angel sings a song about celestial gardens to this yet unincarnated Soul. The composer weaves a fragment of the motive-symbol “Dies irae” into Angel’s theme, entrusting it to a part of the alto and veiling from above the unrecognizabl third major second part of the soprano. The smoothly descending theme of the Soul can be described in this context as “katabasis”. This symbolism gives the miniature a deep philosophical meaning. S. Rachmaninov was the first Russian composer to create an example of concert purpose in The “Six choirs”. He raised to a new level the theme of children’s works, characteristic of the genre of that time. And that is education of a spiritually rich personality. The author revealed the extraordinary rhythmic and intonational richness of musical speech, the mastery of texture, harmony, the sophistication of technical techniques, and the tonal color scheme were rare for children’s choral music of that time. The richness of colors and the layering of the piano part bring it closer to the orchestra. In The “Six choirs for children’s or women’s voices” S. Rachmaninov revealed a new example of children’s choral music for concert purposes, which has high artistic merits, a deep substantive theme, and an aesthetic and educational orientation. The composer first attracted high poetry, revealed a spiritual and moral subtext. The theme of Faith, reflected in the first and last miniatures, “rings” the cycle, like Alpha and Omega, giving special semantics and significance to its figurative content. The essay reflected important artistic principles and writing techniques, characteristic of his subsequent opuses, but new to the children’s genre. Like the First Symphony (1895), created in the same year as the cycle, the “Six choirs” for the first time include the theme “Dies irae” symbolic for S. Rachmaninoff’s art, which further permeates his work up to “Symphonic dances”, as well as the theme “katabasis” revealing the spiritual and philosophical meaning of the work. This cycle was S. Rachmaninov’s only experience in children’s choral music, in which first for the genre he embodied high spiritual and ethical ideas of a romantic artist, his Christian picture of the world, the eternal themes of love for the Fatherland, life and death, good and evil, also actual for modern society and children of the XXI century. Prior to S. Rachmaninov, children’s choral music did not know such a depth of content, mastery of embodiment, aesthetic pleasure. The unsurpassed beauty of “Six choirs for children’s or women’s voices” made them a phenomenon of perfection in musical art for children, which is timeless, of course.

Ferruccio Busoni, who saw out the First World War from the neutral haven of Switzerland, maintained that the best Swiss symphony was Rossini's William Tell overture. Not that the country was completely lacking in resident composers of symphonic music during the Classical and Romantic eras. There was, for example, Gaspard Fritz (d.1783), whom Dr Bumey met in Geneva. There was Xaver Schnyder von Wartensee (d.1868), whose works include an amiable ‘Military’ Symphony. But the dominant force in the 19th century was the composer, publisher and pedagogue Hans Georg Nägeli, whose primary achievement was to develop a choral tradition. Instrumental music in Switzerland depended largely on imports. Joachim Raff, who came from the Lake Zurich region, did not begin to find his feet as a symphonist until he settled in Germany. The vocal bias persisted into the 20th century: thus Othmar Schoeck could say that writing a violin sonata was something of a ‘crime’ for him.

The revival of spiritual culture on the verge of centuries, interest and respect for the traditions and ceremonies of the Orthodox Church, the rapid spread among the regents of the works of spiritual themes - all this led to the emergence of the style direction called nova musica sacra (by N. Gulianitskaya). Complex processes taking place in the field of contemporary composer creativity on the verge of the XX - XXI, cannot but show the affect on the church singing repertoire. Religious themes are increasingly appearing in the works of well-known Ukrainian artists (L. Dichko, E. Stankovich, M. Skoryk, V. Stepurko, G. Havrylets) and new authors of church chants - Volodymyr Feiner and Olena Yunek. Olena Yunek’s creativity is an example of liturgical as a secular concert application of the church repertoire. The education of a mistress’s personality took place on the basis of the Orthodox worldview. Her preferences of Ukrainian choral music from childhood were combined with participation in church-singing practice. The vast majority of works - spiritual content in the composer’s work refinement of the O. Yunek. The purpose of the article is to detect the identity of modern church music of young Ukrainian composers, whose works are becoming more popular in the choral performance of secular and spiritual collectives. The object of research – the work of Ukrainian church composers at the present stage; the subject – features of the individual composing style of O. Yunek, that been found on the material of the chants of the cycle "All-night vigil" (2007-2015). Research methodology. The presented material is the result of the interaction of musicological approaches to composing text (genre, composition, style, functional) and liturgical-theological discourse. Analysis of recent publications on research topic. A problem of author’s reading of canonical text by Ukrainian composers at the end of the XX - XXI centuries finds a solution in the thesis of O. Tyshchenko in terms of the correlation of the rite and genre [6]. The measure of the preservation of canonical features in the works of Ukrainian and Russian composers is determined in the work of N. Sereda on the material of the cycles of the Liturgy [4]. However, the cycle of "All-night vigil" in the works of contemporary Ukrainian composers has not yet become the subject of scientific interest on the part of musicology. The author of the article considered the problem of forming an individual style on the example of the All- Nightly V. Feiner, in which the original stylistic features of the polyphony of the Renaissance and the Ukrainian choral concert were originally combined [1]; The study of the work of O. Yunek in the master’s thesis was initiated. Presenting main material. When compiling their own church compositions Olena Yunek relied on the history of such outstanding artists as O. Yunek Georgy Sviridov, Sergei Rachmaninov, Arvo Pyart, Valery Kalistratov, Oleksiy Larin, Moris Duryuflie, Lesya Dichko. «All-night Vigil» is written for mixed choir. It consists of 19 chants, each of which is a separate independent composition, which can be performed independently of others. In the sequence of chants there are no traceable patterns associated with the dramatic organization of the whole. According to the author, she did not plan to create a separate cycle at the beginning, but in the process of composer’s searches, as well as through participation in the church choir at different times, a number of major chants of this cycle were created. Written at different times, the works do not have a common tonality. In general, mineral complexes predominate. The leitmotif system in the loop is absent, however, a number of composer techniques and means of expressiveness, combining works, can be traced. The article provides a holistic analysis of three chants from the cycle: Psalm 103, «O gladsome light», «From my youth». By their example, the presence of the melo-formula – singing, and constantly repeating rhythmic groups is clearly demonstrated. A detailed analysis of the harmonic sequences, the change of texture and the course of melodic lines made it possible to identify certain features of the composer’s individual style and the methods of writing that he uses to create church compositions. A comparative analysis of the canonical text and its interpretation in compositions by O. Yunek is presented. Conclusions. O. Yunek’s personal style is characterized by a high level of possession of the technique of choral writing: the variety of harmonious, timbralregister and textural means while preserving the canonical liturgical text, a careful attitude towards it. The choral style of sounding differs by the ease, the availability of perception. In her compositions, the words of the chants are completely audible - without bills, overlays; no sharp contrasts in the dynamics. The primary role among means of expressiveness is given to harmony. It is at its level that certain elements of the Eastern Slavic singing are found (plagiarism, the use of medial chords, the linear nature of the formation of the accordion), the West European classical type of harmony (chords of the main functions in typical relations) and modern musical language (the presence of dissonant consonants, not the classical sequence in the middle construction, accordion of the nontheric structure). The role of melodies is very important. Often harmonic changes occur due to the linear motion of the melody in separate voices. Layout intonations and rhythmic figures common to compositions contribute to the integrity of the cycle and allow it to be perceived as such. In particular, it is observed in conducting the main melody frequent use of singing, gradual mirror-symmetric movement of voices, passage and auxiliary non-chord sounds. These melodic cells have the same features with the sounds of a significant singing, which confirms the composer’s tendency to the ancient chants. Similar rhythmic patterns (dashed rhythm, two sixteenth and eighth, eighth and two sixteenth, fourteenth and sixteenth), osintato also contributes to the integration of the cycle. The choral texture is characterized by flexibility and richness of presentation. Often there is a chord composition with elements of singing in separate voices, as well as contrasting fragments of unison («Blessed man»), chanting (two voices) («Virgin Mary, rejoice», «Praise the Name of the Lord», «Blessed art Thou, O Lord»). Changing the invoice occurs organically and appropriately to the performance requirements, which indicates the professional approach and knowledge of the composer’s choral writing. Consequently, all the inventions and means of expressiveness that were invented during the analysis show that the work of the contemporary composer of Kharkov, Olena Yunek, is an example of an original author’s reading of the canon in the field of church music. Together with the embodiment of the church canon, the principles of individual thinking operate and a modern link of church-composing creativity is formed.

Formulation of the problem. In the globalized time-space of the 21st century, the musical heritage left by M.V. Lysenko motivates to comprehend at a new level the phenomenon of the creative universalism of the artist, the multiple manifestations of his musical-social, educational, ethnographic and composing activities. Given the importance of the choral singing for nurturing the national consciousness of young musicians, the role of M. Lysenko’s opera heritage for children and adolescents should be noted. The choice of the theme was actualized by the iconic premiere of M. Lysenko’s children’s opera called “Winter and Spring” (2017) at the Great Hall of Kharkiv National University of Arts named after I.P. Kotlyarevsky,performed by young performers, which coincided with honouring the memory of the great Kobzar (the 175th anniversary since his birthday). In particular, the orchestration was performed by Yelizar Pashchenko, the stage director – Sofia Melnikova; the conductor –the author of the article. Thus, M. Lysenko’s children’s opera is still relevant for young artists in terms of their professional and national self-growth. The purpose of the article is to systematize the manifestations of artistic universalism in the activities of M.V. Lysenko in the aspect of phenomenology of the creativity of the composer on the example of the genre of children’s opera. The object of the study is the Ukrainian music tradition; the subject – music-educational activity of M. Lysenko in the aspect of its actualization in the contemporary cultural and artistic space. The analysis of recent publications on the topic. The reflection of M.V. Lysenko’s creative heritage in its aspects was performed in the studies by the classics of Ukrainian studies (K. Kvitka (1986), M. Rylsky (1927), O. Pchilka (1913a, 1913b), L. Arhimovych, M. Gordiychuk (1992)), and by the modern scholars (L. Corniy (2011), S. Grytsa (2007)). One of the fundamental editions is the book-album called “Mykola Lysenko’s World. National identity, music and politics of Ukraine of the 19th– the beginning of the 20thcenturies»(compiled by T. Bulat and T. Filenko (2009)). However, there is no phenomenological approach to the master’s creative work in these sources. The presentation of the main material. M. Lysenko was a personality gifted with many talents, at that time he was presenting the figure of a universal personality – on the one hand, an intellectual, and on the other – an educator. He read in the original language the works by Russian, Polish, German, French writers (Dumas, Eugene Sue), independently studied the works by R. Schuman and R. Wagner, Y.S. Bach, performed virtuosic compositions by F. Liszt. The manifestations of the artistic universalism of M.V. Lysenko as a criterion of the composer’s activity in the light of the problem of self-identification of Ukrainian culture at the stage of its formation have been systematized. The composer’s outlook and aspects of his creative life have been characterized. Lysenko’s music-educational activities began the process of democratization of music education in Kyiv. So, in 1904 he opened the School of Drama and Music. He focused on the programs of Moscow and St. Petersburg Conservatories. Therefore, on the stage of the educational institution the authors of the modern version of the opera “Winter and Spring” take the ideas of the founder of the national musical culture. Their purpose was to preserve the holistic concept of the development of the musical form of the opera. The ancient folk intonations, the expressive and difficult in the technical performancesub-voices, the varied and original use of the fret, reflected in the melody of children’skolyadka (carols) and vesnyanka (spring songs), helped the young performers to achieve some level of the performing skills. It should be noted that the final choir (vesnyanka) “And it’s spring already, and it’s already good”, as well as the choral scenes of carolling and spring celebrations are in low demand in the modern choral performance and need to be popularized. For example, the choral scene that begins with the kolyadka called “Herod Is Damned” can be performed as a compulsory piece at children’s choral competitions in Ukraine. The opera is quite technically difficult to perform. Children’s mass scenes “cement” the opera’s musical material. The choir of the younger age children performed the first choral song “Go, Go, Let’s Meet”, built on the invocative intonation of the big tertiary, there are jumps on octave and the fifth; by means of harmonization, the composer gives a colourful sounding to the choir’s kolyadka and shchedrivka (New Year Ukrainian song). Conclusions. In the choral scene of the children’s opera called “Winter and Spring”, the composer applied such techniques as: the combination of shchedrivka and kolyadka in the choir “New Joy Began”; the techniques of folk polyphony: unison chants (vesnyanka “Cuckoo in the Meadow”), the tertiary doubles and octave thickenings (the ancient kolyadka “Herod Is Damned”); the original means of vocal-choral writing (the final choir “And it’s spring already, and it’s already good”). Thus, M. Lysenko’s creativity is filled, on the one hand, with the love to Ukrainian folklore, and on the other, with the perception of the European spiritual values of the music world, where Ukraine should take its rightful place. This is the phenomenon of self-identification of the professional activity of the great composer and figure of musical culture, which is inherited by the modern musicians of Kharkiv

