Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Community-Based Nature Resource Management'

Thesis presented in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Social Anthropology at the University of Stellenbosch
Thesis (MA (Sociology and Social Anthropology))--University of Stellenbosch, 2010.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This thesis is an exploration of how a new development culture has been cultivated at the end of the 20th century in reaction to the ‘crisis of development’ and the need to bring relief to impoverished communities in an environmentally sustainable manner. I uncover the key constraints on and opportunities for sustainable development and Community-Based Natural Resource Management that have emerged in land restitution claims in conservation areas in South Africa. I look at how inherited socio-political pasts poise actors and influence the relationships and interactions between them, how the current nature-tourism industry works to the detriment of some and the benefit of other actors in terms of gaining economic success and ultimately how these two factors influence conservation-based CBNRM projects. I examine three cases, namely: the Aboriginal community in Kakadu National Park, the Khomani San in the Kalahari Gemsbok National Park and the Makuleke in Kruger National Park. Through this examination I draw specific conclusions: the repercussions of racial segregation policies puts community actors at a disadvantage when engaging with their partners; specific dynamics of the tourism industry threatens the success of CBNRM projects because the expected substantial benefits are not always guaranteed; and the lack of sound local governance impedes sustainable development at community-level.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Hierdie tesis is ‘n verkenning van hoe ‘n nuwe ontwikkelingskultuur gekweek is aan die einde van die 20ste eeu deur die ‘krisis van ontwikkeling’ en die noodsaaklikheid om verligting te bring aan verarmde gemeenskappe op ‘n omgewings-volhoubare wyse. Ek lig die beperkings en kerngeleenthede tot volhoubare ontwikkeling en Gemeenskaps-Gebaseerde Natuurlike Hulpbronbestuur uit wat in grondhervormingseise in bewaringsgebiede in Suid-Afrika na vore gekom het. Ek kyk na hoe die historiese sosio-politiese erflating rolspelers posisioneer en verhoudings en interaksies tussen hulle beïnvloed, hoe die huidige natuur-toerisme industrie tot die nadeel van sommige en voordeel van sekere ander rolspelers werk in terme van die verkryging van ekonomiese sukses en uiteindelik hoe hierdie twee faktore bewarings-gebaseerde GBNHB beïnvloed. Ek bestudeer drie gevallestudies, naamlik die Inboorling-gemeenskap in die Kakadu Nasionale Park, die Khomani San in die Kalahari Gemsbok Nasionale Park en die Makuleke in die Nasionale Kruger -Wildtuin. Analise lei my tot spesifieke gevolgtrekkings: die nagevolge van rasse-segregasie-beleid plaas gemeenskapsakteurs in ‘n benadeelde posisie wanneer hulle in interaksie is met hulle vennote; die spesifieke dinamika van die toerisme-industrie bedreig die sukses van GBNHB projekte omdat die verwagte noemenswaardige voordele nie altyd gewaarborg kan word nie; en die gebrek aan effektiewe plaaslike bestuur belemmer volhoubare ontwikkeling op gemeenskapsvlak.

Grass-roots conservation efforts, implemented at the local level, have become increasingly popular within the U.S. and abroad. The conservation and natural resource literature has touted these initiatives as more effective when compared to top-down management efforts. As localities are given more responsibility for managing their own natural resources, their ability to do so effectively has become a major concern. I sought to determine the capacity of these community-based natural resource management (CBNRM) groups to contribute to successful ecosystem management in the state of Illinois, with three primary objectives: to determine the primary components of capacity within a CBNRM organization (chapter 2); to identify the relationship between the levels of capacity in a CBNRM organization and the quality of natural resource management planning conducted by the group (chapter 3); and, to evaluate the effects of resource management plans (RMPs) produced by CBNRM groups on the ecological integrity of the prescribed area. This multi-disciplinary project necessitated reliance on the principles of both sociology and ecology, as required by explorations of socio-ecological systems. This dissertation is an attempt to model the success of CBNRM initiatives by examining changes in ecological integrity and attainment of conservation goals. It is my intent that this model can be used by CBNRM groups in Illinois and other contexts to best meet their goals, and by organizations seeking to assist CBNRM groups as an investment guide to determine what type of assistance is most likely to lead to environmental change. I found motivation, leadership, respect, mutual interest/shared values, outreach/education, marketing, communication, planning, funding and equipment/supplies were the most important drivers of CBNRM group capacity. Additionally, my results show that capacity varied significantly among groups with low, moderate and high RMP success, and that group capacity was predictive of the degree of RMP success. Lastly, I found bird indicators increased, especially at the 7-8 year post-RMP mark, providing some evidence of the utility of CBNRM initiatives in affecting positive environmental change.

In March 2002, The Nature Conservancy purchased a 9,000-acre tract of land on and near Warm Springs Mountain in Bath County, Virginia. The purpose of this paper is to examine community-based conservation strategies utilized by The Nature Conservancy in two well-established Virginia reserves to determine the effectiveness of those strategies in the protection of Warm Springs Mountain. The Conservancy's previous work on Virginia's Eastern Shore and in the Clinch Valley of southwest Virginia reveals the organization's transition from a strategy of mere land acquisition to the use of community-based conservation in an effort to involve local citizens and promote a proper balance between economics and the environment. The community-based conservation model developed by TNC on the Eastern Shore and utilized further in the Clinch Valley works well for ecoregions that fit a particular typology. The paper discusses the differences between that typology and the factors affecting the protection of Warm Springs Mountain. In addition, the paper outlines the lessons TNC learned from both positive and negative experiences in the two earlier preserves and proposes how these lessons can be applied to the Warm Springs Mountain Preserve.
Master of Urban and Regional Planning

