Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP)'

Philosophiae Doctor - PhD
Nigeria is one of the most multilingual nations in Africa which consists of over 450 languages (Adegbija, 2004; Danladi, 2013). It has a population of more than 150 million people, with three major languages, namely Hausa, Yoruba and Igbo, and a number of minority languages. Despite its linguistic and cultural diversity, English is the main medium of instruction from primary to tertiary education. The negative effects of learning through the medium of English second language (L2) are evidenced in the learners’ poor achievement in the external examination results of the National Examination Council (NECO) and the West African Examination Council (WAEC). There is an assumption that learners’ poor performance in English (L2) is due to little attention given to English writing in schools, and the use of less appropriate or effective teaching approaches (Babalola, 2011). There is a special concern about the poor writing proficiency levels of learners, particularly in the Junior Secondary School (JSS) phase which is an exit to Senior Secondary School level where learners are expected to show strong academic literacy skills. Writing is a process which is central to learners’ learning across the curriculum and it enables learners not only to access knowledge from different sources, but also to display the acquired knowledge in different domains. Learners’ poor writing skills are a great concern given that English (L2) is the main medium of instruction at all levels of education in Nigeria. In light of the above, this study set out to explore the pedagogical strategies and problems encountered by both teachers and learners in English (L2) academic writing in Junior Secondary School (JSS 3) classrooms in the Ekiti State, Nigeria. Guided by Second Language Acquisition theory, the study explored the factors that influence second language learning, in relation to the sociocultural and contextual factors that influence learners’ writing abilities. Through the lens of the Genre Pedagogical Theory and the Social Constructivist theory, it investigated teachers’ pedagogical strategies in English (L2) writing, and analysed learners’ written texts in order to understand the extent to which they reflected the features of specific genres that support learners’ writing skills. Four JSS3 teachers in three schools were purposively selected to participate in the study. The study employed a qualitative research paradigm, underpinned by the interpretive theory. Through the use of an ethnographic design, the day-to-day happenings such as thoughts and engagements of both teachers and students in the English (L2) lessons were observed and recorded by means of an audio-recorder in order to build a comprehensive record of the participants’ practice in the classroom. In addition, both semi-structured and unstructured interviews were conducted with the individual teachers. The students’ written texts and other relevant documents were collected and analysed for the purpose of data triangulation. Ethical considerations such as informed consent, voluntary participation, respect and anonymity of participants were observed throughout the study. In this study, the findings show that the teaching of English (L2) writing is still a challenge to many teachers due to a variety of factors which include linguistic, pedagogical and structural factors. As a result, learners’ academic writing suffers, especially writing to learn at secondary school level. Specifically, the findings of this study indicate that the teachers made use of traditional teaching approaches in the teaching of English (L2) writing as against the approaches recommended in the curriculum. The study also reveals that most of the JSS(3) students’ level of proficiency in English writing is below the expected levels stipulated in the curriculum document, although some of them displayed good basic interpersonal communication skills (BICS), Other contributing factors to the learners’ low academic writing proficiency in English (L2) include teachers’ limited understanding and application of the Genre-Based Approach in teaching writing, inadequate language teaching and learning resources, learners’ limited exposure to English (L2) and limited writing opportunities. The study concludes that while the use of the Genre-Based Approach is not the only strategy to enhance learners’ writing skills, the teaching of writing remains crucial as it is central to language use in different knowledge domains. Students’ writing proficiency is critical for cognitive and socio-economic development as it has implications for students’ access to knowledge and academic literacy which spills over to tertiary education. In a country like Nigeria where the main language of instruction is English, there is a need to prioritise teacher development and to revisit the curriculum to determine how it meets the academic needs of learners in this century.

Thesis (MEd (Education)--Cape Peninsula University of Technology, 2016.
The study explores how teachers, in English medium Foundation Phase classrooms, use support strategies to improve Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP) in learners whose home language is not English. The research design adopted for this study was an ethnographic case study that was analysed through qualitative methods at one primary school in the Western Cape. The participants were three teachers in their Foundation Phase classes, chosen on the basis of the phenomenon studied. The focus was to evaluate how successful the language support strategies are and to determine any gaps in the strategies used. Validity was assessed by means of lesson observations, supported by interviews and analysis of the teaching documents. Further, to increase the trustworthiness of the study, findings were compared across these data sources and methods to triangulate the results. Findings illuminated: (i) Factors impacting language teaching; (ii) Strategies used by teachers; (iii) Teachers’ understanding of support strategies; (iv) Teachers’ understanding of CALP; (v) Effectiveness of the support strategies; and (vi) Gaps in the strategies teachers used in improving CALP. Data were intentionally analysed to identify pervasive patterns and main themes in the data and a thematic report foreground the voices of the research participants. The study raised questions about the teachers’ practice in teaching CALP. Teachers taught using familiar methods, taught to a task and lacked linguistic structures in their lessons. Finally, the study report ended with a list of limitations and recommendations for future research in strategies that the Foundation Phase teacher can use to improve the CALP in South Africa’s schools.