Purpose A significant number of military veterans and family members are living with post-traumatic stress, unmet mental health needs and isolation. There is growing interest in the potential of theatre and the expressive arts as a positive intervention with this population. The purpose of this paper is to introduce the Coming Home programme which aims to create opportunities for military veterans and families to develop an ongoing engagement with the arts and through that engagement to access new ways of regulating and expressing complex emotions. Design/methodology/approach This case study shares reflections from Re-Live’s current theatre programme, Coming Home. The programme methodology uses reflective writing, theatre and choral singing to develop participants wellbeing and reduce isolation. Findings Initial feedback suggests that this programme has significant potential as a way of reconnecting veterans and families with their community and improving their wellbeing. The emotional release of group singing and performing together has been powerful. Participants report that the Coming Home programme is connecting them with parts of themselves they thought had gone forever: humour, spontaneity, fun – and having a positive impact on their wellbeing. Originality/value This case study contributes to the literature from the exciting and emerging field of the use of the creative arts with military veterans and families.

Abstract Musicology, viewed as a general science regarding all the defining elements of music, can approach compositions using hermeneutical methods, both through a critical view on the interpretation, the stage performance of the creative act, and through the subsequent musicological writings, becoming a “meta-interpretation” that requires a thorough exegesis. The couplet hermeneutics-interpretation together with that of compositional concept versus stage production are the ones underlying our research, while hermeneutics is the very art of performing that penetrates the most cryptic elements present in the musical act, viewed from the perspective of the triad creation-interpretation-reception. In an attempt to emphasize the ways in which the composer suggests to the performer certain indications for stage performance, through writing, agogics, dynamics and special sound effects, we intend to study, from the standpoint of the musicologist, the piece 5 tablouri cu umbre(le) 1 by Constantin Rîpă. Built on a structure of five tableaux, the work comprises fifteen songs on poems by five contemporary Cluj poets and outlines a new concept of musical performance, which aims to experiment in composing music with the idea of the primordial nature of the poetic text, which is associated with elements of motion and gestures of the interpreters and is based on an arbitrary compositional concept, a defining technique that can be found in a great part of the choral creation of this composer.

Dr. Miloje Milojevic (1884-1946) was a central figure in Serbian music criticism and academic essays between the World Wars. A large part of his writings on music were dedicated to the issue of the Serbian ?national music style?, its means of expression, and the question of modernity, i. e. to what extent modernity is desirable in the ?national style?. This paper analyzes some twenty articles - reviews, essays, and writings for special occasions - published by Milojevic between 1912 and 1942 in various Serbian newspapers magazines and collections: Srpski knjizevni glasnik (The Serbian Literary Magazine, 1912, 1913, 1914, 1923, 1924, 1935), Prosvetni glasnik (The Educational Herald, 1914, 1921, 1942), Politika (The Politics, 1921, 1922 1923, 1937, 1938, 1940, 1941), Muzika (The Music, twice in 1928) Spomenica-album Udruzenja muzikanata Kraljevine Jugoslavije 1928-1930 (The Commemorative Volume - The Album of the Society of Musicians of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia 1928-1930, 1930), Smena (The Change, 1938), and Slavenska muzika (The Slavonic Music, 1940). In the course of those thirty years Milojevic passionately believed that the future of Serbian music lies in the ?national style?, i.e. in the artistic transformation of anonymous Serbian folk songs and melodies. In spite of the changes of styles that occurred over the years, he never gave up anticipating the appearance of an ingenious composer who would develop the ?national style? to its climax and enrich Serbian music with ?national? symphonies, operas and chamber music. Milojevic was in favour of a ?national style? mainly on principle. He rarely got into a discussion about the stylistic and technical means he considered most suitable for the ?national style?. In his text Nas muzicko umetnicki program (Our music and artistic programme), published in the Serbian Literary Magazine in 1913, and another article, Za folklornu muziku (In favour of Folk Music), published in the Belgrade daily newspaper Politics in 1921, he recommended that Serbian ?national style? composers followed the model of some representatives of the European national schools of romanticism impressionism and moderately modern music. In a special kind of manifesto Za ideju umetnosti i umetnickog nacionalizma kod nas (In favour of the idea of art and artistic nationalism in Serbia), published in 1935 in the Serbian Literary Magazine, he gave an indirect answer to the question of which means of musical expression he preferred in the ?national style?. For example, he singled out the composition Sever duva (North Wind) by Kosta P. Manojlovic (1890-1949), from his collection of choral songs Pesme zemlje Skenderbegove (The Songs from the Land of Skenderbeg, 1933), as an outstanding example of what he meant by ?national style?. This Albanian folk music was transformed into a relatively modern, but yet not avant-garde composition. Therein lies the answer as to what kind of ?national style? Milojevic preferred. An advocate of a moderately modern music language, he wished Serbian art music to use its very rich folk heritage as best as it could. He was well aware that times had changed, and that there was not much inclination towards this style and ideology in the interwar period. However, he never abandoned this idea. Basically, he never accepted more radical, expressionist treatments of folk elements as a solution to the problems of ?national style?. It is also very significant that he never mentioned the name B?la Bart?k in his writings, which is something we analyze in this paper. He was never able to give up romanticism, a style that never had time to fully develop in Serbian music. Serbian folk music was a perfect basis for composing in a romantic style. Nevertheless, due to many unfavourable circumstances in Serbian history, the Serbs became part of European music world only at the beginning of the 20th century, when it was too late to develop a modern romantic national style.

The recent NMC recording of chamber music by Robert Saxton has broadened our knowledge of his oeuvre, complementing the perspective on his music that had been opened up by recordings of his orchestral works and the opera Caritas in the early 1990s. Certainly, the period 1990 to his fortieth birthday in 1993 represented a highpoint in terms of public recognition, but in recent years much of Saxton's composition has been in the more private sphere of chamber or solo music, or in the less prominent medium of choral writing, and it has received less sustained attention than its quality deserves. But while most composers are subject to fluctuations of interest, the not unalloyed distinction of being called a sucéss d'estime is a very real hazard of today's musical climate, especially for a composer who writes the sort of serious music that Saxton does; and from being frequently programmed in the late 1980s and early 1990s, his work currently seems to present less of a fashionable surface while continuing to be highly regarded by many serious commentators. But Saxton has made creative use of the 1990s as a time for thinking through the implications of his earlier music and reconsidering aspects of his style and approach to structure. This article looks at some of the music of almost the decade from Caritas (1991) to his current major project, The Legend of the Wandering Jew, an opera being conceived specifically for the medium of Radio. In the music of this period, Saxton has continued to demonstrate the ability to harness his wide intellectual interests to an essentially consistent compositional style and a single-minded artistic vision.

Relying on knowledge of Karl Engel's edition of the Volksschauspiel, Karl Simrock's version of the puppet play, Gotthold Lessing's Faust fragments, and versions of the Faust legend by Christopher Marlowe and Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, among others, Ferruccio Busoni crafted his own hybrid libretto that depicts a mystical and broadminded Faust. Busoni's music reflects the richness of Faust's mind, combining heterogeneous timbres, forms, and styles. Busoni juxtaposes a Gregorian Credo, Palestrina-style choral settings, a reformation hymn, a Baroque instrumental dance suite, an organ fantasia, recitatives, a lyrical ballad, and orchestral variations, with impressionistic symphonic writing, and experimental passages. While stylistic heterogeneity can be heard throughout many of his mature instrumental and vocal works, Busoni also used this heterogeneity in a descriptive way in Doktor Faust to characterize Faust. At the same time, Busoni sought to write “a history of man and his desire” rather than of a man and the devil. It is Faust's own dark side, rather than the devil, that distracts him and prevents him from completing his greatest work. With Kaspar removed from the plot, Mephistopheles, who as spirit is not always distinct from Faust the man, becomes Faust's alter ego. This duality is expressed musically when Faust assumes Mephistopheles's characteristic intervals. Although Busoni's incomplete Doktor Faust, BV 303, has already been studied by several scholars, including Antony Beaumont, Nancy Chamness, and Susan Fontaine, there is still no detailed analysis of Busoni's treatment of Faust. Through analyses of autobiographical connections, Busoni's early settings of Faustian characters, and the text and music in Doktor Faust, with special attention on the Wittenberg Tavern Scene that has no precedent among the versions of the Faust legend, this article reveals Busoni's vision of Faust as a broadminded, and yet conflicted character, shaped idiosyncratically to convey Busoni's personal artistic ideals. In so doing, the article not only contributes to ongoing discourse about Doktor Faust, but also expands knowledge about ways the Faust legend was interpreted and set musically in the early twentieth century through intertextual comparisons.

My time has come. After 15 years and over 50 editions it is time for me to hang up my metaphorical red biro, and hand over the role of Editor. It has been an interesting job, and I am extremely grateful to everyone who has contributed and supported the journal over this period. When I took on the position in 2002, this journal was very different to how it is today. Some readers may recall its original incarnation as the CPD journal of Internal Medicine, part of a series of publications produced at that time by Rila. Initially this was comprised predominantly of commissioned review articles, running over a 5 year cycle which was designed to cover the common conditions managed by ‘general’ physicians. As time progressed, the number of unsolicited submissions grew steadily – initially (and continually) dominated by case reports, but with a slowly increasing number of research-based articles as the readership expanded. The quality of these submissions improved further when we finally attained indexing in PubMed, which also attracted more international submissions. I am delighted that the current edition features research papers from the Netherlands and Singapore, both of which have a growing community of Acute Physicians. I remain hopeful that the number of acute medicine-related research submissions from the UK will rise as the speciality grows. The number of high quality abstracts presented at the Society for Acute Medicine (SAM) meetings is indicative of the amount of work that is going on, but it is disappointing that so few of these turn into publications in peerreviewed journals. Acute Physicians are busy people with constant and year-round operational pressures, which may mean that writing up research is continually pushed down the list of priorities. Perhaps also the fact that the number of consultant posts across the continues to exceed the number of Acute Internal Medicine trainees removes some of the ‘pressure to publish’ which is felt by trainees in other hospital specialities. My hopes for the future of this journal have been boosted by the appointment of Tim Cooksley as my replacement ‘Editor in Chief’, who will take over from the Spring 2018 edition onwards. Tim has been a hard working member of the editorial team over recent years, and prior to this was a regular contributor to the journal. He has a strong research background and is a leading member of the SAMBA academy and SAM research committee. I would also like to thank the other members of the editorial board without whose support and contributions this job would have been completely untenable. I understand that Tim plans to keep many of these colleagues in post, as well as bringing in some ‘new blood’ to create a fresh new vision for the future. I wish them all well, and will look forward to reading (as opposed to writing) these editorials. Thanks, finally, to all of the loyal readers who have stuck with the journal over the past 2 decades. I hope that we have managed to keep you entertained and educated on those occasional moments of respite during the acute medical on-call. I wish you all well for the future.