The shift from centralised conservation to Community-Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM) was the highlight of the conservation discourse across the world during the late 1980s and early 1990s. CBNRM efforts were believed to have the potential of successfully merging biodiversity conservation simultaneously with local development efforts. However, the increasing critiques against the applicability of CBNRM interventions in different contexts is threatening the viability of the approach. Extant literature on CBNRM interventions focuses on the theoretical aspects of such efforts at the expense of the practical and context specific elements. This thesis intends to fill such a gap in literature by focusing on the practical and contextual elements of an example of this approach in Zanzibar. In an attempt to conserve the isles' natural forests, Zanzibar has adopted Community-Forest Management Areas (CoFMAs) bordering its natural forests. In this study, focus is placed on Pete's CoFMA, a village bordering the isles' last remaining natural forests- Jozani-Chwaka Bay National Park (JCBNP). Pete provides an ideal site due to the conflict that exists between residents and the CoFMA intervention. By using the political ecological framework, this study is able to examine the political, social, historical and economic elements that play a significant role in the practice of CBNRM efforts. Narratives from residents are relied on to elucidate on such elements in relation to the existence of the CoFMA in Pete Village. Narratives gathered through interviews and participant observation concluded that while CoFMAs have been set up with the optimistic goal of conserving the forest and providing development to community members; in practice, the conservation intervention has proved otherwise. In spite of the achievement of some developmental goals, the overall findings indicate that the CoFMA has failed to protect the forests and its natural resources from degradation. At the same time, community members are facing difficulties to live a sustainable life.

This thesis seeks to understand and improve the effectiveness of partnerships formed by industry, community and government members of natural resource management (NRM) groups. The increasing popularity of partnership-based approaches to NRM is reflected in the rise of landcare, catchment management and other social mobilisation approaches throughout Australia and overseas. This thesis uses critical ethnographic methods to identify the characteristics of effective NRM partnerships and the factors influencing their effectiveness. This research also investigates appropriate methods for evaluating the effectiveness of such relationships and for determining when working in partnership with others may be the most appropriate response to a given NRM problem and context. The critical intent of the study means that it sought not only to understand the nature of such issues but also sought to enlighten and empower participants to improve the practice of partnerships in natural resource management. These characteristics and factors are analysed from three perspectives: the coordinators employed to broker and facilitate community-based NRM groups, the groups themselves and individual group members. This was done in order to reflect the importance of the continuous (re)negotiation of power that characterises long-term group relationships. It also enabled theories of power, cultural transformation, citizen participation, social capital and social learning to be used in the analysis of the NRM partnerships investigated in this study. These concepts were used to develop three tools for analysing NRM partnerships: a pendulum of citizen participation, an NRM citizen participation decision tree, and an NRM partnership typology. The study is based upon the analysis of nineteen cases, predominantly in South East Queensland, which were selected as examples of successful and effective NRM partnerships on the basis of referrals from regional managers and coordinators from State and Local Government. The research design was 'T' shaped, with Phase 1 of the study providing breadth through the analysis of fifteen partnerships. Depth was achieved in Phases 2 and 3. Phase 2 was a long-term ethnographic case study of one catchment management group while Phase 3 comprised a detailed analysis of three issue-specific partnerships formed by this group. These three phases concentrated on the viewpoint of coordinators, NRM groups and participants, respectively. Data on each of the nineteen cases were collected through interviews, field observations, workshops, document analyses and a short questionnaire. Data were analysed qualitatively. All data records were systematically coded to reveal themes and concepts relating to the research objectives from the viewpoints of coordinators, NRM groups and participants. Coding also revealed implications for governments seeking to enter into or to facilitate partnerships with others. The coding and interpretation of this data revealed a suite of twelve characteristics typical of effective natural resource management partnerships. These fell into five groups: (i) definitional characteristics (relating to effectiveness and shared power and responsibility) (ii) relationship characteristics (focusing on social capital building processes; communication; processes for knowledge acquisition and social learning; shared values, intent, action and risk-taking) (iii) participant characteristics (high levels of motivation and realistic expectations); (iv) a context characteristic (that the context is appropriate for a partnership) and (v) an 'outsider' perception characteristic (that the partnership is perceive positively by outsiders). A comparative analysis of cases reveals that only one of the nineteen cases exhibited all twelve characteristics. Importantly, three of these characteristics are not mentioned in the literature reviewed for this thesis. Two of these, share values and shared intent are relationship characteristics. Study findings emphasise that effective NRM partnerships are built on good personal relationships, based on shared values and intent. The third new characteristic is that people outside the partnership should perceive the relationship favourably. Since funds and other resources may be under the control of people outside a partnership, it is important that participants are able to effectively communicate their shared values and intent to others. Five factors were found to be significant in the development of effective partnerships (i) the need for participants and those brokering partnerships to realize that effective partnerships are built on positive personal relationships in which (ii) participants have high levels of motivation for being involved, particularly early in the relationship. The study further revealed that such relationships: (iii) need to be supported by a continuity of adequate funding and resources and (iv) the services of skilled, enthusiastic coordinators who (v) enjoy and are skilled at working in 'grey areas', the constantly changing social and organizational environment that is typical of NRM groups. These findings of the study are synthesized through a critical ethnography which depicts three years in the life of a typical, yet hypothetical, NRM group, the Armstrong Narrows-Yarooba Catchment Management Group (ANY Group). Based on the literature review and the analysis of results from this study, this composite story protects the anonymity of those who have participated in this research. Each of the three vignettes that make up this story contains two sections -As it was and As it could be. This 'double take approach' highlights the critical nature of the ethnography, emphasising how the development of collaborations and partnerships among members of NRM groups may be improved and evaluated. Coordinators, NRM group members and agencies supporting their efforts may use this ethnography as a basis for reflection and deliberation on the development of effective partnerships in natural resource management. Recommendations for how different stakeholders in NRM partnerships may develop the effectiveness of the partnerships they form are provided.

