Relevant bibliographies by topics / Coinage Money Mints Coins

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Academic literature on the topic 'Coinage Money Mints Coins'

Author: Grafiati
Published: 4 June 2021
Last updated: 1 February 2022

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Journal articles on the topic "Coinage Money Mints Coins"

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Martins de Sousa, Rita, and Fernando Carlos G. de Cerqueira Lima. "Production, Supply and Circulation of National Gold Coins in Brazil (1703-1807)." América Latina en la Historia Económica 24, no. 1 (January 1, 2017): 37. http://dx.doi.org/10.18232/alhe.v24i1.752.

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In this paper, we assess the production, supply, and circulation of national gold coins in Brazil in the eighteenth century. New estimates have been provided of the volume of production of these gold coins at Mints of Rio de Janeiro, Bahia, and Minas Gerais. Comparing the values of this coinage with remittances to Lisbon, the first half of the eighteenth century reveals a more stable conjuncture than the second half. This latter period shows fluctuations that were expressed in the faster growth of the supply, despite the fall that took place in the production-coinage of gold. Our conclusions question the historiographical theses about the shortage of currency in Brazil throughout the Eighteenth Century. The growth of the economy from the last quarter of the Century onwards implied an increase in the demand for money, which may explain the increase in the supply of national gold coins.
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Greitens, Jan. "Geldtheorie und -politik in Preußen Mitte des 18. Jahrhunderts." Jahrbuch für Wirtschaftsgeschichte / Economic History Yearbook 61, no. 1 (June 25, 2020): 217–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/jbwg-2020-0010.

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AbstractIn the history of economic thought, monetary theories in the Germanspeaking world of the early modern era are considered backward compared to the approaches in other European countries. This backwardness can be illustrated by two authors from the mid-18th century who were not only contemporaries but also successively in the service of Frederick II (“the Great”) of Prussia. The first is Johann Philipp Graumann, one of the 'projectors' of the 18th century. As master of the mints in Prussia, he developed a coin project, where he tried to implement a new monetary standard to promote trade, generate seigniorage income and implement the Prussian coins as a kind of a reserve currency. In his writings, he developed a typical mercantilistic monetary theory with a clear understanding of the mechanism in the balance of payments. But even when he tried to include credit instruments, he did not take banks or broader financial markets into account. The second thinker is Johann Heinrich Gottlob Justi, who took the opposite position concerning the coin project as well as in his theory. He defended a strictly metalistic monetary approach where the value of money is only based on the metal's value. While Graumann rejected the English coin system, Justi recommended its laws for countries without their own mines, because the sovereign should not misuse his right of coinage. For him, the monetary system had tobe reliable and stable to serve trade and economic development.
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Kindleberger, Charles P. "The Economic Crisis of 1619 to 1623." Journal of Economic History 51, no. 1 (March 1991): 149–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0022050700038407.

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Various states in the Holy Roman Empire prepared for the Thirty Years' War by creating new mints and debasing the subsidiary coinage. The process spread through Gresham's Law: bad money was taken by debasing states to their neighbors and exchanged for good. The neighbor typically defended itself by debasing its own coin. The resulting hyperinflation was terminated early in the war by an agreement to return to the Imperial Augsburg Ordinance of 1559. TheKipper- und Wipperzeit, as the period is called, illuminates the geographic spread of financial crises, German hypennflations of this century, and current proposals for “free banking.”
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Kluczek, Agata. "Barbarians on the Coins of Trajan Decius (249–251)." Studia Ceranea 10 (December 23, 2020): 337–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.18778/2084-140x.10.16.

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During Trajan Decius’s reign (249–251) in a number of provincial mints – Alexandria, Caesarea Maritima, Magnesia ad Sipylum and Nicomedia – coins were issued featuring the theme of the barbarian (an enemy or a captive) in reverse iconography. In this article, I discuss these coins, considering them in the context of the iconographic tradition and the activity of the particular mints during Decius’s reign, and also in relation to the ideology of victory and the dynastic ideology. They are interesting especially because the theme of the barbarian was not utilised in the parallel imperial coinage. Nevertheless, its presence in provincial coinage is also of a marginal nature. Moreover, the end of Decius’s reign also coincided with a time-related hiatus in the use of the theme in provincial coinage.
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Raju, Linga. "Tipu Sultan’s Mint Policy – An Analyse." Shanlax International Journal of Arts, Science and Humanities 8, S1-Feb (February 6, 2021): 251–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.34293/sijash.v8is1-feb.3961.