The enigmatic setting of Beckett's novel Watt has been compared to places as diverse as an insane asylum, a boarding school, a womb, and a concentration camp. Watt's experience at Knott's house does seem suggestive of all of these, and yet it may more readily conform to the setting of a monastery. The novel is filled with chants, meditations, choral arrangements, hierarchical classifications, and even silence, all highly evocative of a monastic lifestyle. Some of Watt's dialogue (such as his requests for forgiveness or reflections on the nature of mankind) further echoes various Catholic liturgies. Watt finds little solace in these activities, however. He feels that they are largely rote and purposeless as they are focused on Knott, a figure who in many ways defies linguistic description and physical know-ability. Watt's meditations and rituals become, then, empty catechisms without answers, something that is reflected in the extreme difficulty that Watt has communicating. In the face of linguistic and liturgical instability, the Watt notebooks present a counter reading that can be found in the thousand plus doodles that line its pages. The drawings reinforce as well as subvert their textual counterpart, and they function in many ways as the images in medieval illuminated manuscripts. The doodles in Watt often take the form of decorative letters, elaborate marginal drawings, and depictions of a variety of people and animals, and many of its doodles offer uncanny resemblances in form or theme to those in illuminated manuscripts like The Book of Kells. Doodles of saints, monks, crosses, and scribes even give an occasional pictorial nod to the monastic setting in which illuminated manuscripts were usually produced (and remind us of the monastic conditions in which Beckett found himself writing much of Watt). Beckett's doodles not only channel this medium of illuminated manuscripts, they also modernize its application. Instead of neat geometric shapes extending down the page, his geometric doodle sequences are often abstracted, fragmented, and nonlinear. Beckett also occasionally modernized the content of illuminated manuscripts: instead of the traditional sacramental communion table filled with candles, bread and wine, Beckett doodles a science lab table where Bunsen burners replaces candles and wine glasses function as beakers. It is through these modernized images that Watt attempts to draw contemporary relevance from a classic art form and to restore (at least partial) meaning to rote traditions.

Ch.-M. Widor (1844–1937) inscribed his name in the history of French music primarily as an author of organ works (10 Organ Symphonies, 1872–1900, in particular). But other genre branches of his creativity (symphonic, chamber-instrumental, chamber-vocal, operatic, choral) remains less famous for wide public. This quite vast layer is mostly not studied in musical science. However, at the recent time the interest is somewhat growing both among musicologists (A. Thomson, E. Krivitskaya, M. R. Bundy), and among the performers, which confi rms the relevance of this article. The objectives of this study are to consider compositions by Ch.-M. Widor (Piano Concerto No.1, Fantasy, Piano Concerto No.2) both in terms of features of individual creator style and context of concert branch history in France. Information about works is supplemented by the analysis of the basic musical text parameters. Ch.-M. Widor graduated the Brussels Conservatory, where he was studied from 1859 to 1863 – in classes of organ (J.-N. Lemmens) and composition (F.-J. Fetis). At 1860s, the young man was visiting Paris. Soon he was acquainted with C. Saint-Saens, which infl uenced Ch.-M. Widor not only in terms of his executive career turn, but also was etalon of instrumental writing. It seems that the writing of instrumental Concertos for violin (ор. 26, 1877), cello (ор. 41, 1877), and piano (ор. 39, 1876) in many ways is owed by C.Saint-Saens and the impulse to French music of the 1870s given by him. Piano Concerto No.1 f-moll by Ch.-M.Widor was well appreciated by the contemporaries of the composer. In fi rst movement (Allegro con fuoco) the active narrative is combining with predominantly lyrical mood. It passes in constant pulsation without any whimsical tempo deviations, as well as without cadenza using. Contemplative and philosophical meditations are concentrated at the second movement (Andante religioso). The exposition of ideas is embodied in oppositions of characters, concentrated and depth in front of light and joyous. By the way, a little similar can be found in Andante sostenuto quasi adagio of Piano Concerto No.1 (published in 1875) by C. Saint-Saens. The cycle is crowned with a lively scherzo fi nal with elegant dotted rhythm using. On the whole we can say that the Piano Сoncerto No.1 by Ch.-M. Widor purposefully continues the traditions of C. Saint-Saens. This is noticeable in the clarity of the structure, emphatic melody, and also in some specifi c features – the avoidance of long-term solo cadenzas and the absence of expanded orchestra tutti’s, as well as the laconicism of development section at the fi rst movement. Echoes of F. Liszt and C. Franck can be heard in Fantasy As-dur op. 62 for piano and orchestra (1889, dedicated to I. Philipp). Ch.-M. Widor shows interest in this genre type as many other French authors at 1880–1890s. In work there are many counterpoint and variation elements, which is due to author’s mastery of organ-polifonic writing. In our opinion, eclectic combinations of the main subject in the spirit of F. Liszt – R. Wagner with oriental saucy theme at the end of composition are quite in the style of C. Saint-Saens. Piano Concerto No.2 c-moll (1905) is standing out with its clear attachment to the late-romantic line. It is somewhat out of the general context of genre existence in France, especially when comparing with signifi cantly more traditional Piano Concertos by B. Godard (No.2, 1894), C. Saint-Saens (No.5, 1896), T. Dubois (No.2, 1897), A. Gedalge (1899), J. Massenet (1902). This manifests itself in appeal to fateful gloomy spirit, abundance of dark paints in the sound, the complication of the tonal-harmonic language, increased expressivity, psychologization. Here are found more fi ne-tooth application of timbre orchestral potential (in comparison with the Piano Concerto No.1), as well as increasing of orchestra importance upon the whole. This is paradoxical, but its performing tradition has developed not in the best way, so that nowadays this remarkable work is very rarely heard at concert halls. In our time, the author’s creativity is a real terra incognita that encompasses a lot of hidden masterpieces. Results of the research bring to light that examined works by composer are outstanding illustrations of French romantic music. Ch.-M. Widor is an example of original talent that continues the late Romanticism line in France at the end of 19th and fi rst third of the 20th century, together with other authors – L. Vierne, V. d’Indy, A. Magnard, F. Schmitt. His works for piano and orchestra quite deserve to become on a par with recognized masterpieces, included in the concert repertoire of pianists and orchestras by different countries of the world. The perspectives of the further research are defi ned in more detailed analytical labors, including the extension of analysis over Violin Concerto op. 26 and Cello Concerto op. 41 by author. The learning of these works will allow to complement the history of the concert genre of French Romanticism with new details, that will enable to see the evidence of succession and the vitality of traditions.

Background. The political and cultural movement of the “Sixtiers” in XX century opened wide horizons for Ukrainian composers to search for a new artistic and imaginative sphere, for new means of expressiveness, stylistics, form etc. The aspirations of young Ukrainian composers for concert genre renewal are realized through a rethinking of reality, intellectual and philosophical searching and psychologism in creativity. One of the brightest creative assets of this time is the First Piano Concerto by Ivan Karabyts, the talented Ukrainian composer, the outstanding representative of Ukrainian musical art of the last third of the 20th century. Among the studies of the last five years, and also of all the scientific research of the 21st century, we, unfortunately, cannot find any scientific study devoted to one of the largest conceptual works of the early period of creativity by I. Karabyts, which is the First Piano Concerto, and, therefore, this research can be called a unique one in modern musicology. In 1983, H. Yermakova provided only the general description of the Concerto in her small monograph. The author says about emotional tension and explosiveness that are the main features of the Concerto. The objectives of this article is to identify the model of the First Piano Concerto as a typological structure in terms of the renewal of the concert genre in Ukraine in the 1960s, through the analysis of embodiment of stylistic patterns and intonational dramaturgy of the work. Research methodology is focused on the interrelation of specific ways of analysis: functional, structural, intonational, genre, stylistic. Results. The First Piano Concerto was created by the 23-year-old composer in 1968 and was dedicated to B.Liatoshynskyi, reflecting the Teacher’s professional pedagogical credo. The First Piano Concerto based on emotional and imaginative contrasts and becomes a clear expression of dramaturgy development. The work’s concept carries the traces of experiments used by the young composer, which is reflected on the use of serial writing, cinematic editing (kaleidoscopic change of the thematic material “on the dramatic circles” of the two-part cycle), dissonance harmony. One of the basic principle of thinking is polyphonic development: imitations, canons, counterpoints, fugato, the principle of “countermovements” of voices, chorals are widely used. The two-part Concerto vividly presents the early work of I. Karabyts, highlights his distinctly individual style. The monumental purpose of this cyclical composition and its conceptualism strikes with its depth reflecting the collision of good and evil, sublime and earthly The First Movement exposition represents the main themes alternation, which extends from the theme-epigraph and the main soloist part in the beginning; bridge and its episode of fugato, second theme and closing area are highlighted also. The compositional features analysis of developing part shows the composer’s desire for a certain emotional quality of the thematic material, the main figurative lines are revealed from the very beginning. Each of themes gets the development of its material and its progressive dynamization, which process being often interrupted at its peak. Meaningful is the Coda of the First Movement, which fully implements the idea of “black-and-white palette” of the cluster chords, which can be interpreted as the idea of dualism of the world picture, embodying, for example, in Eastern philosophy as the sacred symbol of “Yin-Yang”. It can be said that the main meaning of the Code is to identify and understand the fundamental model of being, which is constantly changing and complementary. The Interlude, as a link between the first and second movements of the Concerto is fully consistent with the idea of continuation of the process and justifies smooth transition from one state to another. The Finale of the Concerto after the impromptu Interlude perceives as a vivid sketch in folk spirit connected with the traditions of folk genre principles reproduction and emerges as proof of life extension. The texture of the basic material is presented in a toccata manner, due to the alternation of weak and strong micro- and macrobeats in both parts of pianist’s hands. The middle part of the Finale is created in three-part format. The main section sets a certain rhythmic pulse. The introduction of quintuple (5/8) is innovative. The middle section of the middle part represents the choral is bringing us back to medieval music origins. Conclusions. The composer’s style of early I. Karabyts is distinguished by the scale and integrity of the artistic concepts of works that is typical of the entire Ukrainian national school, the use of variant and polyphonic techniques for the development of thematism, the timbre-orchestral and texture diversity. The First Piano Concerto of the composer is endowed with rich thematicism and vivid contrast of images, marked by the activity of the dramatic process based on dialogicity, due to the general philosophical concept of the work – the confrontation of the spiritual and anti-spiritual. Along with the conflict line, the Concerto presents the sphere of contemplatively dreamy, sensual lyrics. The First Movement in the dramaturgy of the cycle reveals the philosophy of life, its deep spirituality in coexistence with the forces of evil that bring destruction, accompanying the hero’s life path from birth to death, with all its collisions and intentions. The Finale is the continuation of being, movement (it represents the toccata material). The composer creates a concertо of a conflict-dramatic type, the dramaturgy of which is realized as an interaction of dramatic, lyrical and epic-dramatic principles. Conceptuality is revealed through the interaction of objective and subjective plans, where genre allusions acquire a certain semantic meaning (the introduction of a waltz and choral episodes, the toccata manner in “perpetuum mobile” image). The impulsive rhythmic development, the richness of harmonious sound, the wide timbre palette of the piano and orchestra make the Concert emotionally intense, romantic. The Concert uses a full register spectrum of pianos and a wide arsenal of its techniques, which allows the soloist to embody his performing abilities and recreate the concept of composer’s concept. The First Concerto embodies the philosophical theme, which is revealed through the procedural model of the endless circle “life-death-life”, continuing the line of the symphonic instrumental concerto, vividly presented in Ukrainian music of the 20 century by B. Liatoshinskyi, with allusions to Baroque genres (toccata, chorale) and with active use of polyphonic methods of development (in particular, the introduction of the episode of fugato).