My research is focused on investigating the socio-political processes taking place within Community Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM) in Tanzania. I draw on a political ecology approach in an investigation of the politics of struggles over natural resources, their management and the benefits that can be derived from this. I bring together theories of policy processes, African politics and scale into an examination of power within two case studies of CBNRM from the wildlife and forestry sectors. I carry out a comparative analysis of these case studies, employing a qualitative methodology based on semi-structured interviews, focus groups, participatory activities, participant observation and document analysis. My research is clustered around three core themes. Firstly, I trace the process of policy reform that introduced CBNRM in both the forest and wildlife sectors, and examine the differences between the governance systems prescribed in policy as a result of these processes. The contrasts between the two sectors in Tanzanian CBNRM are important and multiple. Different policy pathways were adopted, relating to the distinct political economies of forest and wildlife resources and their politicisation within the context of power devolution for CBNRM. The prescribed governance systems in the two sectors contain important differences in the processes by which local communities can apply to participate in CBNRM, the mechanisms of revenue distribution, and the ways in which power is devolved to the local level. Secondly I examine the implementation of these prescribed governance systems and their performance in reality through an exploration of the configurations of power set out in CBNRM, and the struggles that take place around these in ‘politics of scales’ as actors attempt to benefit from CBNRM. I examine the ways the governance systems have been adopted and adapted from those set out in CBNRM policy. I argue that the distinctions between the prescribed governance systems in the two sectors produce separate contexts of re-configuration into the performed governance systems within the case studies. However, I also argue that while the contexts are specific to each sector, both the case studies revealed the same underlying socio-political process of struggles over power to both manage and benefit from natural resources. These struggles to control and benefit from CBNRM are closely linked to the unequal distribution of benefits that were witnessed in both case studies. Finally I examine the performance of CBNRM as an integration of systems of power set out in policy and hidden, often unacknowledged, local contours of power. I address the themes of how the reality of CBNRM differs from that set out in policy, examine the processes ongoing within the projects that permit and maintain elite capture and unequal distribution of benefits, and investigate the socio-political processes of corruption taking place within devolved environmental management. I argue that the struggles over power, combined with hidden aspects, especially neopatrimonialism, local moral economy and the cultural context of corruption, are central to these unequal outcomes and the capture of benefits by a small group of individuals. My research highlights that power, the politics of its devolution to the local level, the struggles that take place around it, and its subtle, hidden forms, lie at the heart of gaining further understanding of the ways in which policies develop, the unexpected outcomes they produce and the inequalities these often entail.

Philosophiae Doctor - PhD
By presenting case studies from the village of Mahenye in Zimbabwe and the five villages of the Okavango Community Trust in Botswana, the study looks beyond the objectives, discourse and contests of policy and undertakes an investigation of what actions rural people are undertaking inside the institutions established by policy makers, and of governance outcomes at the local level. These case studies reveal that unfettered devolution can lead to elite capture and the perpetuation of poverty; that rural communities themselves have agency and the ability to exercise it; and that there is limited and shrinking political space in both countries which is reducing opportunities for rural communities to engage with political processes. The Botswana case studies demonstrates that an imported and imposed devolutionary initiative which lacks links to higher levels of governance can reduce political space at local levels. The Zimbabwe case study demonstrates that political space may be more effectively created through decentralisation. The lesson drawn from these case studies is that institutional arrangements and roles should be determined by context specific issues and circumstances and move beyond the structural determinism that has characterized much of the CBNRM debate to date. The study concludes with policy recommendations. These include the need for recognition of the synergy between CBNRM and democratisation as mutually reinforcing processes and the need to be context-specific.
South Africa

In an understocked game management area surrounding privately managed Kasanka national park in the Central Province of Zambia, local attitudes towards conservation and park-people relations were examined in the context of a community based natural resource management program. A semi-structured questionnaire was administered to 260 households and a multiple linear regression was used to analyze the data. Significant socioeconomic factors and attributes of households relevant in explaining positive conservation attitudes were education, employment with the park, and experience with outreach efforts. Outreach though is constrained by the limits on revenue generation of a small park, low communication of program purpose, and poor relations between park management and the chief. Support for conservation is undermined by antagonism between locals and wildlife scouts and crop damage by elephants. However, attitudes should improve with a strategy to address human-elephant conflict and enhance communication of the programs accomplishments and objectives.

 

Local participation, especially in managing systems of socio- natural resources, has been promoted as the answer to the puzzle about sustainable development. Community-Based Nature Resource Management (CBNRM) is an approach that has generally praised as the way to support genuine participation of ‘local people’ and empower them through the process. This paper examines how local participation in conservation projects works in practice. To do this literature around the rise of people-centred conservation models and participation are reviewed. This information is then used to consider a CBNRM case study in Pete, Zanzibar to reveal actions that promote or constrain local participation. The conclusions of this paper suggest that without a secure means of delegated power or the ability to influence meaningful decisions it is unlikely that a community will mobilize itself for the sake of common resources. In Pete, the conditions around the establishment and operation of the CBNRM have not facilitated effective local participation, which has resulted in widespread frustration and uncertainty amongst the community.

 

past with distinction

Ecosystem services (ES), payments for ecosystem services (PES), and the development of markets for PES are transformational concepts and practices that emerged from environmental and ecological economics. Although the establishment of regulatory markets tends to be “top down,” there is evidence that more locally acceptable and successful markets tend to come from the community, from the “bottom up.” This meta-analysis analyzes 20 recent articles that examined approximately 454 PES cases from around the world, most organized from the bottom up. Cross-case analysis reveals possible best practices. Involving communities in design, decision-making, governance, and operation of local PES programs is found in many cases to contribute to improvements in both ecosystems and community livelihoods. Devolving project administration and ES provision monitoring to the local level is found to lower costs, increase project legitimacy, community equity, and leaves efficiency and fairness tradeoff decision-making in the hands of local communities. This in turn adds to feelings of competence, autonomy, and control. The experience of cooperative learning, skill acquisition, and enhanced individual and community capacities that results from participation in PES program design is found to positively influence social, cultural, economic, and multilevel political dynamics, allowing local sustainable resource use and management to emerge. In several cases, there are indications that this leads to a changed local and regional political economy due to successful value capture of enhanced ES resulting from restored ecosystems, as well as indications of other transformative changes in communities. These findings are used to provide recommendations to a watershed restoration initiative in the borderlands of Southern Arizona.