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This paper examines the mint policy of Tipu sultan. There are evidences of the coinage of Tipu sultan. There are several mints where coins were minted all through his 17 years of reign he issued coins of different denominations & different weight. There were several mints along his empire. Hider issued coins only in gold & copper. Historians have proved with evidence that Tipu sultan issued initial coins from his Sri Rangapattanna mint only. Some coins were issued form nagar mint. The number of mints was increased after fifth year of his reign now there were eight mints in his empire. His mint policy had economic as well as political implications. He was seriously affected by the colonial intrusions into Mysore territory. He wanted to make his country’s resources to churn out beneficial results for the countrymen. He had far reaching visions about making Mysorean economy support his wars with British. Hence his mint policy was minutely designed & effectively implemented.
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Buttrey, T. V. "Coins and Coinage at Euesperides." Libyan Studies 25 (January 1994): 137–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0263718900006294.

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The coinage of Euesperides was always minor in comparison with that of Cyrene, or even of Barca. But its sporadic issues do have an interest of their own. At this session we are also concerned with the city, and I wish to suggest what we can learn from the numismatic evidence — not just from the coins struck there, but from the coins of other mints which have been found there.It is preferable to speak generally of the ‘coinage’ of Euesperides rather than of its ‘mint’, for it seems certain that some of the issues bearing the city's name were actually produced at Cyrene, as indeed were also some issues of Barca. The coinage of Euesperides was always small in comparison with the older and much richer coinage of Cyrene. It is instructive that the catalogue proper of Robinson's BMC Cyrenaica requires 90 pages to list the autonomous and Ptolemaic coins struck at Cyrene, 18 for those of Barca, just 4 for Euesperides.For Euesperides there are no archaic tetradrachms, the denomination so prominent in a variety of types at Cyrene. The earliest Euesperidean coin in BMC, a drachm of types silphium/dolphin, is assigned by Robinson to before 480 BC.
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Visonà, Paolo. "Rethinking early Carthaginian coinage." Journal of Roman Archaeology 31 (2018): 7–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1047759418001228.

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The coins minted by the Carthaginians in silver, gold, electrum, billon and bronze comprise one of the largest coinages that circulated in the W Mediterranean before the Roman conquest. They provide essential information on both the history and economy of Carthage and on Carthaginian interactions with their neighbors, allies and adversaries. Carthaginian bronze coins, in particular, are frequently found throughout the Punic world, in each of its core regions (N Africa from Tripolitania to Algeria, Sicily, Sardinia, Ibiza and the southernmost Iberian peninsula), as well as in Italy. Yet few accounts of Carthage and the Punic Wars take Carthaginian coinage into consideration, and an emphasis on Greek and Latin literary sources continues to drive the narrative. Of course, in evaluating the political and economic implications of numismatic evidence one needs to distinguish from the start between the issues of the Carthage mint and those of other mints that struck coins under Carthaginian authority. Carthaginian coinage did not follow a linear path of development. As the Carthaginians began to produce coins in Sicily earlier than in N Africa, the start of minting at Carthage deserves careful scrutiny. This essay, based upon an ongoing study of Carthaginian bronze and billon coins, will review the history of modern scholarship and current research on Carthaginian coinage, focussing upon the formative period of the Carthage mint between c.350 and 300 B.C. in order to define the main aspects of its output, its relevance for the monetization of the Carthaginian homeland, and the sequence of the earliest issues.
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Kopij, Kamil. "Mints Locations and Chronology of Gnaeus and Sextus Pompey’s Bronze Coinage (RRC 471, 478 and 479): A Die Axes Study." Notae Numismaticae - TOM XV, no. 15 (May 17, 2021): 65–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.52800/ajst.1.a.05.