Mark Veniaminovich Karminskyi (1930–1995) is a composer who, already during his lifetime, was appreciated by his contemporaries as the brightest figure in musical art, in particular, musical theater. Well-known in the country and his native Kharkiv, he was also the constant reader of the Kharkiv ‘K. Stanislavskyi’ Music and Theater Library for many years, taking part in many events that took place within its walls. An excellent lecturer and interlocutor, benevolent and affable person, he found an attentive audience and ardent admirers of his musical talent among the library’s readers and stuff. Perhaps, this is why M. Karminskyi chose the Library as the main curator of his archive. What is better than studying the artist’s personal archive to give an idea of his personality, creative methods and worldview? Even a cursory glance at the collection of documents classified on the shelves of the archive, illustrating particular biographical episodes, helps the researcher to form a holistic impression of the artist’s creative personality, as well as to orient, if necessary, for further more depth studying of his heritage. The purpose of this article is a brief review of the general content of the archival fund of M. V. Karminskyi, with the materials of which the author had the honor to conduct research and bibliographic work, as of a documentary sources base for future research of the composer’s work and the history of the musical culture of Kharkiv in 1950–2000 years. Statement of the main positions of the publication. The composer began to transfer his archive to the library during his lifetime: he arranged folders with manuscripts, gave explanations about the time of writing and purpose of individual works. It was this archive that was the first to get into the library as a full-fledged array of documents about the life of a creative person. The condition for its transfer was the possibility of unimpeded viewing of the archive and its copying for the purpose of training and concert performance of the composer’s works. The full description of M. Karminskyi’s archive was completed in 1996, but the fund was supplemented several times thanks to new materials that came to the archival collection after its formation. It contains a variety of documents, including musical manuscripts, newspaper clippings, photographic documents, sound recordings on various media, posters, booklets, programs, manuscripts by other authors related to the activities of the composer. Thus, for the theater – opera, drama – the composer has been actively working since a young age. He wrote music for performances of Kharkiv theaters – Puppet Theater, Young Audience Theater, Ukrainian Drama Theater named after Taras Shevchenko, Jewish Theater, even for student amateur theaters. Four operas by M. Karminskyi, among them – “Ten days that shook the world”, “Irkutsk story” – were successfully staged in many theaters in Ukraine, Russia, the Czech Republic and Germany. Particular attention was drawn to the opera “Ten Days That Shook the World” based on John Reed’s book about the events in Petrograd in 1917, which was published as the separate piano reduction and received a large number of reviews in periodicals. The typewritten copies of reviews by famous Ukrainian musicologists K. Heivandova and I. Zolotovytska have been preserved in the archive. The collection of the archive also includes the published piano score of the opera “Irkutsk story”, the known “Waltz” from which served as a call sign of the Kharkiv Regional Radio for many years. One of the most interesting manuscripts of the archive is the music for the unfinished ballet “Rembrandt” on the libretto by V. Dubrovskyi. The musical “Robin Hood”, which was performed not only in Kharkiv, but also in Moscow, brought the composer national fame. The sound recording of the Moscow play was distributed thanks to the release of gramophone records created with the participation of stars of Soviet stage – the singers Joseph Kobzon, Lev Leshchenko, Valentina Tolkunova and the famous actor Eugene Leonov. The popularity of this musical was phenomenal; excerpts from it were performed even in children’s music schools, as evidenced by the archival documents. During the composer’s life and after his death, his vocal and choral works, works for various instruments were mostly published. The array of these musical editions and manuscripts of M. Karminskyi is arranged in the archive by musical genres. These are piano pieces and other instrumental works, among them is one of the most popular opuses of the composer – “Jewish Prayer” for solo violin (the first performer – Honored Artist of Ukraine Hryhoriy Kuperman). Number a large of publications about the life and career of M. Karminskyi published in books and periodicals are collected, among them are K. Heivandova’s book (1981) “Mark Karminskyi”, the brief collection of memoirs about the composer (compiler – H. Hansburg, 2000) and the congregation of booklets of various festivals and competitions, for example, the booklets of the International Music Festival “Kharkiv Assemblies”, in which the composer has participated since the day of their founding. The booklet of the M. Karminskyi Choral Music Festival testifies to a unique phenomenon in the musical life of the city: never before or since has such a large-scale event dedicated to the work of a single person taken place attracting so many choirs from all Ukraine. A separate array of documents is the photo archive, which includes 136 portraits, photos from various events; 41 of them were donated by a famous Kharkiv photographer Yu. L. Shcherbinin. The audio-video archive of M. V. Karminskyi consists of records of his works, released by the company “Melody”: staging of performances “Robin Hood”, “There are musketeers!” (based on the play by M. Svetlov “20 years later”), various songs, video and tape cassettes with recordings of concerts. Other interesting documents have been preserved, for example, a typewritten script for the Kharkiv TV program about M. Karminskyi with his own participation or the library form, which can be used to trace his preferences as a reader. M. Karminskyi also compiled reviews of publications on the performance of his works and short bibliographic descriptions of their print editions. Conclusions. M. Karminskyi’s personal archive founded by him own in Kharkiv ‘K. S. Stanislavskyi’ Music and Theater Library has been functioning as an independent library fund since 1996 and today it is an unique comprehensive ordered collection, which is freely available and stores documents of various types: music publications and manuscripts, newspaper and magazine fragments, announces, photos, sound and video documents. M. Karminskyi’s archival fund is used as a documentary source for scientific researches (the Candidate’s dissertations of art critics Yu. Ivanova (2001) and E. Kushchova (2004) were defended using the materials of the archive) and as a basic congregation of works by the composer for their performance. The use of digital technologies is part of the necessary modern perspective of the fund’s development, the value of which as a primary source of historical and cultural information only grows over time.

Background. The article is devoted to the study of the personality of the outstanding Chinese composer Zhu Jian’er (1922–2017) – the leading figure of the national musical art of the twentieth century. It is proved that the presented problematic makes it possible to most deeply and accurately explore the musical heritage of the artist. In order to better understand the meaning of the composer’s creations, it is necessary to consider his environment, the stages of creative formation, the characteristics of character and personal qualities, his civic position and the characteristics of his worldview. Most of Zhu Jian’er’s life was in times of great turmoil associated with the Sino-Japanese liberation war, with the rigid ideological line of the Communist Party, with the excesses of the Cultural Revolution, etc. Consideration of the work of an outstanding composer through the prism of his personality became possible only in the twenty-first century, when Chinese society was completely freed from the pressure of ideology, which had long been felt after the policy of the Cultural Revolution in the country. Objectives. The purpose of this article is to systematize the historiographic information about the life-making of Zhu Jian’er in the context of the general trends in the development of Chinese musical culture of the twentieth and early twenty-first century. Methods. The methodology of the research is based on the scientific approaches necessary for the disclosure of the topic. The integrated research way is used that combines the principle of musical-theoretical, musical-historical and performing analysis. Results. The composer’s youth passed in Shanghai, occupied by the Japanese invaders. Great importance to the young man had a twenty-four-hour musical radio program, through which he became acquainted with European classical music. In 1945, the composer became the leader of the musical group of the Corps of Cultural Art of the Suzhou military district, and then the director and conductor of the orchestra. As soon as the country was liberated, the composer returned to Shanghai with many musicians from the military orchestra. He was appointed to the position of the head of the musical ensemble of the state film studio. In the summer of 1955, at the age of 33, Zhu Jian’er enrolled in the graduate school of the Moscow Conservatory. Returning to China in the summer of 1960, Zhu Jian’er was full of ambition and a desire to serve his homeland and people. However, the subsequent years of the Cultural Revolution for a decade deprived him of the possibility of full-fledged creativity. Own feelings receded into the background, the collective ousted the personal. In his music the composer presented the Cultural Revolution – with its false goals, ugly human relations, distorted values, unjustified sufferings. This idea formed the basis of the First Symphony. Many outstanding masterpieces of the composer have won major awards at home and abroad, bringing glory to Chinese music on the international music scene. People close to Zhu Jian’er noted that the composer was rarely seen among friends or acquaintances, he was silent and did not like to talk. He was very thin, and it was not clear how a fiery passion and great creative energy lived in such a weak body. The composer had a mild temperament, he never became angry with people and was careful in his statements. However, even such a kind and conflict-free person, faced with unhealthy trends in the music industry, was embroiled in legal proceedings related to “violation of rights” and was forced to fight for his reputation. But he was not afraid of reprisals, his energy and strong enthusiasm gave him strength. Despite the fact that Zhu Jian’er was always an ordinary person, immersed in his own affairs, he was not indifferent to the events in his country and the fate of the national culture. In addition, he was also worried about the international situation and the influence of China outside. The composer has always been interested in politics and collected information about musical culture abroad. He had his own understanding of the world, and he tried to hold an independent opinion, although, as a real creator, he was often visited by the spirit of doubt. Despite his painful body, Zhu Jian’er was a very tough and courageous man. In the years when China was shook by events that he considered as the national catastrophe, the composer retained loyalty to the power. It was not conformism, the musician sincerely loved his homeland and was ready to die for it, his position was that the mistakes would be corrected and the country would gain strength. These inner experiences deeply touched the composer’s mind and feelings, and were subsequently reflected in his music, being formed the unique musical style of his works. In recent years, as an elderly and painful man, Zhu Jian’er continued, in his words, “to pay off debts” – writing articles for various Shanghai music publishers, editing symphonic, orchestral and piano music, and writing a monograph. In most cases, this was underpaid or completely unpaid work. However, the composer was doing such work, considering it his duty. Conclusions. We can observe important milestones in the life-making of Zhu Jian’er, which radically influenced his multifaceted musical creativity. The outlook and civil position of the musician was formed during the years of the Sino-Japanese war of liberation. This enforced his ardent love for his native land and his people. Since he himself was physically unable to be in the ranks of the army, the desire to defend their homeland was expressed in the military songs by Zhu Jian’er. The critical attitude of the musician to the policy of the Cultural Revolution did not change his positive attitude towards life, but only made him think about the meaning of the artist’s life and purpose in society. The activities of the composer in the team of the military ensemble led him to realize the need for further professional development. The passionate desire to gain the highest stages of composer skills prompted Zhu Jian’er insistently to possess by this knowledge at the Moscow Conservatory and then at the Shanghai Conservatory. The composer honed his skills in the field of vocal, instrumental, chamber and choral music, however, the genre of the symphony in which the musician expressed his civic creed and view of the world became the pinnacle of his work.

Anatoliy Haidenko’s creative path lasts for about sixty years, during which this outstanding musician has been working fruitfully as a composer, performer, teacher, scientist, methodologist, music and public figure. The versatility of his personality, the diversity of talents, the relentless search for new ideas or means of expression, interest in a wide range of current issues of today are fully manifested in each of these areas. The desire to keep up, not to miss any opportunity to do something for people and at the same time to find time to «create» music in the silence of the cabinet led to a fair recognition of the achievements of Anatoliy Haidenko, currently an honored artist of Ukraine, professor, winner of numerous prestigious awards, permanent member of the jury of national and international festivals and competitions. Background. The figure and work of Anatoly Haidenko often attracts the attention of music scholars. In the field of view of researchers there were, above all, the issues of biographical and aesthetic nature, which are the necessary foundation for a thorough study of the artist’s work. Genre searches and stylistic principles of creativity are another important vector of research, based on analytical observations of Anatoliy Haidenko’s music. However, unfortunately, there are few special works dedicated to the creative work of the Kharkiv composer. Separate pieces of information about some of his opuses, as a rule, are contained in works aimed at highlighting certain trends in modern Ukrainian, especially accordion music. Thus, in order to establish the worldview of the composer, his creative and aesthetic principles, it is necessary to review the available in domestic musicology knowledge about Anatoliy Haidenko and his music. The purpose of the article is to highlight the figure of the artist and his contribution to the Ukrainian academic music art. The material of this research. Analyzing the scientific sources that cover the figure of the outstanding artist A. Haidenko, it is necessary to single out the meaningful work of the monographic type by A. Semeshko (2010) from the series “Portraits of modern Ukrainian composers” about the life and career of A. Haidenko. T. Bolshakova’s textbook (2007) “Concert works for accordion by A. Haidenko” is, in fact, a detailed preface to the publication of musical texts of accordion works of the composer, which had not been published before. The scholar focuses on the artist’s inherent synthesis of modern compositional writing and Ukrainian folk music tradition, emphasizing their subordination to the symphonic thinking of the master. T. Bolshakova’s opinion is also important regarding the “neo-pantheistic concept of existence”, the manifestos of which in A. Haidenko’s works are “the figurative content and semantics of the musical language of his works” (Bolshakova, 2007). The author of the candidate’s dissertation on the topic: “Bayan creativity of Anatoliy Haidenko: aesthetic and genre-style aspects” (Yeromenko, 2019) of Sumy, defended in 2019, thoroughly researches the creative way and accordion work of A. Haidenko. Tracing the evolution of the artist’s compositional path, the researcher A. Stashevsky (2013) identifies the most significant works from his point of view, briefly characterizing them. This opinion is asserted by A. Stashevsky in fundamental work “Modern Ukrainian music for accordion: means of expression, compositional technologies, instrumental style” (2013). In this work, the composer’s work is considered in the section devoted to one of the main vectors of development of modern accordion music – folklore and neo-folklore. Conclusions. During the sixty years of his creative path A. Haidenko has been fruitfully working in various spheres of activity: composition, performance, pedagogical, scientific, methodical, musical and public ones. Performing activities began with a trip as part of a student concert. The activity, which began with travels as part of concert student brigades and continued during the work in Sumy, demonstrated the talent of A. Haidenko as a bayan soloist and ensemble player. However, later the leading role was played by the compositional and pedagogical areas of activity. As a composer, A. Haidenko went through a difficult path from the status of “amateur author” to a recognized master of large forms and exquisite miniatures. Four works, submitted by him before joining the Union of Composers of Ukraine, identified the main directions of his further creative activity: symphonic music, music for folk instruments, choral and chamber and vocal music. A. Haidenko’s teaching activity – ten years of work at the Sumy Music School, four years at the Kharkiv Institute of Culture and more than forty years of hard work at the Department of Folk Instruments at the Kotlyarevsky Kharkiv National University of Arts – contributed to the formation of their own pedagogical principles, proved by the students of A. Haidenko: Y. Alzhnev, V. Geiko, A. Zhukov, E. Ivanov, S. Kolodyazhny. A. Haidenko’s research interests are connected with the history of the Kharkiv school of composition and instrument science. The textbook “Instrumentology and Fundamentals of Instrumentation Theory”, published in 2010 and addressed to teachers and students of folk instruments departments of higher musical educational institutions, is the result of many years of experience teaching the relevant course at KhNUA named after I. P. Kotlyarevsky. A significant place in the life of A. Haidenko is occupied by musical and public activities. In the National Union of Composers of Ukraine, he has served as Deputy Chairman and Executive Secretary of the Kharkiv Organization, a member of the UWC Board and Audit Committee, and Chairman of the Music Fund. Anatoliy Pavlovych Haidenko is also a member of the National All-Ukrainian Music Union, the Supervisory Board of the Ukrainian Cultural Foundation, and regularly participates in the jury of various competitions and festivals.