Thesis (MPhil)--University of Stellenbosch, 2007.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This study is titled “Exploring the efficacy of community-based natural resource management in Salambala Conservancy, Caprivi Region, Namibia”. Salambala was one of the first four conservancies to be registered in Namibia following the development of legislation which enabled local people on communal lands to obtain conditional rights for the consumptive and non-consumptive use of wildlife in their defined area, and thereby to benefit from wildlife. Community-based natural resource management (CBNRM), an approach to natural resource management which rests on sustainable development, is the theoretical basis for this study. Characteristics of CBNRM, a brief history of its implementation and impacts in southern Africa and key principles for sustainable CBNRM initiatives shall be discussed. The study includes a discussion on the history and development of Salambala, but focuses specifically on two issues, (i) whether Salambala is a sustainable community-based resource management initiative as per the principles required for sustainable CBNRM, and (ii), whether it is meeting its own stated aims and objectives. This study demonstrates that Salambala Conservancy is adhering to the principles required for sustainable CBNRM and that it is, on the whole, achieving its aims and objectives. It is thus delivering benefits to the community which, currently, outweigh the costs of living with wildlife, and wildlife numbers are increasing. In addition, the vast majority of local people surveyed have support for the initiative. However, there are a few critical issues which must be addressed, such as human-wildlife conflict and the need to increase benefits through, for example, further tourism development, if Salambala is to continue on this path. The methodology used during the study included interviews, the use of questionnaires on a sample of the population and extensive documentary analysis of both CBNRM and the history of Salambala’s development.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die navorsing is getiteld “’n Ondersoek na die doeltreffendheid van gemeenskapsbaseerde natuurlike hulpbronbestuur in die Salambala bewaar-area in die Caprivi streek in Namibië”. Salambala was die eerste van vier bewaar-areas wat in Namibië geregistreer is nadat spesifieke wetgewing ontwikkel is. Hierdie wetgewing het plaaslike inwoners in staat gestel om voorwaardelike regte op gemeenskaplike grond te bekom om die natuur te verbruik (bv. vir jag doeleindes) of te gebruik (bv.vir toerisme), en so baat te vind by die natuur. Gemeenskapsgebaseerde natuurlike hulpbronbestuur (GGNHB), ‘n benadering tot natuurlike hulpbronbestuur wat berus op volhoubare ontwikkeling, is die teoretiese basis van hierdie studie. Kenmerke van GGNHB, ‘n kort historiese oorsig van die implementering en impak daarvan in suidelike Afrika, asook sleutel beginsels vir volhoubare GGNHB sal bespreek word. Die studie sluit ook ‘n bespreking in van die geskiedenis en ontwikkeling van Salambala, met spesifieke fokus op twee kwessies: (i) of Salambala ‘n volhoubare gemeenskapsgebaseerde hulpbron bestuursinisiatief is soos vervat in die beginsels vir ‘n volhoubare GGNHB; en (ii), of dit aan sy verklaarde doelwitte en oogmerke voldoen. Die studie toon aan dat die Salambala bewaar-area voldoen aan die beginsels wat vereis word vir volhoubare GGNHB en dat dit, in die geheel gesien, sy beplande doelwitte en oogmerke bereik. Dit lewer dus voordele aan die gemeenskap wat op die oomblik meer is as die kostes verbonde aan ‘n bestaan na aan die natuur. Verder neem die wildgetalle toe en toon ‘n opname onder die plaaslike bevolking oorweldigende steun vir die inisiatief. Daar is egter ‘n paar kritieke kwessies wat aandag verg, soos die konflik tussen inwoners en die wildlewe, asook die behoefte aan meer voordele wat verkry kan word deur middel van, byvoorbeeld, verdere toerisme-ontwikkeling - sou Salambala voortgaan met hierdie onderneming. Die metodologie wat in die studie gebruik is sluit in onderhoude, die gebruik van vraelyste op ‘n deursnit van die bevolking asook ‘n breedvoerige dokumentêre analise van beide GGNHB en die geskiedenis van die Salambala se ontwikkeling.

Community-Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM) is considered a win-win approach to reconcile conservation with natural resource use. CBNRM aims to accomplish conservation whilst prioritising development and contributing to poverty alleviation. This study analysed the different components of a CBNRM initiative, Bigodi Wetland Sanctuary (BWS), located in western Uganda. The study was carried out by interviewing the managing committee members (n= 8) as well as local households (n= 68) regarding the manner in which the project works, and the associated benefits and constraints. The main management issues recognised were a lack of monitoring and committee cohesiveness. The information gathered through the household survey enabled the calculation of the value of local livelihood options. This was done on the premise that conservation is better accepted when land users realise the economic value of natural resources. The average annual value of household livelihoods was represented by 30% crop production, 57% natural resource use, and 13% livestock. Lastly, wetland assessments were performed using the WET-Health and WET-EcoServices methodologies from the Wetland Management Series. These assessments indicated that the impacts of local livelihoods on the wetland were currently low but potential issues could arise with the increasing human population density. Ultimately, BWS presents both environmental and social costs and benefits. With a detailed and interdisciplinary method specific recommendations of improvement can be made to reduce such costs and further reconcile the conservation of Bigodi Wetland with local natural resource use..