The diversity embodying South Africa has emphasized the importance and influence of language in education and thus the additive bilingual programme is being implemented in the Eastern Cape by the ABLE project in order to realize the South African Language in education policy (LEiP).In accordance with this, the Woodcock Munoz Language Survey (which specializes in measuring cognitive academic language proficiency) was chosen as one of the instruments to evaluate the language outcomes of the programme and was adapted into South African English and isiXhosa.The current study was a subset of the ABLE project, and was located within the bigger project dealing with the translation of the WMLS into isiXhosa and the successive research on the equivalence of the two language versions. This study evaluated the structural equivalence of the English and isiXhosa versions of the WMLS on matched sample groups (n= 150 in each language group). Thus secondary data analysis (SDA) was conducted by analyzing the data in SPSS as well as CEFA (Comprehensive Exploratory Factor Analysis). The original data set was purposively sampled according to set selection criteria and consists of English and isiXhosa first language learners. The study sought to confirm previous research by cross-validating the results of structural equivalence on two subscales, namely the Verbal Analogies (VA) and Letter-Word Identification (LWI) subscale. The research design reflects psychometric test theory and is therefore located in a bias and equivalence theoretical framework. The results of the exploratory factor analysis found that one can only accept structural equivalence in the first factor identified in the VA subscale, while structural equivalence was found in the factor for the LWI subscale.The use of scatter-plots to validate the results of the exploratory factor analysis indicated that one can tentatively accept these results. The study thus contributed to the literature on the translation of the WMLS, and the adaptation of language tests into the indigenous languages of South Africa,as well as additive bilingual programmes.
Magister Artium (Psychology) - MA(Psych)

English CLIL-instruction in Sweden is supposed to be beneficial to students who want to improve their academic English vocabulary proficiency in preparation for studies or employment abroad. However, recent research shows that there is no difference in academic English proficiency between students in upper secondary school CLIL-programs and students in regular upper secondary schools in Sweden. Furthermore, educational researchers question if CLIL-programs in Sweden qualify to be defined as CLIL-instruction since Swedish translanguaging is extensively used which does not make the programs 100% Englishmedium instruction. Through teacher observations and questionnaires, this study investigates the classroom practices at a CLIL-program in Sweden in addition to ask the CLIL-teachers about their teaching strategies in regards to promoting students’ acquisition, development, and use of academic English. The findings include that the classroom practices are in accordance with practices considered beneficial to students’ proficiency in academi c English by numerous previous studies. In addition, all the teachers questioned in this study purposely work to support and develop students’ academic language proficiency in their respective subject areas and across the curriculum. The study also found four possible factors that perhaps can undermine the acquisition, development and use of academic English vocabulary and those include the following: First, the teachers believe that the students are already sufficiently fluent in academic English, and thus concentrate more on content than on language in their instruction. Secondly, extensive translanguaging in the classroom is common in addition to the students’ habit of speaking Swedish to each other in stude nt-tostudent communication. Thirdly, the students do not receive the corresponding level of education in their native language of Swedish as they do in English, which can have detrimental effects on their abilities to develop their English past their Swedish language abilities. Finally, classroom practices that are not inclusive of all students can work to undermine the acquisition and use of academic English vocabulary.

In the majority of the schools in South Africa (SA), learners commence education in English. This English milieu poses a considerable challenge for English second-language speakers. In an attempt to bridge the gap between English as the main medium of instruction and the nine indigenous languages of the country and assist with the implementation of mother-tongue based bilingual education, this study focuses on the cross-validation of a monolingual English test used in the assessment of multilingual or bilingual learners in the South African context. This test, namely the Woodcock Muñ
oz Language Survey (WMLS), is extensively used in the United States in Additive Bilingual Education in the country. The present study is a substudy of a broader study, in which the original WMLS (American-English version) was adapted into SA English and Xhosa. For this specific sub-study, the researcher was interested in investigating the scalar equivalence of the adapted English version of the Verbal Analogies (VA) subscale of the WMLS across English first-language speakers and Xhosa first-language speakers. This was achieved by utilising differential item functioning (DIF) and construct bias statistical techniques. The Mantel-Haenszel DIF detection method was employed to detect DIF, while construct equivalence was examined by means of exploratory factor analysis (EFA) utilising an a priori two-factor structure. The Tucker&rsquo
s phi coefficient was used to assess the congruence of the construct across the two language groups