Choral conducting is a complex and multi-faceted leader role. Leading music is a particular kind of leadership through the prominence of gestural communication, and it is a ubiquitous phenomenon across a variety of social settings, musical genres, and ensemble types. Despite the variety, colloquial writing as well as academic research implicitly assumes that there is a common underlying competence base. Most research on conducting looks at a particular aspect, such as gestures, error correction, or rehearsing approach. What is largely wanting, is an overall view of how the competence elements come together and their relative importance. This article is an exploratory study of 17 competence elements, viewed by conductors in the context of their own practice. The study is based on a survey of 294 choral conductors across Norway, with a wide spread in terms of formal education, experience and working situation. The study supports previous research by how the role of conducting gesture takes a seemingly contradictory position; emblematic of the role, but still scores low in terms of importance. Our analysis shows that the views on key competence elements, such as gestural skills, vary with contextual factors, whereas other elements, such as error detection and rehearsal organisation, do not. The two contextual factors that explain most variation for several competence elements are the length of the conductor’s experience and the level (amateur/professional) of the conductor’s choirs. Conductors’ views on the importance of each competence element are closely related to their own competence level for the same element. This suggests that the prominence that competence elements are given in conducting practice is highly adaptable, as conductors cope with the situation at hand. Although an academic degree in conducting has an impact on how conductors view the various competence elements, practice and experience seem to rule over education.

In June 1916 Nielsen supplied incidental music for the tercentenary Shakespeare celebrations in Hamlet’s castle of Kronborg, Helsingør (Elsinore). The three choruses and two songs he composed constitute one of his least-known works. But they had a legacy, and not only in the final choral number, which, to other words, subsequently became a candidate for Danish national anthem. Shortly after the event, Nielsen confided that he found Ariel and Caliban (for each of whom he had composed a sharply characterful song) so fascinating that he was considering writing an instrumental work based on their contrasting temperaments. This he never did, at least not overtly. However, ten years later the drastic instrumental contrasts in his Flute Concerto invite a reading based on the Ariel/Caliban duality. The distinctiveness of the concerto’s confrontation between the flute solo and the orchestral bass trombone has long been recognised. However, this duality takes on a more focused and at the same time broader significance when viewed in the light of Nielsen’s life-long, albeit mainly indirect, engagement with Shakespeare. Suggesting how a composer’s occasional character-music may re-emerge in their concert work in the guise of archetypes, our article seeks to contribute to a growing field of investigation into the relationship between ‘applied’ and concert music.

As a result of the awareness of the important role of spiritual and cultural phenomena in the development of Ukrainian culture, modern society has a particular interest in the historical context of the formation of sacred art. Therefore, the process of research of church singing based on reliable information, fixed in Galician periodicals since the appearance of the first publications on this topic and before the Second World War, became the basis of the writing of the article. The choice of methodological principles is conditioned by the specifics of the research carried out, in particular, the accumulation of materials with further understanding and selection. Historical and cultural studies, art studies, theological and teaching materials, which are found at the time periodical, preserved in the department of ukrainian, in the scientific department of periodicals by Maryana and Ivanni Kotsiv, National Library of Ukraine the name of V. Stefanyk, and in the State Archives of the Ternopil region. The use of comparative and cultural methods helped to highlight the historically determined features of ritual and church-musical life of Galicia at the end of the 19th and the first half of the twentieth century under the conditions of expansion of the pro-government structures. Due to the functional approach, the problems of coexistence of denominations, social conditions of the Greek Catholic Church, the status of daco-regent education and publishing, and the role of personalities in the practice of church singing are outlined. On this basis, a holistic evaluation of spiritual and choral performance and the social context of church singing as a form of realization of the liturgical art of the Eastern rite in Galicia at the end of the nineteenth and first half of the twentieth century was achieved. The source materials revealed the activation of public opinion in the press at that time, showed the significant role of the Ukrainian Church in shaping national self-awareness and dominance of the spiritual factor in the outlook and everyday life of the Galician.

A variety of digital technologies exist that can transform sound waves into binary code. Any sound can be ‘sampled’ in this way: drum beats, field recordings, even full-length instrumental or vocal tracks. Copies are then ready to be duplicated, cut, spliced, pitch-shifted, equalised, turned backwards, and/or passed through a myriad of different effects processors before being sequenced and layered into a final stereo mix. Once obtained, this mix is itself eminently copy-able without loss in audio quality. Moreover, affordable digital reproduction media abound, such as CD-R and MP3. These methods of distribution are as attractive to the home audio producer as they are to the file-sharing enthusiast. On one end of the spectrum one finds an increasing number of people downloading music and creating personalised mix CDs or play-lists, irrespective of the constraints of copyright. On the other end, one observes established pop musicians such as Björk writing original choral arrangements, only to sing them into hard-disk recording systems for further remixing prior to commercial release (as on her last album Medúlla (2004)). Somewhere in the middle lies DJ Danger Mouse’s The Grey Album, an unsanctioned (and widely downloaded) remix of the Beatles White Album (1968) mashed together with a-cappella raps from Jay Z’s The Black Album (2003). It is as though audio in the digital age has become an ‘utterly malleable material’ (Miller 20), leaving only the sound selector and manipulator as the all-powerful source of creativity, musical genius and/or surreptitious intent (in the case of file sharing). To date, the majority of academic work on digital sound practices relies upon this suggestion that technology has provided us with almost total control over recorded sound (see Miller, Mudede, Pinch and Bijsterveld, Lysoff, Cascone, Théberge, and Jones). While digital methods for copying audio have been available for over 20 years, the technology involved has far from exhausted its potential to open up new forms of musical composition, cultural expression, and social exchange. In fact, the practices it has enabled are so multifaceted that the only limit in this case appears to be our imagination. This begs the question as to what limits this imagination, if anything? Do the sounds we mix not require us to attend to their particular shape before we bring them into alignment with other sources? What techniques must we employ to make room for their specific timbres? What constraints lead to the adoption of these techniques over others? How and why are these sounds chosen in the first place? What are the resources or archives used? It is through such questioning that the ‘give and take’ involved in digital audio production becomes apparent. The technologies used are not simply vehicles of personal expression – they represent an entire family of practices employed in a wide variety of unique scenarios. No two situations will be exactly alike, but there will be resemblances. These similarities and/or differences are as much the result of constraints prescribed by one’s sonic starting-points as they are the product of individual style. Such a symmetrical perspective is paramount in the development of analyses that accurately reflect the heterogeneity of digital audio practices. In the rest of this article I attend to the production methods of three Montreal-based sound artists. Quotations from personal interview are contrasted against the dominant academic view of digital audio as a vehicle of subjective control over sound. Jennifer Morris (a.k.a. ‘[sic]’) works mostly with field recordings as well as sounds that she collects by close-micing instruments such as the guitar or Japanese koto. When asked about how her sonic source material affects her work, Morris’ answer reflects a deep respect for the individual character of the sounds she chooses to copy and remix. At the same time she is not afraid to alter samples in search of new experimental mixing trajectories. In her words: My work is composed from the source material. It is a very organic process that begins with the selection of a few sounds and usually ends with using none of them and sounding completely different from what I set out to do. That’s what I love most, the sources control the work completely. (Jennifer Morris, a.k.a. ‘[sic]’, interviewed by Owen Chapman, 14 Dec. 2004) Morris habitually begins her compositional process with short copied extracts of longer recordings that she then transforms with the aid of various pieces of sound software and hardware to the point where they are barely recognisable. She will often discard her initial sound-selections as new timbres emerge through her experimentation. Nevertheless, Morris claims that this process is guided by her sources completely. In so doing she ascribes the latter a type of agency. There is a reverence in her words even in the way she describes the task of collecting sounds for future use. Instead of copying audio that fits the musical plans she has in her head, Morris waits for sounds to set off her ‘sampling radar’, so to speak. As she says about the sounds she gathers in her field recording practice, ‘Even if they [cannot be] heard by the human ear, I try to figure out ways to capture them, with a pickup and such.’ The sounds she selects are then allowed to guide her treatment of them based upon their own characteristics, such as sonic density, frequency range and mood. For Anna Friz (a.k.a. ‘A2Z’), however, the material she copies when starting a new sound piece sometimes ends up driving the work, and at other times not. When asked about the impact of her initial sound selections upon her final product, she answered: I think that sometimes it is the indexical relationship that the samples have with where they came from that … you’re drawn to and that you want to use, you want to emphasize. And in that case I think that some of the samples do make some decisions for you. Because there are certain things that, you know, depending on who you are you would choose not to do to a sample. (Anna Friz, a.k.a. ‘A2Z’, interviewed by Owen Chapman, 9 Sept. 2004) In elaborating this point Friz mentions a particular recording she possesses from the clash between police and protesters at the APEC summit in Vancouver in 1999. A member of staff from the radio station where she was working (CiTR) had called from the protest on a cell phone and was describing the pandemonium that was breaking out all around him. The urgency and panic in his voice as he shouts ‘They’re advancing right now…and we’re running, we’re running,’ became an artifact that she felt she must protect. As she said: ‘I didn’t want to just plant it into something without a context, because, for me it came from such a political place that I really wanted to preserve that.’ This sound fragment became the foundation for a political piece that she later composed in response to the treatment of protestors at the Quebec FTAA summit (co-produced with Richard Williams and entitled: ‘there’s a risk of arrest if you turn right’ (2001)). As with Morris, Friz often ends up radically transforming the sources she starts with. Interestingly, while Morris describes this as following intuitions laid out for her in the original material, Friz tends towards a more subjective interpretation of the mixing process: [I’ll take] something out of context because it just has a certain feel to it, a texture, or a pitch or tone or something and I just think: ‘That’s a good sound. I could turn that into something else – it will go with these other things. While this answer might resemble accounts focused on subjective expression through digital audio, it is important to recognize that Friz has no problem admitting to being impacted by a specific sound before deciding to displace it from its original context. In my own case I feel as though my usual source material (musical fragments copied from vinyl records) dramatically affects the work I end up producing. I’ll start by sampling a short passage uncovered on one record and, through working with it, be led towards other parts of my collection in search of other sounds. The process of composition unfolds organically as each additional element reveals hidden aspects of the samples already selected. This is where the affect of selection in digital sound art becomes most apparent, in the unique nature of every juxtaposition or mix. Contrary to predominant opinion, this mixing is as much guided by spontaneous inspiration based on aural-reaction as it is the subjective will of the mixer. This holds for all cases of digital audio manipulation – whether we are discussing studio production, sampling, file sharing or mash-ups, the common feature in all of these practices is the (re)collecting of recorded sounds in a way which, to quote Walter Benjamin, ‘studies and loves them as the scene, the stage, of their fate.’ (Benjamin 60). Asserting increased aural control as paramount to users of digital audio technology reduces a complex interactive relationship to one of master and slave. Although extraordinary editing precision is now possible when compared to the days of magnetic tape, copying, splicing and transforming audio with digital equipment is still very much about responsive listening. Those looking to write about the relationship between digital audio technology and contemporary practices of music making must never overlook the affective dimension of sound – its fleeting presence as vibrations of the ear drum. For recorded audio, no matter how many times it has been copied, it must always pass through a singular moment of conversion into moving air molecules in order to be experienced – at which point there is nothing left for us to do but listen and learn. References Benjamin, Walter. “On Unpacking My Library: A Talk about Book Collecting.” Illuminations. Ed. Hannah Arendt. New York: Shocken, 1969. Cascone, Kim. “Laptop Music: Counterfeiting Aura in the Age of Infinite Reproduction.” Parachute Fall, 2002. Jones, Steve. Rock Formation: Music, Technology and Mass Communication. Newbury Park, Calif.: Sage, 1992. Lysoff, Rene T. A. “Musical Community on the Internet: An On-Line Ethnography.” Cultural Anthropology 18.2 (2003): 233-63. Miller, Paul D. a.k.a DJ Spooky That Subliminal Kid. Rhythm Science. Mediawork Pamphlets. Ed. Peter Lunenfeld. New York: Mediawork, 2004. Mudede, Charles. “The Turntable.” ctheory 126 (24 April 2003). Pinch, Trevor J, and Karen Bijsterveld. “Should One Applaud? Breaches and Boundaries in the Reception of New Technology in Music.” Technology and Culture 44.3 (2003): 536-59. Théberge, Paul. Any Sound You Can Imagine: Making Music/Consuming Technology. Hanover, NH: UP of New England, 1997. Citation reference for this article MLA Style Chapman, Owen. "The Affect of Selection in Digital Sound Art." M/C Journal 8.3 (2005). echo date('d M. Y'); ?> <http://journal.media-culture.org.au/0507/03-chapman.php>. APA Style Chapman, O. (Jul. 2005) "The Affect of Selection in Digital Sound Art," M/C Journal, 8(3). Retrieved echo date('d M. Y'); ?> from <http://journal.media-culture.org.au/0507/03-chapman.php>.