The Botswana Community Based Natural Resources Management (CBNRM) programme started in 1989. Its aims were to promote sustainable development through sustainable natural resources management and utilisation to improve rural livelihoods. The country CBNRM programme has recorded mixed outcomes and this has raised questions on the programme performance throughout the country. Since the programme has been recognised as one of the eight main livelihood strategies for rural communities in Botswana, there was a need to evaluate the programme performance and determine the factors that influence it. This thesis therefore evaluated the performance of CBNRM projects along an aridity gradient in Botswana and by so doing answered the two research questions of: (1) What factors influence the performance of CBNRM? And (2) how does aridity influence the performance of CBNRM programmes? Performance was determined in terms of financial benefits generated by CBNRM projects and the projects adherence to the CBNRM principles. Data were collected from seven selected CBNRM projects covering three aridity zones (wet, medium rainfall and dry areas) in the country. Data were also collected from key informants and community based organisations (CBO) project managers. Research findings have indicated differences in the performance of CBNRM projects across the identified three aridity zones. Factors that influenced the performance of CBNRM projects varied among the three aridity zones. These factors included: existence of complimentary rules and regulations for managing CBNRM projects; literacy levels of communities involved in CBNRM; ethnic composition of the project communities; historic and current socio-economic trends within communities; collaboration between CBNRM institutions and other local level institutes; amount of benefits generated through the projects; ability of institutions to resolve outstanding issues in time and type of CBNRM project. Research results also indicated that there was variation in the performance of CBNRM projects across the three aridity zones. Aridity was found to directly influence the performance of CBNRM projects through its influence on the amount of revenues that projects generated.

Namibia’s community based natural resource management program (CBNRM) integrates local participation in rural development and biodiversity conservation. This effort was launched through key legislation that devolved the right to manage wildlife and other renewable resources on communal lands from the state to community level conservancies. Local participation is dependent upon the capacity of the locals to self mobilize and establish conservancies, plan and implement their programs, and monitor and evaluate their progresses and impacts. Accordingly, this study examines the role of capacity development (CD) in CBNRM, particularly its processes, products, performance, and permanence at the individual, organizational (conservancy), and community levels. The research was carried out using interviews and participatory self-assessment exercises with various conservancy stakeholders. This study uncovers why and how capacity development has to be based on local realities and aspirations where capacity users need to have ownership of the process through partnerships with service providers in order to enhance endogenous capacity. However, such notion of “partnership” between CD stakeholders is challenging to translate into reality in the face of power imbalances, where government and NGOs are continuously influenced and coerced by donor interests, where NGOs are considered stronger than the government because they control more financial and human resources, and where conservancies tend to report upwards to NGOs and government instead of their constituents. Moreover, this research reiterates that CD has to be holistic enough to incorporate individual, organizational, and community level changes in order to create sustainable capacities and prevent problems of elitism, manipulation, and dependency on few individuals. With respect to CBNRM, the research argues that its basic premise of diversifying rural livelihoods using incentives to bring about sustainable resource management can only be achieved when conservancies have the capacity to create representative and participatory democratic processes, and when they are able to generate equitable and reliable tangible benefits with manageable costs to their constituents. As seen in this study, when such governance and benefit sharing structures are in place, they enhance local participation by promoting political empowerment, trust, ownership, and positive attitude towards living with wildlife. However, if such conditions are not met, local participation is reduced, while intra-community conflicts from marginalization to nepotism and members’ dissatisfaction and disinterest are inevitable.

Participatory ecological monitoring aims to bring together conservationists and members of the public to collect scientific data about changes in nature – in species, habitats, ecosystems and natural resources. Given that such monitoring not only concerns measures of nature but inherently the participants doing the measuring, it is as much to do with social processes as it is to do with ecological ones. By drawing on detailed ethnographic work from the community forests of Nepal, this thesis aims to explore some of the social dimensions of participatory monitoring and of its consequences for socio-ecological regimes. Current debates in political ecology, development studies and nature-society studies provide the theoretical basis for the investigation. The novelty of the thesis lies in its extensive empirical data, which allows it to explore current understandings of participatory monitoring. The thesis establishes the following tentative theoretical findings. It firstly draws attention to the importance of the informal, often unconscious ways in which we all observe changes in nature and of the need to recognise such ‘local monitoring’ in relation to participatory monitoring. It draws attention to the situated nature of practices of monitoring and the heterogeneity of people involved, suggesting that this has consequences for how costs and benefits arising from participatory monitoring are distributed amongst participants and beyond. It argues that without attending to such consequences, participatory monitoring may serve to (re)produce social inequalities which are the basis for marginalisation and that it may become embroiled in local power struggles. The thesis argues that whilst participatory monitoring may provide useful data on changes in nature, that this information will not automatically influence decision-making over nature conservation or the use of natural resources. A multitude of other factors are important in such decision-making and the ways in which these relate to and potentially constrain the effectiveness of participatory monitoring are discussed. The thesis finally offers a typology with which to better understand the complexity amongst participatory monitoring projects – based on who and what they are for – and with which to approach the conflicts and inconsistencies they present. The thesis concludes that without a careful consideration of their inherent social dimensions, participatory monitoring projects will ultimately fail in attempts to both improve the condition of nature and the lives of societies that depend on it, for the two are intimately connected. Interdisciplinary studies such as this are therefore seen to offer great potential to participatory and community-based approaches to conservation and natural resource management more widely.

Thesis (M.S.)--University of Florida, 2000.
Title from first page of PDF file. Document formatted into pages; contains ix, 208 p.; also contains graphics. Vita. Includes bibliographical references (p. 201-207).

This investigation of social learning processes in the Chipembere gardening project was conducted in Rockvale village one in Sebakwe communal area in the Midlands province of Zimbabwe. In essence, the study sought to explore how the Chipembere gardening project as a community-based natural resource management initiative (CBNRM), was reflecting and supporting social learning processes of change. It also sought to enrich and deepen an organizational understanding of social learning and to generate ideas and draw recommendations that could be used to strengthen learning in other CBNRM projects. The research was undertaken as a qualitative case study with data generated through semi-structured interviews with individuals and groups. It also included an analysis of project documents and an extended period of participant observation on site and in the gardening activities. Data were indexed and coded for generating analytical memos that were used to extract and represent the scope of social learning interations within the developing project. The study found that within the Chipembere gardening project a wide range of learning interactions were significant in shaping the developing project. Furthermore, these interactions were earmarked as the major drivers of social learning processes within the project. The study concluded that the social learning interactions amongst the gardeners in the Chipembere community garden were instrumental in fostering change that enhanced community livelinhoods and wellbeing.

Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)
This thesis critically analyses collective action processes and outcomes in Community Forestry through the concept of embeddedness. This research focuses on the questions of when people cooperate, how and why collective action emerges and evolves, and what leads or does not lead to equitable outcomes. The thesis makes a fundamental distinction between equality and equity. The research focuses specifically on the Nepalese experience with Community Forestry (CF), which is regarded as one of the most progressive CF programs being implemented in one of the poorest countries in the world. The thesis adopts an integrated research approach involving multiple actors, scales and methods with a focus on local level CF processes and forest users. This study considers the Forest Users Group (FUG) as a unit for analysis. Field work was conducted in three FUGs from the mid-hill region of Nepal over seven months between August 2001 and February 2002. The field research moves downwards to the household level and upward to the district, national and international level actors. It employs a combination of the process analysis and actor oriented approach and qualitative and quantitative methods to understand how CF is being driven, who is driving it and why CF is advancing in a certain direction. The study shows that the emergence, evolution and outcomes of collective action in CF are complex and varied due to specific and changing socio-cultural, economic, political and ecological contexts. Without understanding the complexities, in which peoples’ motivation and collective action are embedded, we cannot explain the emergence and evolution of collective action in CF. This thesis challenges the rational choice tradition and some key points of Common Property Regimes (CPR) theory and highlights the concept of embeddedness in participatory natural resource management. The thesis highlights the problem of decentralised CF policy and the forest bureaucracy. Decentralisation universally imposes a formal democratic system based on equality without acknowledging unequal societies. In Nepal, there has been little reorganisation of the forest bureaucracy. Despite being an international model for community forestry, in Nepal the existing bureaucracy has been unable or unwilling to transfer knowledge to forest users. The thesis concludes by stating the need to avoid the pitfalls of some democratic principles associated with standardisation and formalism. This means transforming bureaucratic norms and ideology. Context is central for the sustainable and equitable management of natural resources. It must be further researched and applied in decision-making if CF is going to achieve its potential to improve the condition of forests and the welfare of rural people.

Thesis (MSc)--Stellenbosch University, 2015.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The conservation of resources which fall under communal tenure has been a major dilemma for the past 60 years. In South Africa communal lands support more than a quarter of the country’s citizens, mostly the poorest members of society whose livelihoods rely heavily on natural resources. Wildlife enterprise is an alternative land use strategy for implementing community based resource management on communal lands. Additionally, safari hunting has been recognised as an efficient means of initiating wildlife based land use practises. In the 1980’s a community owned game reserve, which utilised safari hunting as an income source, was established on one of South Africa’s black homelands, the Ciskei. Since then, the reserve has been disbanded but little is known about how it operated, the reason it was formed or why it failed. The aim of this study was twofold: firstly, to document and understand the happenings of a failed community owned hunting reserve in South Africa’s Eastern Cape Province and secondly, to determine what level of support there would be amongst the local residents if the reserve was to be re-established. Semi structured, qualitative interviews were conducted to gather information about the reserve from key informants. Structured, randomly selected household surveys were used to gauge local residents support on the idea of having the reserve re-established. Additionally, in doing so it was possible to view, though indirectly, the thoughts and attitudes of the residents to the notion of safari hunting as a land use option. In review of the reserve history it was found that complexities that make up the social settings of communal lands in South Africa were ignored and dealt with through the age-old approach of top-down management regimes. Once the power of the initial authorities was lost the entire project was doomed to failure as local residents felt no need to keep the project alive. Results showed that 73.7% of the respondents would support the redevelopment of the Ntabethemba Reserve while 19.5% would not. The remaining 6.8% could not say whether they would or would not. The majority of the respondents (73%) believed that the area should be marketed for safari hunters, whilst 13% were against it, 9% were neutral and 5% were unsure. The Ntabethemba Reserve can be viewed as a ‘joint-management’ project where management responsibilities were adopted by a non-community party. If a future project is to be undertaken it needs to be aware of the complex socio-ecological setting of the area and account for this in ways that are beyond those advocated in the traditional approach to protected area conservation. The highly skewed distribution of livestock ownership needs to be taken into consideration in that those few individuals who own the most livestock would lose the most from any development that reduces grazing lands. Both the benefits and the costs need to be distributed in such a way that a situation is avoided where only a few are benefiting at the expense of others.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die bewaring van hulpbronne in gebiede met kommunale grondregte is reeds vir die afgelope 60 jaar uiters problematies. In Suid-Afrika is meer as ‘n kwart van alle landsburgers afhanklik van kommunale grondgebiede vir hulle lewensonderhoud. Dit is hoofsaaklik die armste lede van die gemeenskap wat op die natuurlike hulpbronne in hierdie gebiede staatmaak. Natuurlewe-ondernemings bied ‘n alternatiewe strategie vir grondverbruik, wat die implementasie van gemeenskapsaangedrewe hulpbronbestuur op kommunale grond moontlik maak. Daarmee gepaard, is safari-jag ‘n erkende en effektiewe metode om praktyke rondom natuurlewe-gesentreerde grondverbruik te inisieer. Gedurende die 1980’s is ‘n natuurreservaat met gemeenskapsregte in een van Suid-Afrika se swart tuislande, naamlik die Ciskei, gevestig. Safari-jag is as inkomstebron in hierdie reservaat benut. Die reservaat is sedertdien ontbind. Daar is egter min inligting oor hoe die reservaat bedryf is, oor die redes waarom dit geskep is, of waarom dit misluk het. Hierdie studie was tweedoelig: eerstens om die gebeure rondom ‘n mislukte jagreservaat met gemeenskapsregte in die Oos-Kaapprovinsie te dokumenteer en te begryp, and tweedens, om te bepaal of, en in hoe ‘n mate, die plaaslike inworners die hervestiging van die reservaat sou ondersteun. Half-gestruktureerde, kwalitatiewe onderhoude is gevoer om inligting oor die reservaat van sleutelinformante in te win. Gestruktureerde, ewekansig geselekteerde huishoudelike steekproewe is gedoen om die steun vir die moontlike hervestiging van die reservaat te peil. Op indirekte wyse was dit verder moontlik om inwoners se houdings en benaderings tot safari-jag as grondverbruikerskeuse te evalueer. Toe die geskiedenis van die reservaat in oorsig geneem is, is bevind dat die ingewikkelde sosiale agtergrond van gemeenkappe met kommunale grondregte in Suid-Afrika verontagsaam is, en dat die afgeleefde bestuursbenadering “van-bo-af-ondertoe” ook hier gebruik is. Toe die eermalige owerhede al hulle uitvoerende magte verloor het was die projek tot mislukking bestem, omdat die plaaslike inwoners geen rede gesien het om dit aan die lewe te hou nie. Die resultate het getoon dat 73.7% van die respondente die herontwikkeling van die Ntabethemba Reservaat sou ondersteun, terwyl 19.5% dit nie sou doen nie. Die oorblywende 6.8% kon nie sȇ of hulle ten gunste daarvan was of nie. Die meerderheid van die respondente (73%) is van mening dat die gebied as safarijaggebbied bemark moet word, terwyl 13% daarteen was, 9% neutraal en 5% onseker was. Die Ntabethemba-reservaat kan eerder as ‘n projek van “gesamentlike-bestuur” beskou word, as ‘n inisiatief wat uiteraard op “kommunaal-gebaseerde natuurlike hulpbronbestuur” (CBNRM) gegrond is. As ‘n projek in die toekoms weer geloots word, moet sorgvuldig ag geslaan word op die ingewikkelde sosio-ekologiese agtergrond van die gebied. Dit mag nie, soos in die verlede, bloot volgens die tradisionele benadering tot die bewaring van beskermde gebiede van stapel gestuur word nie. Die erg skewe verspreiding van veebesit is uiters belangrik in hierdie konteks, aangesien die paar individue wat die meeste vee besit, die grootste verliese sal moet dra as ‘n ontwikkeling plaasvind wat weidingsverliese behels. Beide voordele en verliese moet opgeweeg en eweredig versprei word, sodat ‘n paar mense nie ten koste van ander begunstig word nie.

