Academic literature on the topic 'Citric acid. eng'

Titration calorimetry is a method in which one reactant inside a calorimetric vessel is titrated with another delivered from a burette at a controlled rate. This technique has been adapted to a variety of calorimeters, notably of the isoperibol and heat flow types. The output of a titration calorimetric experiment is usually a plot of the temperature change or the heat flow associated with the reaction or physical interaction under study as a function of time or the amount of titrant added. A primary use of titration calorimetry is the determination of enthalpies of reaction in solution. The obtained results may of course lead to enthalpies of formation of compounds in the standard state by using appropriate thermodynamic cycles and auxiliary data, as described in chapter 8 for reaction-solution calorimetry. Moreover, when reactions are not quantitative, both the equilibrium constant and the enthalpy of reaction can often be determined from a single titration run. This also yields the corresponding ΔrGo and ΔrSo through equations 2.54 and 2.55. Extensive use has been made of titration calorimetry as an analytical tool. These applications, which are outside the scope of this book, have been covered in various reviews. The historical development of titration calorimetry has been addressed by Grime. The technique is credited to have been born in 1913, when Bell and Cowell used an apparatus consisting of a 200 cm3 Dewar vessel, a platinum stirrer, a thermometer graduated to tenths of degrees, and a volumetric burette to determine the end point of the titration of citric acid with ammonia from a plot of the observed temperature change against the volume of ammonia added. The capabilities of titration calorimetry have enormously evolved since then, and the accuracy limits of modern titration calorimeters are comparable to those obtained in conventional isoperibol or heat-flow instruments. The titration procedures described in the literature can be classified as continuous or incremental, depending on the mode of titrant addition. In the first case the titrant is continuously introduced in the reaction vessel at a programmed (not necessarily constant) rate during a run.

CeO2 materials doped with the di- or tri-valent metals possess high oxide ionic conductivity at low temperature for potential electrolyte use in intermediate temperature solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC). However, multi-elements doped CeO2-based electrolyte, (La1-x-ySrxBay)0.175Ce0.825O2-δ (LSBC) in this work, with pure phase is difficultly synthesized at low calcination temperature. High sintering temperature, e.g. > 1500°C, is also needed in conventional mixed oxide method. In this work, nanoparticles less than 50nm of LSBC can be prepared by solution-evaporation method at constant temperature