IntroductionCoffee, as a stimulant, and the spaces in which it is has been consumed, have long played a vital role in fostering communication, creativity, and sociality. This article explores the interrelationship of café space, communication, creativity, and materialism. In developing these themes, this article is structured in two parts. The first looks back to the coffee houses of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries to give a historical context to the contemporary role of the café as a key site of creativity through its facilitation of social interaction, communication and information exchange. The second explores the continuation of the link between cafés, communication and creativity, through an instance from the mid-twentieth century where this process becomes individualised and is tied more intrinsically to the material surroundings of the café itself. From this, we argue that in order to understand the connection between café space and creativity, it is valuable to consider the rich polymorphic material and aesthetic composition of cafés. The Social Life of Coffee: London’s Coffee Houses While the social consumption of coffee has a long history, here we restrict our focus to a discussion of the London coffee houses of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. It was during the seventeenth century that the vogue of these coffee houses reached its zenith when they operated as a vibrant site of mercantile activity, as well as cultural and political exchange (Cowan; Lillywhite; Ellis). Many of these coffee houses were situated close to the places where politicians, merchants, and other significant people congregated and did business, near government buildings such as Parliament, as well as courts, ports and other travel route hubs (Lillywhite 17). A great deal of information was shared within these spaces and, as a result, the coffee house became a key venue for communication, especially the reading and distribution of print and scribal publications (Cowan 85). At this time, “no coffee house worth its name” would be without a ready selection of newspapers for its patrons (Cowan 173). By working to twenty-four hour diurnal cycles and heightening the sense of repetition and regularity, coffee houses also played a crucial role in routinising news as a form of daily consumption alongside other forms of habitual consumption (including that of coffee drinking). In Cowan’s words, “restoration coffee houses soon became known as places ‘dasht with diurnals and books of news’” (172). Among these was the short-lived but nonetheless infamous social gossip publication, The Tatler (1709-10), which was strongly associated with the London coffee houses and, despite its short publication life, offers great insight into the social life and scandals of the time. The coffee house became, in short, “the primary social space in which ‘news’ was both produced and consumed” (Cowan 172). The proprietors of coffee houses were quick to exploit this situation by dealing in “news mongering” and developing their own news publications to supplement their incomes (172). They sometimes printed news, commentary and gossip that other publishers were not willing to print. However, as their reputation as news providers grew, so did the pressure on coffee houses to meet the high cost of continually acquiring or producing journals (Cowan 173; Ellis 185-206). In addition to the provision of news, coffee houses were vital sites for other forms of communication. For example, coffee houses were key venues where “one might deposit and receive one’s mail” (Cowan 175), and the Penny Post used coffeehouses as vital pick-up and delivery centres (Lillywhite 17). As Cowan explains, “Many correspondents [including Jonathan Swift] used a coffeehouse as a convenient place to write their letters as well as to send them” (176). This service was apparently provided gratis for regular patrons, but coffee house owners were less happy to provide this for their more infrequent customers (Cowan 176). London’s coffee houses functioned, in short, as notable sites of sociality that bundled together drinking coffee with news provision and postal and other services to attract customers (Cowan; Ellis). Key to the success of the London coffee house of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries was the figure of the virtuoso habitué (Cowan 105)—an urbane individual of the middle or upper classes who was skilled in social intercourse, skills that were honed through participation in the highly ritualised and refined forms of interpersonal communication, such as visiting the stately homes of that time. In contrast to such private visits, the coffee house provided a less formalised and more spontaneous space of sociality, but where established social skills were distinctly advantageous. A striking example of the figure of the virtuoso habitué is the philosopher, architect and scientist Robert Hooke (1635-1703). Hooke, by all accounts, used the opportunities provided by his regular visits to coffee houses “to draw on the knowledge of a wide variety of individuals, from servants and skilled laborers to aristocrats, as well as to share and display novel scientific instruments” (Cowan 105) in order to explore and develop his virtuoso interests. The coffee house also served Hooke as a place to debate philosophy with cliques of “like-minded virtuosi” and thus formed the “premier locale” through which he could “fulfil his own view of himself as a virtuoso, as a man of business, [and] as a man at the centre of intellectual life in the city” (Cowan 105-06). For Hooke, the coffee house was a space for serious work, and he was known to complain when “little philosophical work” was accomplished (105-06). Sociality operates in this example as a form of creative performance, demonstrating individual skill, and is tied to other forms of creative output. Patronage of a coffee house involved hearing and passing on gossip as news, but also entailed skill in philosophical debate and other intellectual pursuits. It should also be noted that the complex role of the coffee house as a locus of communication, sociality, and creativity was repeated elsewhere. During the 1600s in Egypt (and elsewhere in the Middle East), for example, coffee houses served as sites of intensive literary activity as well as the locations for discussions of art, sciences and literature, not to mention also of gambling and drug use (Hattox 101). While the popularity of coffee houses had declined in London by the 1800s, café culture was flowering elsewhere in mainland Europe. In the late 1870s in Paris, Edgar Degas and Edward Manet documented the rich café life of the city in their drawings and paintings (Ellis 216). Meanwhile, in Vienna, “the kaffeehaus offered another evocative model of urban and artistic modernity” (Ellis 217; see also Bollerey 44-81). Serving wine and dinners as well as coffee and pastries, the kaffeehaus was, like cafés elsewhere in Europe, a mecca for writers, artists and intellectuals. The Café Royal in London survived into the twentieth century, mainly through the patronage of European expatriates and local intellectuals such as Wyndham Lewis, Ezra Pound, T. S. Elliot, and Henri Bergson (Ellis 220). This pattern of patronage within specific and more isolated cafés was repeated in famous gatherings of literary identities elsewhere in Europe throughout the twentieth century. From this historical perspective, a picture emerges of how the social functions of the coffee house and its successors, the espresso bar and modern café, have shifted over the course of their histories (Bollerey 44-81). In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the coffee house was an important location for vibrant social interaction and the consumption and distribution of various forms of communication such as gossip, news, and letters. However, in the years of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the café was more commonly a site for more restricted social interaction between discrete groups. Studies of cafés and creativity during this era focus on cafés as “factories of literature, inciters to art, and breeding places for new ideas” (Fitch, The Grand 18). Central in these accounts are bohemian artists, their associated social circles, and their preferred cafés de bohème (for detailed discussion, see Wilson; Fitch, Paris Café; Brooker; Grafe and Bollerey 4-41). As much of this literature on café culture details, by the early twentieth century, cafés emerge as places that enable individuals to carve out a space for sociality and creativity which was not possible elsewhere in the modern metropolis. Writing on the modern metropolis, Simmel suggests that the concentration of people and things in cities “stimulate[s] the nervous system of the individual” to such an extent that it prompts a kind of self-preservation that he terms a “blasé attitude” (415). This is a form of “reserve”, he writes, which “grants to the individual a [certain] kind and an amount of personal freedom” that was hitherto unknown (416). Cafés arguably form a key site in feeding this dynamic insofar as they facilitate self-protectionism—Fitch’s “pool of privacy” (The Grand 22)—and, at the same time, produce a sense of individual freedom in Simmel’s sense of the term. That is to say, from the early-to-mid twentieth century, cafés have become complex settings in terms of the relationships they enable or constrain between living in public, privacy, intimacy, and cultural practice. (See Haine for a detailed discussion of how this plays out in relation to working class engagement with Paris cafés, and Wilson as well as White on other cultural contexts, such as Japan.) Threaded throughout this history is a clear celebration of the individual artist as a kind of virtuoso habitué of the contemporary café. Café Jama Michalika The following historical moment, drawn from a powerful point in the mid-twentieth century, illustrates this last stage in the evolution of the relationship between café space, communication, and creativity. This particular historical moment concerns the renowned Polish composer and conductor Krzysztof Penderecki, who is most well-known for his avant-garde piece Threnody to the Victims of Hiroshima (1960), his Polymorphia (1961), and St Luke Passion (1963-66), all of which entailed new compositional and notation techniques. Poland, along with other European countries devastated by the Second World War, underwent significant rebuilding after the war, also investing heavily in the arts, musical education, new concert halls, and conservatoria (Monastra). In the immediate post-war period, Poland and Polish culture was under the strong ideological influence exerted by the Soviet Union. However, as Thomas notes, within a year of Stalin’s death in 1953, “there were flickering signs of moderation in Polish culture” (83). With respect to musical creativity, a key turning point was the Warsaw Autumn Music Festival of 1956. “The driving force” behind the first festival (which was to become an annual event), was Polish “composers’ overwhelming sense of cultural isolation and their wish to break the provincial nature of Polish music” at that time (Thomas 85). Penderecki was one of a younger generation of composers who participated in, and benefited from, these early festivals, making his first appearance in 1959 with his composition Strophes, and successive appearances with Dimensions of Time and Silence in 1960, and Threnody in 1961 (Thomas 90). Penderecki married in the 1950s and had a child in 1955. This, in combination with the fact that his wife was a pianist and needed to practice daily, restricted Penderecki’s ability to work in their small Krakow apartment. Nor could he find space at the music school which was free from the intrusion of the sound of other instruments. Instead, he frequented the café Jama Michalika off the central square of Krakow, where he worked most days between nine in the morning and noon, when he would leave as a pianist began to play. Penderecki states that because of