In most developing countries, forest resources are a major source of livelihood for forest dwellers. Forests provide fuel wood, farm products, meat, timber and plants of high medicinal value, including Prunus africana. The collection of medicinal plants is also an important source of cash income for some forest communities, and widely relied on to cure illnesses (Poffenberger, 1993). Because of this, the poor forest dwellers in particular are forced to exert pressure on their surrounding environment to make ends meet. Indiscriminate exploitation of forest resources has cost some forest dwellers dearly as they are now experiencing marked reduction of wildlife, forest cover, soil fertility and most importantly water supply, which is a key to life. Prunus africana has a very high economic and medicinal value locally as well as internationally. The exploitation of this species is a very profitable activity in most parts of Africa where it occurs, including the Mount Cameroon region. In recent years, most youths and young men in the Mount Cameroon region have seemingly become less interested in their usual income generating activities (farming, hunting, etc.) because of reduced productivity and have taken up Prunus harvesting as their major source of income. Increase in demand for this species by the French pharmaceutical company (Plantecam), weak institutional capacity to control exploitation, uncontrolled access into the forest, scramble for diminished stock by legal and illegal exploiters, destruction of wild stock by unsustainable practices, and insufficient regeneration of the species in the past have almost driven this species to extinction in certain parts of Cameroon and made it severely threatened in others. Prunus africana is presently threatened with extinction in the entire Mount Cameroon region. In response to this, the Mount Cameroon Project (MCP) and the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MINEF) helped some communities (Bokwoango and Mapanja) in the Mount Cameroon region to form Prunus africana harvesters’ unions with the aim of preserving the resource and improving the socio-economic benefits. The principal aim of the Bokwoango Prunus africana harvesters’ union is to ensure sustainable exploitation of Prunus africana while saving money for important development projects for individual members, their families and the entire community. This piece of work highlights the different facets of Prunus africana management in Cameroon in general and the Bokwoango community in particular. The study examines the socio-economic impact of Prunus africana management in the Bokwoango community and shows specifically the management role played by the Bokwoango Prunus africana harvesters’ union to reduce the rate of exploitation of Prunus africana and also to ensure benefit sharing of the earnings from sales of Prunus bark. It at the same time brings out the constraints encountered by harvesters as well as the opportunities that can make the union become more viable to the socio-economic development of the Bokwoango community. Results of this study show that for the short period that the Bokwoango Prunus africana harvesters’ union has existed, the socio-economic changes in this community are encouraging if one compares the present situation with that before the formation of the union. Most importantly, there has been increased awareness on the great need to conserve not only the threatened Prunus africana species but also other threatened plant and animal species in the region through sustainable hunting, harvesting and regeneration. Some proposals are made for efficient natural resource management and improvements on livelihood through alternative income generating activities. The study ends with recommendations for policy and institutional reforms as well as suggestions for further research in sustainable management of Prunus africana.

Communal Areas Management for Indigenous Resources (CAMPFIRE) is an innovative community based natural resource management strategy which transfers management and conservation responsibility from the state to the local communities. This thesis critically examines CAMPFIRE's potential for introducing sustainable natural resource management through the detailed examination of CAMPFIRE's implementation in Nyaminyami District, which is located in the Zambezi Valley of Zimbabwe. Comparisons with other districts are made as appropriate. The theoretical framework of this research is based on an examination of common property theories, theories of bundles of rights, globalisation and the notion of global commons. It is also based on critically examining Zimbabwean, African and international literature dealing with the management of natural resources used in common. There are five specific contributions which the thesis makes. Firstly, common property management is redefined and the difference between resources used in common but which are not common property and common property resources is clarified. Secondly, the study shows that CAMPFIRE is not sustainable whilst it remains dependent on wildlife alone and on a single species - the elephant. Thirdly, the thesis has attempted to extricate the CAMPFIRE concept from the wildlife debate in which it has become entangled and, fourthly, it examines the issues of globalisation and the global commons to show how decisions made at the international level impact on resource utilisation and management at the local level. Finally, the study examines what residual Tonga indigenous knowledge still exists and which aspects can be incorporated into present management systems. Overall, the results of the research suggest that while CAMPFIRE is an innovative strategy for sustainable natural resource management it, has not achieved its major objective of becoming a grassroots rural development strategy. It has become a top down elitist programme which is NGO and donor driven and government constrained. Legislation and policy need formally to address this problem. Finally, the thesis recognises the potential of the CAMPFIRE concept, especially if the weaknesses ofthe programme are addressed.