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The coinage of Pompey the Great’s sons has long attracted the attention of numismatists and historians trying to reconstruct a detailed chronology of their activities. One of the problems examined was the location of the places they minted coins. This article tries to indicate the possible locations of mints producing Gnaeus’ and Sextus’ bronze coinage (RRC 471, RRC 478, RRC 479) based on the analysis of the die axes of 794 coins and attempts to interpret the results based on local traditions regarding this aspect of coin morphology. The results show that RRC 471 was most likely minted in Corduba. The unusual die alignment of the RRC 478 indicates that it may have been minted not in Spain or Sicily, but in Achaia or Bithynia. It is, however, difficult to reconcile this with the geographical distribution of the finds that points to Sicily. Nonetheless we should probably move dating of this type until after the signing of the Treaty of Misenum in 39 BC. The die axes of the RRC 479 is consistent with traditions of most Sicilian mints. The exception to this is one of the series whose different rotation pattern indicates production in one of only two Sicilian mints (Panormos or Centuripae) or one of the several South Italian cities (most probably Rhegion).
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Baxter, William T. "OBSERVATIONS ON MONEY, BARTER AND BOOKKEEPING." Accounting Historians Journal 31, no. 1 (June 1, 2004): 129–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.2308/0148-4184.31.1.129.

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Britain forbade her 18th-century American colonies to set up mints, and sent no supplies of her own coins. In consequence, the colonies were without any official money. Account books of the period reveal how traders fared in this unusual situation. They show that the lack of money was a severe handicap that hindered and distorted trade, but that the colonists to some extent overcame it with the aid of ingenious ledger entries. These culminated in payment by credit transfers in the books of third parties. Such transactions lead to a discussion of the nature of money.
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Morris, Francis M. "Cunobelinus' Bronze Coinage." Britannia 44 (July 23, 2013): 27–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0068113x13000391.

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AbstractCunobelinus was the most significant figure in Britain during the decades leading up to the Roman invasion, though his reign has received relatively little attention. Cunobelinus' coinage is of great importance to understanding the socio-political structure of South-East Britain prior to the Roman invasion and whilst studies of his gold and silver have been published in previous editions ofBritannia(Allen 1975; de Jersey 2001), his bronzes have been subject to surprisingly little work, particularly considering that they are by far the most common struck bronze issues known from Iron Age Britain, with a total of 2,608 examples currently recorded in the Celtic Coin Index and on the PAS database combined. This study proposes a broad typological scheme with which Cunobelinus' bronzes can be ordered and demonstrates that, like Cunobelinus' silver, but unlike his gold, they can be divided into three regional groupings, which it can be argued correspond to three different political sub-groupings under Cunobelinus' control. In addition, the bronze's metallurgy and metrology and the mints at which they were struck are investigated. This article examines the contribution of coinage to understanding Cunobelinus' political history, and how he used imagery to reinforce and legitimate his power in the different regions under his control at different times during his reign. The types of sites at which Cunobelinus' bronzes have been found are also outlined and the likely function of the coins discussed.
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Dissertations / Theses on the topic "Coinage Money Mints Coins"

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Panagopoulou, Ekaterini. "Antigonos Gonatas : coinage, money and the economy." Thesis, University College London (University of London), 2000. http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/1349335/.

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'Antigonos Gonatas: Coinage, Money and the Economy' is a presentation and systematic analysis of the precious metal coinages in the name of `king Antigonos'. Most of these issues, including (a) gold staters and silver tetradrachms with the types of Alexander III and (b) silver with individual Antigonid types (tetradrachms, `Pans' and 'Poseidons'; a few drachmae, `Pans' and 'Zeus'; pentobols, `Zeus'), are traditionally assigned to the Makedonian king Antigonos Gonatas (r. 283/277-239 BC). However, their relative chronology and their respective presence in hoards allow for their wider distribution from Gonatas to his later homonym, Antigonos Doson, and for their production at a single mint, demonstrating thus a strong sense of dynastic continuity among Gonatas' successors(chapter 2). It is argued that the numismatic iconography aligns itself with the main threads of the Antigonid international policy established by Gonatas: the Antigonids, following the example of the Temenids, deliberately emphasised their Hellenic identity and piety, in order to become assimilated to the military and political `debates' both in mainland Greece and on an international level. The introduction, in particular, of the second Antigonid tetradrachm type, the Poseidon-head, meant the resumption of the naval claims of Monophthalmos and Poliorketes in the Aegean concomitantly to Gonatas' victorious naval battle against the Ptolemaic fleet at Andros (chapters 2.1,2.4). The analysis of the numismatic material (chapters 3-6) is a prerequisite for a tentative estimation of its approximate quantity and for a better assessment of its distribution pattern. The disproportion between the low annual production rate of these issues and the Antigonid financial requirements may be explained by the use of other precious metal coinages following the Attic weight standard (chapter 7). It is therefore argued that the exercise by the Antigonids of pro-active economic and administrative control was limited and that the introduction of the Antigonid individual issues was inspired by political alongside economic forces.
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Glenn, Simon. "Royal coinage in Hellenistic Bactria : a die study of coins from Euthydemus I to Antimachus I." Thesis, University of Oxford, 2015. https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:5af5c51b-b1dc-4eb5-b33b-b27a9958a9f9.