the small space of the café table, he had to “invent [a] special kind of notation which allowed me to write the piece which was for 52 instruments, like Threnody, on one small piece of paper” (Krzysztof Penderecki, 2000). In this, Penderecki created a completely new set of notation symbols, which assisted him in graphically representing tone clustering (Robinson 6) while, in his score for Polymorphia, he implemented “novel graphic notation, comparable with medical temperature charts, or oscillograms” (Schwinger 29) to represent in the most compact way possible the dense layering of sounds and vocal elements that is developed in this particular piece. This historical account is valuable because it contributes to discussions on individual creativity that both depends on, and occurs within, the material space of the café. This relationship is explored in Walter Benjamin’s essay “Polyclinic”, where he develops an extended analogy between the writer and the café and the surgeon and his instruments. As Cohen summarises, “Benjamin constructs the field of writerly operation both in medical terms and as a space dear to Parisian intellectuals, as an operating table that is also the marble-topped table of a café” (179). At this time, the space of the café itself thus becomes a vital site for individual cultural production, putting the artist in touch with the social life of the city, as many accounts of writers and artists in the cafés of Paris, Prague, Vienna, and elsewhere in Europe attest. “The attraction of the café for the writer”, Fitch argues, “is that seeming tension between the intimate circle of privacy in a comfortable room, on the one hand, and the flow of (perhaps usable) information all around on the other” (The Grand 11). Penderecki talks about searching for a sound while composing in café Jama Michalika and, hearing the noise of a passing tram, subsequently incorporated it into his famous composition, Threnody (Krzysztof Penderecki, 2000). There is an indirect connection here with the attractions of the seventeenth century coffee houses in London, where news writers drew much of their gossip and news from the talk within the coffee houses. However, the shift is to a more isolated, individualistic habitué. Nonetheless, the aesthetic composition of the café space remains essential to the creative productivity described by Penderecki. A concept that can be used to describe this method of composition is contained within one of Penderecki’s best-known pieces, Polymorphia (1961). The term “polymorphia” refers not to the form of the music itself (which is actually quite conventionally structured) but rather to the multiple blending of sounds. Schwinger defines polymorphia as “many formedness […] which applies not […] to the form of the piece, but to the broadly deployed scale of sound, [the] exchange and simultaneous penetration of sound and noise, the contrast and interflow of soft and hard sounds” (131). This description also reflects the rich material context of the café space as Penderecki describes its role in shaping (both enabling and constraining) his creative output. Creativity, Technology, Materialism The materiality of the café—including the table itself for Penderecki—is crucial in understanding the relationship between the forms of creative output and the material conditions of the spaces that enable them. In Penderecki’s case, to understand the origins of the score and even his innovative forms of musical notation as artefacts of communication, we need to understand the material conditions under which they were created. As a fixture of twentieth and twenty-first century urban environments, the café mediates the private within the public in a way that offers the contemporary virtuoso habitué a rich, polymorphic sensory experience. In a discussion of the indivisibility of sensation and its resistance to language, writer Anna Gibbs describes these rich experiential qualities: sitting by the window in a café watching the busy streetscape with the warmth of the morning sun on my back, I smell the delicious aroma of coffee and simultaneously feel its warmth in my mouth, taste it, and can tell the choice of bean as I listen idly to the chatter in the café around me and all these things blend into my experience of “being in the café” (201). Gibbs’s point is that the world of the café is highly synaesthetic and infused with sensual interconnections. The din of the café with its white noise of conversation and overlaying sounds of often carefully chosen music illustrates the extension of taste beyond the flavour of the coffee on the palate. In this way, the café space provides the infrastructure for a type of creative output that, in Gibbs’s case, facilitates her explanation of expression and affect. The individualised virtuoso habitué, as characterised by Penderecki’s work within café Jama Michalika, simply describes one (celebrated) form of the material conditions of communication and creativity. An essential factor in creative cultural output is contained in the ways in which material conditions such as these come to be organised. As Elizabeth Grosz expresses it: Art is the regulation and organisation of its materials—paint, canvas, concrete, steel, marble, words, sounds, bodily movements, indeed any materials—according to self-imposed constraints, the creation of forms through which these materials come to generate and intensify sensation and thus directly impact living bodies, organs, nervous systems (4). Materialist and medium-oriented theories of media and communication have emphasised the impact of physical constraints and enablers on the forms produced. McLuhan, for example, famously argued that the typewriter brought writing, speech, and publication into closer association, one effect of which was the tighter regulation of spelling and grammar, a pressure toward precision and uniformity that saw a jump in the sales of dictionaries (279). In the poetry of E. E. Cummings, McLuhan sees the typewriter as enabling a patterned layout of text that functions as “a musical score for choral speech” (278). In the same way, the café in Penderecki’s recollections both constrains his ability to compose freely (a creative activity that normally requires ample flat surface), but also facilitates the invention of a new language for composition, one able to accommodate the small space of the café table. Recent studies that have sought to materialise language and communication point to its physicality and the embodied forms through which communication occurs. As Packer and Crofts Wiley explain, “infrastructure, space, technology, and the body become the focus, a move that situates communication and culture within a physical, corporeal landscape” (3). The confined and often crowded space of the café and its individual tables shape the form of productive output in Penderecki’s case. Targeting these material constraints and enablers in her discussion of art, creativity and territoriality, Grosz describes the “architectural force of framing” as liberating “the qualities of objects or events that come to constitute the substance, the matter, of the art-work” (11). More broadly, the design features of the café, the form and layout of the tables and the space made available for individual habitation, the din of the social encounters, and even the stimulating influences on the body of the coffee served there, can be seen to act as enablers of communication and creativity. Conclusion The historical examples examined above indicate a material link between cafés and communication. They also suggest a relationship between materialism and creativity, as well as the roots of the romantic association—or mythos—of cafés as a key source of cultural life as they offer a “shared place of composition” and an “environment for creative work” (Fitch, The Grand 11). We have detailed one example pertaining to European coffee consumption, cafés and creativity. While we believe Penderecki’s case is valuable in terms of what it can tell us about forms of communication and creativity, clearly other cultural and historical contexts may reveal additional insights—as may be found in the cases of Middle Eastern cafés (Hattox) or the North American diner (Hurley), and in contemporary developments such as the café as a source of free WiFi and the commodification associated with global coffee chains. Penderecki’s example, we suggest, also sheds light on a longer history of creativity and cultural production that intersects with contemporary work practices in city spaces as well as conceptualisations of the individual’s place within complex urban spaces. References Benjamin, Walter. “Polyclinic” in “One-Way Street.” One-Way Street and Other Writings. Trans. Edmund Jephcott and Kingsley Shorter. London: Verso, 1998: 88-9. Bollerey, Franziska. “Setting the Stage for Modernity: The Cosmos of the Coffee House.” Cafés and Bars: The Architecture of Public Display. Eds. Christoph Grafe and Franziska Bollerey. New York: Routledge, 2007. 44-81. Brooker, Peter. Bohemia in London: The Social Scene of Early Modernism. Houndmills, Hamps.: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007. Cohen, Margaret. Profane Illumination: Walter Benjamin and the Paris of Surrealist Revolution. Berkeley: U of California P, 1995. Cowan, Brian. The Social Life of Coffee: The Emergence of the British Coffeehouse. New Haven: Yale UP, 2005. Ellis, Markman. The Coffee House: A Cultural History. London: Weidenfeld & Nicholson, 2004. Fitch, Noël Riley. Paris Café: The Sélect Crowd. Brooklyn: Soft Skull Press, 2007. -----. The Grand Literary Cafés of Europe. London: New Holland Publishers (UK), 2006. Gibbs, Anna. “After Affect: Sympathy, Synchrony, and Mimetic Communication.” The Affect Theory Reader. Eds. Melissa Gregg and Gregory J. Siegworth. Durham: Duke University Press, 2010. 186-205. Grafe, Christoph, and Franziska Bollerey. “Introduction: Cafés and Bars—Places for Sociability.” Cafés and Bars: The Architecture of Public Display. Eds. Christoph Grafe and Franziska Bollerey. New York: Routledge, 2007. 4-41. Grosz, Elizabeth. Chaos, Territory, Art: Deleuze and the Framing of the Earth. New York: Columbia UP, 2008. Haine, W. Scott. The World of the Paris Café. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP, 1996. Hattox, Ralph S. Coffee and Coffeehouses: The Origins of a Social Beverage in the Medieval Near East. Seattle: U of Washington P, 1985. Hurley, Andrew. Diners, Bowling Alleys and Trailer Parks: Chasing the American Dream in the Postwar Consumer Culture. New York: Basic Books, 2001. Krzysztof Penderecki. Dir. Andreas Missler-Morell. Spektrum TV production and Telewizja Polska S.A. Oddzial W Krakowie for RM Associates and ZDF in cooperation with ARTE, 2000. Lillywhite, Bryant. London Coffee Houses: A Reference Book of Coffee Houses of the Seventeenth, Eighteenth, and Nineteenth Centuries. London: George Allen & Unwin, 1963. McLuhan, Marshall. Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man. London: Abacus, 1974. Monastra, Peggy. “Krzysztof Penderecki’s Polymorphia and Fluorescence.” Moldenhauer Archives, [US] Library of Congress. 12 Jan. 2012 ‹http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/collections/moldenhauer/2428143.pdf› Packer, Jeremy, and Stephen B. Crofts Wiley. “Introduction: The Materiality of Communication.” Communication Matters: Materialist Approaches to Media, Mobility and Networks. New York, Routledge, 2012. 3-16. Robinson, R. Krzysztof Penderecki: A Guide to His Works. Princeton, NJ: Prestige Publications, 1983. Schwinger, Wolfram. Krzysztof Penderecki: His Life and Work. Encounters, Biography and Musical Commentary. London: Schott, 1979. Simmel, Georg. The Sociology of Georg Simmel. Ed. and trans. Kurt H. Wolff. Glencoe, IL: The Free P, 1960. Thomas, Adrian. Polish Music since Szymanowski. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2005. White, Merry I. Coffee Life in Japan. Berkeley: U of California P, 2012. Wilson, Elizabeth. “The Bohemianization of Mass Culture.” International Journal of Cultural Studies 2.1 (1999): 11-32.