This study formed part of a larger project that is concerned with the adaptation of a test of cognitive academic language proficiency, the Woodcock Muñ
oz Language Survey (WMLS). The WMLS has been adapted from English into isiXhosa and the present study is located within the broader study that is concerned with establishing overall equivalence between the two language versions of the WMLS. It was primarily concerned with the Verbal Analogies (VA) scale. Previous research on this scale has demonstrated promising results, but continues to find evidence of some inequivalence. This study aimed to cross-validate previous research on the two language versions of the WMLS and improve on methodological issues by employing matched groups. It drew upon an existing dataset from the larger research project. The study employed a monolingual matched two-group design consisting of 150 mainly English speaking and 149 mainly isiXhosa learners in grades 6 and 7. This study had two sub aims. The first was to investigate item bias by identifying DIF items in the VA scale across the isiXhosa and English by conducting a logistic regression and Mantel-Haenszel procedure. Five items were identified by both techniques as DIF. The second sub aim was to evaluate construct equivalence between the isiXhosa and English versions of the WMLS on the VA scale by conducting a factor analysis on the tests after removal of DIF items. Two factors were requested during the factor analysis. The first factor displayed significant loadings across both language versions and was identified as a stable factor. This was confirmed by the Tucker&rsquo
s Phi and scatter plot. The second factor was stable for the English version but not for the isiXhosa version. The Tucker&rsquo
s phi and scatter plot indicated that this factor is not structurally equivalent across the two language versions

ABSTRACT The purpose of this research was to discover the value of ‘deep’ talk in developing Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP), with primary focus on a group of ‘under-prepared’ first year university students for whom English is an additional language (EAL), who were registered for an ‘extended degree’ in the Faculty of Humanities at the University of Johannesburg, Kingsway campus. The method of research was qualitative and took the form of a teaching intervention in which groups of students voluntarily participated in the performance of different learning activities (such as reading, talking and writing) either as individuals of as members of a group. All of the students were given identical background texts to read. The texts provided contextual information on a topic pertaining to a gender debate. Some students read the texts prior to participating in a discussion on the topic, after which they wrote an argumentative essay. Other students talked about the topic first, and then read the texts before writing their essay. A ‘control’ group of students did not talk at all, but just read the texts and then wrote an essay on the topic. The researcher analysed transcriptions of tape-recordings of the group discussions, using limited discourse analysis to highlight various ‘speech acts’ to assess how the students used language to actively engage with each other and build their arguments. The research findings were also assisted by an analysis of the essays and reflections written by each student. The research found that the process of talk itself in which the students used language to respond to each other’s ideas, helped to cognitively challenge the students in the development of their arguments. The research also found that the cognitive development gained through the talk was helpful in assisting students to formulate their written arguments in their essay. The research found that some contextual support in the form of background readings was also helpful. The order in which this took place was also found to be important. The research found it to be particularly useful for students to be given background reading before their talk, rather than after their talk, as this gave students a more informed perspective with which to approach their group discussion. By examining the essays in relation to the transcripts of the talk, the researcher explored the extent to which a more informed perspective on the topic, coupled with the way in which students used language, helped students to develop a more balanced approach in developing their written arguments.

The purpose of the research was to look critically at the language development of the young second-language learner within their social context, in relation to theory and practice (praxis), using as a ‘lens’, “the right to participation” (UNCRC General Comment No 12, 2009). Language and communication were seen by the researcher as fundamental to the child’s ‘right to participate’ as ‘agents of their own life’ (General Comment No 7, 2005) as they engage in meaning-making with others, both at home and at school. The research was conducted as a Case Study within a Pre-Primary School over a three month period, with the lead-researcher involving the teachers as co-researchers. A Participatory Action Research methodology was used, within a praxeological conceptual framework. Parents and their young children (between the ages of 2 – 6 years) were participants in the research. Ways were explored to build ‘bridges’ to overcome perceived ‘barriers’ to the children’s participation. Various data collection techniques were used, including the Persona Doll approach, the Mosaic Approach, Documentation of Learning and Learning Story Books. The results of the research were increased awareness of the value of inclusive practices that place a value on diversity and which actively support and promote the use of the mother tongue, as well as the learning of English as a second language. In the course of the research, it was seen as important for adults (parents or teachers) to support the learning of concepts in the mother tongue or in English by verbalizing for the child, while engaging in the process of meaning-making. The ‘choice’ to use English in preference over the mother tongue became apparent. Therefore the research methodology was seen as an important way to develop ‘critical, reflective practice’ amongst the teachers and to create partnerships with the parents. The aim was to strive towards ‘phronesis’ or wise practice, using as a ‘lens’ for critical reflection, the child’s ‘right to participation’ (UNCRC General Comment No 12, 2009).
Psychology of Education
M. Ed. (Educational Psychology)