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The history of Hellenistic Bactria (northern Afghanistan, and areas of Tajikistan and Uzbekistan) is particularly obscure and its reconstruction contentious. Unlike other Hellenistic kingdoms very little evidence survives from literary sources and inscriptions; the best primary source is the large quantity of coins issued under the Graeco-Bactrian kings who ruled the area from the third century to the mid first century BC. With limited details of the find spots of the coins and only a few published hoards, their use has often been limited to a superficial analysis of their iconography. This thesis presents the results of a die study, an approach to studying the coins that can give many insights into the way they were produced. The coins of six kings (Euthydemus I, Demetrius I, Euthydemus II, Pantaleon, Agathocles, and Antimachus I) are included. Different mints and rhythms of production can be identified, and the overall size of the coinages estimated. Using a thorough understanding of their production this thesis proposes a new, soundly-based, history of the Graeco-Bactrian kingdom under these kings.
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Estrada, Rius Albert. "La Casa de la Moneda de Barcelona. Els col•legis d’obrers i de moneders de la Corona d’Aragó." Doctoral thesis, Universitat de Barcelona, 2012. http://hdl.handle.net/10803/94140.

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La tesi analitza la constitució i el desenvolupament orgànic i funcional de la Casa de la Moneda de Barcelona. La cronologia de l’estudi abasta des del segle XIII, en el qual es conforma la corporació, fins a la seva dissolució arran del Decret de la Nova Planta (1716). S’incideix, sobretot, en el paper de paradigma o model de la seca barcelonina per a altres establiments monetaris de la Corona d’Aragó –València, Mallorca, Esglésies, Càller i Perpinyà–, tant des del punt de vista organitzatiu com des del punt de vista tecnològic. Amb aquesta finalitat, es ressegueixen les relacions mútues d’aquests establiments, els trasllats de personal i les seves conseqüències jurídiques i orgàniques. L’estudi enfoca, des d’una perspectiva institucional, la realitat de la casa de la moneda en dos grans àmbits. El primer és el coneixement intern del dia a dia de la fabricació de la moneda projectada, especialment en dos organismes en cooperació simbiòtica, encara que autònoms per la seva pròpia naturalesa i missió. Es tracta, d’una banda, del Col•legi d’Obrers i de Moneders, la corporació en la qual s’emparava el personal implicat en la tasca monetària –amb el seu Capítol i la seva Cort de justícia–, i, d’altra banda, de la Casa de la Moneda o establiment monetari pròpiament dit, el taller monetari en el qual es verificava l’encunyació del numerari. El segon àmbit d’estudi és la incardinació de la seca amb les administracions reial i municipal, atès que, en diferent grau, depenia d’ambdues a nivell polític i administratiu. En tots els diferents àmbits s’analitza el personal implicat, les seves funcions, la seva organització i els processos de treball dins l’entramat orgànic.
"The Royal Mint of Barcelona. The guilds of minters of the Crown of Aragon" Summary: This research analyzes the formation and organizational and functional development of the Royal Mint of Barcelona. The chronology of the study covers from the 13th century, in which the corporation is formed, until its dissolution following the Decree of Nova Planta (1716). It particularly focuses on the role of model, or paradigm, of the Royal Mint of Barcelona for the mints elsewhere in the Crown of Aragon –Valencia, Mallorca, Vila Chiesa, Cagliari and Perpignan–, both from an organizational and from a technological point of view. For this purpose, the study focuses on the mutual relations of these mints, the transfer of personnel between them and the corresponding legal and organizational consequences. The study approaches, from an institutional perspective, the reality of the mint in two main areas. The first is the internal knowledge of the day-to-day production of coins, focusing especially in the symbiotic cooperation of two different bodies, although autonomous in nature and mission. These bodies are, on the one hand, the Guild or College of Minters, a corporation for the personnel involved in the manufacturing of coins –with its Chapter and its Court of Justice– and, on the other hand, the Mint, that is, the establishment in which the minting of coinage is verified. The second area of study is the incardination of the Royal Mint in the municipal and royal governments, since, in a varying degree, it depended on both of them from a policital and administrative point of view. In all the different areas considered the personnel involved, their functions, their organization and the work processes within the organizational framework are analyzed.
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Books on the topic "Coinage Money Mints Coins"