IntroductionFilmed during a 1955 family trip from Perth to the Gulf of Carpentaria, Keith Adams’s Northern Safari showed to packed houses across Australia, and in some overseas locations, across three decades. Essentially a home movie, initially accompanied by live commentary and subsequently by a homemade sound track, it tapped into audiences’ sense of Australia’s north as a place of adventure. In the film Adams interacts with the animals of northern Australia (often by killing them), and while by 1971 the violence apparent in the film was attracting criticism in letters to newspapers, the film remained popular through to the mid-1980s, and was later shown on television in Australia and the United States (Cowan 2; Adams, Crocodile Safari Man 261). A DVD is at present available for purchase from the website of the same name (Northern Safari). Adams and his supporters credited the film’s success to the rugged and adventurous landscape of northern Australia (Northeast vii), characterised by dangerous animals, including venomous spiders, sharks and crocodiles (see Adams, “Aussie”; “Crocodile”). The notion of Australia’s north as a place of rugged adventure was not born with Adams’s film, and that film was certainly not the last production to exploit the region and its wildlife as a source of excitement. Rather, Northern Safari belongs to a long list of adventure narratives whose hunting exploits have helped define the north of Australian as a distinct region and contrast it with the temperate south where most Australians make their lives.This article explores the connection between adventure in Australia’s north and the large animals of the region. Adams’s film capitalised on popular interest in natural history, but his film is only one link in a chain of representations of the Australian north as a place of dangerous and charismatic megafauna. While over time interest shifted from being largely concentrated on the presence of buffalo in the Northern Territory to a fascination with the saltwater crocodiles found more widely in northern Australia that interest in dangerous prey animals is significant to Australia’s northern imaginary.The Northern Safari before AdamsNorthern Australia gained a reputation for rugged, masculine adventure long before the arrival there of Adams and his cameras. That reputation was closely associated with the animals of the north, and it is generally the dangerous species that have inspired popular accounts of the region. Linda Thompson has recognised that before the release of the film Crocodile Dundee in 1986 crocodiles “received significant and sensational (although sporadic) media attention across Australia—attention that created associations of danger, mystery, and abnormality” (118). While Thompson went on to argue that in the wake of Crocodile Dundee the saltwater crocodile became a widely recognised symbol of Australia (for both Australians and non-Australians) it is perhaps more pertinent to consider the place of animals in creating a notion of the Australian north.Adams’s extended and international success (he showed his film profitably in the United States, Canada, England, Germany, South Africa, Rhodesia, and New Zealand as well as throughout Australia) suggests that the landscape and wildlife of northern Australia holds a fascination for a wide audience (Adams, Crocodile Safari Man 169-261). Certainly northern Australia, and its wild beasts, had established a reputation for adventure earlier, particularly in the periods following the world wars. Perhaps crocodiles were not the most significant of the north’s charismatic megafauna in the first half of the twentieth century, but their presence was a source of excitement well before the 1980s, and they were not the only animals in the north to attract attention: the Northern Territory’s buffalo had long acted as a drawcard for adventure seekers.Carl Warburton’s popular book Buffaloes was typical in linking Australians’ experiences of war with the Australian north and the pursuit of adventure, generally in the form of dangerous big game. War and hunting have long been linked as both are expressions of masculine valour in physically dangerous circumstances (Brennan “Imperial” 44-46). That link is made very clear in Warbuton’s account when he begins it on the beach at Gallipoli as he and his comrades discuss their plans for the future. After Warburton announces his determination not to return from war to work in a bank, he and a friend determine that they will go to either Brazil or the Northern Territory to seek adventure (2). Back in Sydney, a coin flip determines their “compass was set for the unknown north” (5).As the title of his book suggests, the game pursued by Warburton and his mate were buffaloes, as buffalo hides were fetching high prices when he set out for the north. In his writing Warburton was keen to establish his reputation as an adventurer and his descriptions of the dangers of buffalo hunting used the animals to establish the adventurous credentials of northern Australia. Warburton noted of the buffalo that: “Alone of all wild animals he will attack unprovoked, and in single combat is more than a match for a tiger. It is the pleasant pastime of some Indian princes to stage such combats for the entertainment of their guests” (62-63). Thereby, he linked Arnhem Land to India, a place that had long held a reputation as a site of adventurous hunting for the rulers of the British Empire (Brennan “Africa” 399). Later Warburton reinforced those credentials by noting: “there is no more dangerous animal in the world than a wounded buffalo bull” (126). While buffalo might have provided the headline act, crocodiles also featured in the interwar northern imaginary. Warburton recorded: “I had always determined to have a crack at the crocodiles for the sport of it.” He duly set about sating this desire (222-3).Buffalo had been hunted commercially in the Northern Territory since 1886 and Warburton was not the first to publicise the adventurous hunting available in northern Australia (Clinch 21-23). He had been drawn north after reading “of the exploits of two crack buffalo shooters, Fred Smith and Paddy Cahill” (Warburton 6). Such accounts of buffalo, and also of crocodiles, were common newspaper fodder in the first half of the twentieth century. Even earlier, explorers’ accounts had drawn attention to the animal excitement of northern Australia. For example, John Lort Stokes had noted ‘alligators’ as one of the many interesting animals inhabiting the region (418). Thus, from the nineteenth century Australia’s north had popularly linked together remoteness, adventure, and large animals; it was unsurprising that Warburton in turn acted as inspiration to later adventure-hunters in northern Australia. In 1954 he was mentioned in a newspaper story about two English migrants who had come to Australia to shoot crocodiles on Cape York with “their ambitions fed by the books of men such as Ion Idriess, Carl Warburton, Frank Clune and others” (Gay 15).The Development of Northern ‘Adventure’ TourismNot all who sought adventure in northern Australia were as independent as Adams. Cynthia Nolan’s account of travel through outback Australia in the late 1940s noted the increasing tourist infrastructure available, particularly in her account of Alice Springs (27-28, 45). She also recorded the significance of big game in the lure of the north. At the start of her journey she met a man seeking his fortune crocodile shooting (16), later encountered buffalo shooters (82), and recorded the locals’ hilarity while recounting a visit by a city-based big game hunter who arrived with an elephant gun. According to her informants: “No, he didn’t shoot any buffaloes, but he had his picture taken posing behind every animal that dropped. He’d arrange himself in a crouch, gun at the ready, and take self-exposure shots of himself and trophy” (85-86). Earlier, organised tours of the Northern Territory included buffalo shooter camps in their itineraries (when access was available), making clear the continuing significance of dangerous game to the northern imaginary (Cole, Hell 207). Even as Adams was pursuing his independent path north, tourist infrastructure was bringing the northern Australian safari experience within reach for those with little experience but sufficient funds to secure the provision of equipment, vehicles and expert advice. The Australian Crocodile Shooters’ Club, founded in 1950, predated Northern Safari, but it tapped into the same interest in the potential of northern Australia to offer adventure. It clearly associated that adventure with big game hunting and the club’s success depended on its marketing of the adventurous north to Australia’s urban population (Brennan “Africa” 403-06). Similarly, the safari camps which developed in the Northern Territory, starting with Nourlangie in 1959, promoted the adventure available in Australia’s north to those who sought to visit without necessarily roughing it. The degree of luxury that was on offer initially is questionable, but the notion of Australia’s north as a big game hunting destination supported the development of an Australian safari industry (Berzins 177-80, Brennan “Africa” 407-09). Safari entrepreneur Allan Stewart has eagerly testified to the broad appeal of the safari experience in 1960s Australia, claiming his clientele included accountants, barristers, barmaids, brokers, bankers, salesmen, journalists, actors, students, nursing sisters, doctors, clergymen, soldiers, pilots, yachtsmen, racing drivers, company directors, housewives, precocious children, air hostesses, policemen and jockeys (18).Later Additions to the Imaginary of the Northern SafariAdams’s film was made in 1955, and its subject of adventurous travel and hunting in northern Australia was taken up by a number of books during the 1960s as publishers kept the link between large game and the adventurous north alive. New Zealand author Barry Crump contributed a fictionalised account of his time hunting crocodiles in northern Australia in Gulf, first published in 1964. Crump displayed his trademark humour throughout his book, and made a running joke of the ‘best professional crocodile-shooters’ that he encountered in pubs throughout northern Australia (28-29). Certainly, the possibility of adventure and the chance to make a living as a professional hunter lured men to the north. Among those who came was Australian journalist Keith Willey who in 1966 published an account of his time crocodile hunting. Willey promoted the north as a site of adventure and rugged masculinity. On the very first page of his book he established his credentials by advising that “Hunting crocodiles is a hard trade; hard, dirty and dangerous; but mostly hard” (1). Although Willey’s book reveals that he did not make his fortune crocodile hunting he evidently revelled in its adventurous mystique and his book was sufficiently successful to be republished by Rigby in 1977. The association between the Australian north, the hunting of large animals, and adventure continued to thrive.These 1960s crocodile publications represent a period when crocodile hunting replaced buffalo hunting as a commercial enterprise in northern Australia. In the immediate post-war period crocodile skins increased in value as traditional sources became unreliable, and interest in professional hunting increased. As had been the case with Warburton, the north promised adventure to men unwilling to return to domesticity after their experiences of war (Brennan, “Crocodile” 1). This part of the northern imaginary was directly discussed by another crocodile hunting author. Gunther Bahnemann spent some time crocodile hunting in Australia before moving his operation north to poach crocodiles in Dutch New Guinea. Bahnemann had participated in the Second World War and in his book he was clear about his unwillingness to settle for a humdrum life, instead choosing crocodile hunting for his profession. As he described it: “We risked our lives to make quick money, but not easy money; yet I believe that the allure of adventure was the main motive of our expedition. It seems so now, when I think back to it” (8).In the tradition of Adams, Malcolm Douglas released his documentary film Across the Top in 1968, which was subsequently serialised for television. From around this time, television was becoming an increasingly popular medium and means of reinforcing the connection between the Australian outback and adventure. The animals of northern Australia played a role in setting the region apart from the rest of the continent. The 1970s and 1980s saw a boom in programs that presented the outback, including the north, as a source of interest and national pride. In this period Harry Butler presented In the Wild, while the Leyland brothers (Mike and Mal) created their iconic and highly popular Ask the Leyland Brothers (and similar productions) which ran to over 150 episodes between 1976 and 1980. In the cinema, Alby Mangels’s series of World Safari movies included Australia in his wide-ranging adventures. While these documentaries of outback Australia traded on the same sense of adventure and fascination with Australia’s wildlife that had promoted Northern Safari, the element of big game hunting was muted.That link was reforged in the 1980s and 1990s. Crocodile Dundee was an extremely successful movie and it again placed interactions with charismatic megafauna at the heart of the northern Australian experience (Thompson 124). The success of the film reinvigorated depictions of northern Australia as a place to encounter dangerous beasts. Capitalising on the film’s success Crump’s book was republished as Crocodile Country in 1990, and Tom Cole’s memoirs of his time in northern Australia, including his work buffalo shooting and crocodile hunting, were first published in 1986, 1988, and 1992 (and reprinted multiple times). However, Steve Irwin is probably the best known of northern Australia’s ‘crocodile hunters’, despite his Australia Zoo lying outside the crocodile’s natural range, and despite being a conservationist opposed to killing crocodiles. Irwin’s chosen moniker is ironic, given his often-stated love for the species and his commitment to preserving crocodile lives through relocating (when necessary, to captivity) rather than killing problem animals. He first appeared on Australian television in 1996, and continued to appear regularly until his death in 2006.Tourism Australia used both Hogan and Irwin for promotional purposes. While Thompson argues that at this time the significance of the crocodile was broadened to encompass Australia more generally, the examples of crocodile marketing that she lists relate to the Northern Territory, with a brief mention of Far North Queensland and the crocodile remained a signifier of northern adventure (Thompson 125-27). The depiction of Irwin as a ‘crocodile hunter’ despite his commitment to saving crocodile lives marked a larger shift that had already begun within the safari. While the title ‘safari’ retained its popularity in the late twentieth century it had come to be applied generally to organised adventurous travel with a view to seeing and capturing images of animals, rather than exclusively identifying hunting expeditions.ConclusionThe extraordinary success of Adams’s film was based on a widespread understanding of northern Australia as a type of adventure playground, populated by fascinating dangerous beasts. That imaginary was exploited but not created by Adams. It had been in existence since the nineteenth century, was particularly evident during the buffalo and crocodile hunting bubbles after the world wars, and boomed again with the popularity of the fictional Mick Dundee and the real Steve Irwin, for both of whom interacting with the charismatic megafauna of the north was central to their characters. The excitement surrounding large game still influences visions of northern Australia. At present there is no particularly striking northern bushman media personage, but the large animals of the north still regularly provoke discussion. The north’s safari camps continue to do business, trading on the availability of large game (particularly buffalo, banteng, pigs, and samba) and northern Australia’s crocodiles have established themselves as a significant source of interest among international big game hunters. Australia’s politicians regularly debate the possibility of legalising a limited crocodile safari in Australia, based on the culling of problem animals, and that debate highlights a continuing sense of Australia’s north as a place apart from the more settled, civilised south of the continent.ReferencesAdams, Keith. ’Aussie Bites.’ Australian Screen 2017. <https://aso.gov.au/titles/documentaries/northern-safari/clip2/>.———. ‘Crocodile Hunting.’ Australian Screen 2017. <https://aso.gov.au/titles/documentaries/northern-safari/clip3/>.———. Crocodile Safari Man: My Tasmanian Childhood in the Great Depression & 50 Years of Desert Safari to the Gulf of Carpentaria 1949-1999. Rockhampton: Central Queensland University Press, 2000.Bahnemann, Gunther. New Guinea Crocodile Poacher. 2nd ed. London: The Adventurers Club, 1965.Berzins, Baiba. Australia’s Northern Secret: Tourism in the Northern Territory, 1920s to 1980s. Sydney: Baiba Berzins, 2007.Brennan, Claire. 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