This study explores Cummins' interdependence hypothesis in the South African context. The design is experimental, involving Zulu primary language writing instruction to explore whether skills taught in Zulu composition classes transfer into English expository writing. The intervention and control groups were drawn from two ex-Model C high schools and the focus was on measuring use of coherence and cohesion in English essays. Quantitative findings showed, although the intervention group's writing skills did not improve significantly, they did not decline. By contrast, the control group's writing skills declined significantly. A more qualitative investigation of the corpus supports the statistical findings. However, because of the limitations of this study, more research is required into Cummins' hypothesis, bilingual programmes and teaching academic writing skills in African languages. It is hoped that this research design will benefit future researchers investigate the current debate about the efficacy of bilingual and multilingual approaches to education.
Linguistics
M. A. (Applied Linguistics)

Research has shown that literacy acquisition and the ultimate realisation of literacy, comprehension of the written text requires more than the ability to decode individual words. This study brings together a synthesis of current research on early language acquisition, language structure, vocabulary development and its intrinsic underpinning of comprehension in monolinguals thereby providing a theoretical framework for a comparative study of limited English proficient learners (LEP’s)/English language learners (ELLs) acquiring first time literacy with the attendant vocabulary deficits and age appropriate decoding skills. A quantitative and qualitative study examines the statistical differences between reading, vocabulary, rapid automatic naming (RAN/decoding) and comprehension when a learner born of foreign parents acquires first time literacy in a language other than the language spoken at home. The study isolates and specifies an at risk educational minority through the identification of a hidden comprehension deficit (HCD). In summarising the main findings from the literature review and the empirical investigation, an “at risk educational minority” was identified and isolated through the identification of the HCD. The envisioned outcome was achieved and the hypothesis accepted.
Educational Studies
M. Ed. (Inclusive Education)

M.Ed. (Educational Linguistics)
This study examined language barriers affecting a selected group of Grade Four learners from a disadvantaged community, to whom English, the medium of classroom instruction, was their second language. They were disadvantaged because their language proficiency had not been developed early enough to serve as a springboard for conceptualizations of academic aspects. They struggled to express themselves and grappled with simple linguistic concepts which they were expected to master at school. The purpose was to explore support structures and strategies that educators employed to assist Grade Four English second language (ESL) learners in developing cognitive academic language proficiency (CALP) in a linguistically diverse classroom. Research has shown that the acquisition and use of English at an early age at home strengthens linguistic ability in learning to read and write. Language depends on basic intercommunication skills (BICS), which are developed at a very young age, and later the development of CALP in formal schooling. BICS allows children to speak and pronounce basic words and have sufficient vocabulary to develop their receptive and expressive language in daily life, basic commands and social conversations. The problem was minimal exposure to the English language at early stages in the child’s life, hence BICS being developed in the vernacular. Effective linguistic communication depends on CALP, which allows learners to engage in abstract problem-solving activities and use complex academic tasks, namely reading and writing. The research design was a qualitative descriptive case study and participants were purposefully selected. Data was collected from interviews with educators, observation of learners’ work and observations on the playground. The findings revealed that ESL learners struggled with oral activities, listening and speaking, reading, writing, language and comprehension. These learners experienced difficulties in all five forms of language, namely phonology, syntax, semantics, morphology and pragmatics. Various support strategies were necessary to assist them through peer tutoring, curriculum differentiation, simplifying assessments according to their ability, implementing various reading strategies, and adopting diverse teaching methodologies. This study argued that the educator’s role is paramount in developing CALP in the language of learning and teaching (LOLT), in all learners, in order to facilitate formal school learning. A large class with an average of 45 learners proved to be a challenge for the educators, therefore it is recommended that fewer learners be placed in a class to enable educators to give more attention to the weaker learners. There is an urgent need for remediation to take place in the English class and the study concludes that various support strategies need to be developed for CALP in ESLs.