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The English coinage 1180-1247: Money, mints and exchanges. [Glasgow]: British Numismatic Society, 1994.

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Brand, John D. The English coinage 1180-1247: Money, mints and exchanges. [UK]: British Numismatic Society, 1994.

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Dang dai Zhongguo huo btyp 1 zhi yu zhu zao. Beijing: Zhongguo jin rong chu ban she, 1998.

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A, Haxby James, and Royal Canadian Mint, eds. The Royal Canadian Mint and Canadian coinage: Striking impressions. 2nd ed. [Ottawa: Royal Canadian Mint], 1986.

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Dunnahoo, Terry. The United States Mint. New York: Dillon Press, 2000.

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Money and power in Anglo-Saxon England: The southern English kingdoms, 757-865. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011.

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Maheshwari, K. K. Maratha mints and coinage. Anjaneri, Dist. Nashik, Maharashtra: Indian Institute of Research in Numismatic Studies, 1989.

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Federal money production: Hearing before the Subcommittee on Domestic and International Monetary Policy of the Committee on Banking and Financial Services, House of Representatives, One Hundred Fifth Congress, first session, June 26, 1997. Washington: U.S. G.P.O., 1997.

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Malmer, Brita. The Sigtuna coinage c.995-1005. [Stockholm]: Kungl. Vitterhets Historie och Antikvitets Akademien, 1989.

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Mukherjee, Bratindra Nath. Technology of Indian coinage. Calcutta: Indian Museum, 1988.

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Book chapters on the topic "Coinage Money Mints Coins"

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Gannon, Anna. "Money, Power, and Women: An Inquiry into Early Anglo-Saxon Coinage." In Medieval Coins and Seals: Constructing Identity, Signifying Power, 211–28. Turnhout: Brepols Publishers, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1484/m.stah-eb.5.109305.

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Bompaire, Marc, and Matthieu Husson. "Computational Practices Around Coins and Coinage: John of Murs’ Quadripartitum Numerorum and French Money Changers’ Books." In Mathematics, Administrative and Economic Activities in Ancient Worlds, 503–31. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-48389-0_13.

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Holt, Frank L. "The Invention of Coins." In When Money Talks, 35–54. Oxford University Press, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780197517659.003.0003.

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Early forms of money included agricultural commodities and metals, such as silver bullion and barley in Mesopotamia or gold, silver, and bronze in Egypt. The fungibility of metals made them particularly useful. Aristotle provides one view of how barter gave way to coined money, but this question remains contentious. The first coins appeared in Lydia near the end of the seventh century BC, but the spread of this monetary revolution owed much to the neighboring Greeks. Mints in many Greek poleis issued coins that not only served economic needs, but also functioned as state-sponsored advertising, art, and propaganda. The Romans and others followed suit, while independent coinage traditions emerged in China and India.
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"Coins and Identity: From Mint to Paradise." In Money and Coinage in the Middle Ages, 320–50. BRILL, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/9789004383098_014.

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Hinton, David A. "Material Culture and Social Display." In Gold and Gilt, Pots and Pins. Oxford University Press, 2005. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199264537.003.0012.