In many international schools where English is the language of learning and teaching there are large percentages of students whose first language is not English. Many of these students may have low vocabulary levels which inhibits their chances of taking full advantage of their education. Low vocabulary levels can be a particular problem for students in mainstream classes where fluent English speaking teachers are using English to teach content areas of Mathematics, Science and History. Not only do students have to comprehend the low-frequency, academic and technical vocabulary pertaining to the subject, but they also need to know the higher frequency vocabulary that makes up general English usage. If students’ vocabulary levels fall too far below the vocabulary levels with which their teachers are speaking, then their chance of comprehending the topic is small, as is their chance of succeeding in their subjects. This study has two broad aims. Firstly, I have set out to assess the English vocabulary levels of students at an international school where English is the language of learning and teaching. The majority of students at this school do not have English as their first language. The second aim of this study is to explore the vocabulary profile of the teachers’ spoken discourse at the research school. By gaining a better understanding of the nature of teacher discourse – specifically the percentage of high, mid and low-frequency vocabulary, as well as academic vocabulary that they use – English as a Second Language (ESL) teachers will be in a stronger position to identify what the vocabulary learning task is and be able to assist students in reaching the vocabulary levels necessary to make sense of their lessons. This study revealed a large gap between the generally low vocabulary levels of ESL students and the vocabulary levels spoken by their teachers. As a result the need for explicit vocabulary instruction and learning is shown to be very important in English medium (international) schools, where there are large numbers of students whose first language is not English.
Linguistics and Modern Languages
M.A. (Applied Linguistics)

The diversity embodying South Africa has emphasized the importance and influence of language in education and thus the additive bilingual programme is being implemented in the Eastern Cape by the ABLE project in order to realize the South African Language in education policy (LEiP). In accordance with this, the Woodcock Munoz Language Survey (which specializes in measuring cognitive academic language proficiency) was chosen as one of the instruments to evaluate the language outcomes of the programme and was adapted into South African English and isiXhosa. The current study was a subset of the ABLE project, and was located within the bigger project dealing with the translation of the WMLS into isiXhosa and the successive research on the equivalence of the two language versions. This study evaluated the structural equivalence of the English and isiXhosa versions of the WMLS on matched sample groups (n= 150 in each language group). Thus secondary data analysis (SDA) was conducted by analyzing the data in SPSS as well as CEFA (Comprehensive Exploratory Factor Analysis). The original data set was purposively sampled according to set selection criteria and consists of English and isiXhosa first language learners. The study sought to confirm previous research by cross-validating the results of structural equivalence on two subscales, namely the Verbal Analogies (VA) and Letter-Word Identification (LWI) subscale. The research design reflects psychometric test theory and is therefore located in a bias and equivalence theoretical framework. The results of the exploratory factor analysis found that one can only accept structural equivalence in the first factor identified in the VA subscale, while structural equivalence was found in the factor for the LWI subscale. The use of scatter-plots to validate the results of the exploratory factor analysis indicated that one can tentatively accept these results. The study thus contributed to the literature on the translation of the WMLS, and the adaptation of language tests into the indigenous languages of South Africa,as well as additive bilingual programmes.

This study explores the challenges faced by high school science learners when they use English language as a medium of instruction in a South African context. Questionnaires were administered and focus group interviews were conducted with both science learners and science educators. Results indicated that learners are challenged in a number of ways when English is used to teach science especially if English is not their home language. Both learners and educators prefer to be taught and teach science respectively in English though ideally learners would like to be taught in their home languages. To overcome these challenges a home language scientific register should be drawn to cater for all learners’ home language, learners should also be proficient in English or language of science instruction.
Science and Technology Education
M. Ed. (Natural Science Education)

This research study aims to evaluate how the trilingual policy (Kinyarwanda, French and English) is implemented in Kigali City’s nursery and primary schools in terms of facilitating learners’ cognitive academic language proficiency (CALP) development, in both the pre-2008 and post-2008 language policies. It is an exploratory-qualitative-interpretative research study, which analyses the language preference, the age of change-over and the multilingual models adopted and how they contribute to learners’ CALP development. It also analyses the implications of the post-2008 policy. The findings indicated that initial bilingualism, initial trilingualism, early total immersion and gradual transfer models were implemented in the pre-2008 policy; while the post-2008 policy implements early total immersion. The learners’ CALP in both the MT and the AL could be more developed in public schools under the pre-2008 policy due to exposure to Kinyarwanda instruction from the start but it may not be developed fully under the post-2008 policy, because English is used as MOI from the onset of education.
Linguistics
M.A. (Applied Linguistics)