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The trend towards increasing secular interest in jewellery was probably maintained throughout the thirteenth century, though precise dating of individual pieces remains difficult. With only small amounts of gold to be found in the south of France and Hungary, western Europeans continued to depend upon both gold and gems coming by overland routes from or through the Arab world, with Italian merchants acting as intermediaries. In 1257 Henry III was able to attempt to imitate continental kings by issuing gold coins, not to facilitate trade but to attract gold into the mint to back up his loans and pledges, and to use as alms. The care that went into the coins’ design shows that they were thought of as having prestige value, and the decision to represent the king carrying the orb and sceptre was most probably made in homage to one of the issues of his revered predecessor Edward the Confessor; the royal seal was also changed, to a design that adapted Edward’s image of an enthroned king ruling as a judge like Solomon rather than as a military leader with a sword. Henry’s gold coins were only produced in small numbers and for a very short time, but they show that the importance of the symbolism of a currency was still understood, though no more effort was made with the designs of everyday silver coins than in previous reigns. The amount of coinage in circulation is shown both by single finds and hoards, not only in England but in Wales and Scotland as well. Excavation of the church at Capel Maelog, Powys, produced coins of Henry III, Edward I (1272–1307), and Richard II (1377–99), suggesting that the use of English money had spread into Welsh culture. The Welsh kings did not mint their own coins, however, unlike the kings of Scotland, whose coins were allowed to circulate in England just as English ones did north of the border. Presumably exclusion of a rival’s image was no longer a matter of pride. No hoard in Britain hidden during the middle part of the thirteenth century has objects in it to help to establish a chronology for jewellery.
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"Money The history '![coinage." In Ancient History from Coins, 17–39. Routledge, 2002. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780203135860-9.

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"Money, Coins, and Archaeology." In Money and Coinage in the Middle Ages, 231–63. BRILL, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/9789004383098_011.

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Galbraith, John Kenneth, and James K. Galbraith. "Of Coins and Treasure." In Money. Princeton University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.23943/princeton/9780691171661.003.0002.

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This chapter discusses the history of coins made of precious metals such as gold, silver, and copper. Some 4,000 years ago, there had been agreement on the use of silver, copper, or gold for purposes of exchange. Metal was made into coins of predetermined weight, an innovation attributed by Herodotus to the kings of Lydia, presumably in the latter part of the eighth century BC. The chapter considers how coinage after the Lydians evolved into a major art form. It also examines how the voyages of Christopher Columbus and the ensuing conquest and development of Spanish America affected the European continent. Finally, it looks at the ways that the American treasure enhanced profits, stimulated commerce and industry, and enlarged the opportunity of all who saw money as a way of making money, with a focus on the rise of banks as a means of regulating and limiting abuse of currency.
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Holt, Frank L. "From the Coin’s Point of View." In When Money Talks, 19–34. Oxford University Press, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780197517659.003.0002.

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“Money talks” is an old adage in need of a fresh interpretation. Building upon the foundational narratives of modern novelists, numismatists may now use theories of memes and object agency to explain the behaviors of coins as if our money were independent of human control. This exercise allows the reader to think of coinage in an entirely new way, giving coins an active life cycle that is Darwinian in its struggles to survive and replicate. This explains in turn some odd human behaviors, such as deferring important decisions to flipped coins, manufacturing coins that cost far more than their face value, idling large amounts of change into “nuisance jars,” and making most coins round for the past 2,600 years.
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Holt, Frank L. "Introduction." In When Money Talks, 1–18. Oxford University Press, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780197517659.003.0001.

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The “simple” word coin once caused a constitutional crisis in American history that reveals just how surprising and significant this subject can be. Today, cryptocurrencies such as Bitcoin raise even harder questions about the nature of money in general and coins in particular. This chapter explains why coinage has a social, political, spiritual, and cultural function alongside its more familiar economic one. Many users overlook the magic and mystery of their coinage because they have no experience with numismatics, the discipline dedicated to understanding this earliest form of mobile communication based on small disks of information technology. This chapter lays out why coins matter, and why everyone deserves a basic introduction to numismatics as a major contributor to our knowledge of world history and cultures.
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