Natural resource managers are facing increasing challenges as environmental degradation accelerates and the need to integrate a broad spectrum of community experiences into management decisions is increasingly recognised. To help meet these novel challenges, this study explores how professional researchers and communities can combine their skills and learn to work in partnerships to achieve shared management goals. Community-based research involves people as citizen scientists, whereby citizens actively participate in research on local issues. The inclusive nature of community-based research has the ability to produce auxiliary benefits uncommon in conventional research. These include the development of social capital and social learning as the practice of citizen science empowers communities with new skills, knowledge and social networks, thus building capacity within communities to take an effective role in natural resource management. Community-based research also has the potential to enrich the range of management options available by increasing the breadth of accessible knowledge. However, despite much rhetoric about democratising science, little is known about the practice, value and problems of involving citizens as collaborators in natural resource management research projects. This thesis presents the findings from a comparative survey of the attitudes to community-based research held by 'citizen' scientists, on the one hand, and 'expert' scientists and natural resource managers, on the other. It also draws upon a multi-site case study, set in a diverse urban-rural catchment, where an integrated research program was established for different natural resource management agencies to work with each other and community groups to develop research protocols so that community groups could participate in assessing the health of catchment areas. This involved scientists, natural resource managers and community education/extension officers working with established community groups to develop and trial modified scientific methods for the environmental monitoring of catchment and estuarine areas. This inter-agency/community project was continued as a case study site into the second and third years of research and was augmented in the second and third years by focusing on two of the initial community groups as second and third case study sites in their own right. Synthesis of both survey and case study analysis reveals that, despite resource and attitudinal barriers, community-based research can ensure access to local knowledge and increased relevance of research. In addition, many participants most valued the increased feeling of connection towards their local environment and community. I argue that citizen/expert collaboration is key to successful community-based research and best achieved in an atmosphere of mutual respect where all participants are seen as co-researchers. However, participatory intentions are unlikely to be acted upon without sufficient opportunity. Thus, the process of research must be re-defined from that associated with positivist science to include a greater range of participants and activities in an adaptive manner. This more inclusive and reflective approach seems most likely to ensure the quality and utility of research data, the knowledge sharing and social learning, and the enjoyable atmosphere that underpin successful citizen/expert interactions. Certainly, the ability to draw upon and create social capital is vital. The integration of these findings enabled the development of guidelines for effective collaboration between citizens and experts when addressing catchment management issues and undertaking participatory research.

Marine Areas for Responsible Artisanal Fishing (AMPR) have emerged as a new model for co-managing small-scale fisheries in Costa Rica, one that involves collaboration between fishers, government agencies and NGOs. This thesis aims to examine the context for collective action and co-management by small-scale fishers; evaluate the design, implementation, and enforcement of AMPRs; and conduct a linguistic analysis of fisheries legislation. The present work relies on the analysis of several types of qualitative data, including interviews with 23 key informants, rapid rural assessments, and legal documents. Findings demonstrate the strong influence of economic factors for sustaining collective action, as well as the importance of certain types of external organizations for community development and co-management. Additionally, significant enforcement gaps and institutional deficiencies were identified in the work of regulating agencies. Legal analysis suggests that mechanisms for government accountability are unavailable and that legal discourse reflects some of the most salient problems in management.

This study aimed to analyse the potential and challenges for ecotourism development and how it can be applied as an integrated tool to provide economic incentives and better opportunities for community development, while improving natural resource management and conservation in Isimangaliso. The capital assets, the context of vulnerability of the local communities along with other significant attributes of the supply side were investigated in-depth. In addition, the potentials and challenges for ecotourism development in the selected Isimangaliso, Khula Village were studied. The impacts of ecotourism on local livelihood improvement, biodiversity resources and natural environment, and management and conservation of the area were also explored through sustainability concepts. However, the focus of the study was not only on ecotourism potentials and opportunities but was also on the development of sound guiding principles for planning and management of ecotourism development in Isimangaliso in a sustainable manner. It was found that community‟s willingness to participate in local development and natural resource management remains a questionable issue to be achieved. This is because local communities are strongly influenced by vertical network of the state administration. The study reveals that there is a strong interaction and interdependency between local livelihoods or poverty and the status and effectiveness of natural resource management in Isimangaliso. The study indicates that the area has plenty of potential natural and cultural resources. These resources signify three fundamental elements for ecotourism destination: quantity, quality, and fascination. The natural attractions consist of vital and sensitive biological and scenic values of the destination area.

Doctor of Philosophy
The population size and range of giraffe Giraffa camelopardalis have been greatly reduced in Africa in the past century, resulting in geographical isolation of local populations and some herds surviving at the edge of the species’ preferred range. Numerous factors have contributed to these declines, but historical analysis indicates that habitat loss and fragmentation, human encroachment, disease and poaching are the main threatening processes. These processes can be expected to continue to impact on giraffe populations, particularly as human populations grow and needs for land and resources increase. This study used field data and laboratory analyses to investigate the taxonomy, behaviour and ecology of desert-dwelling giraffe Giraffa camelopardalis angolensis in the northern Namib Desert. This population resides at the extreme of the giraffe’s range. My research also complements the community-based natural resource management (CBNRM) program of the Namibian government, and provides baseline data on the current population status and structure of giraffe in the Kunene Region. The field data, genetic, habitat and forage samples used in this study were collected by myself and a number of research assistants over a period of two years (2001 to 2003), following preliminary research that I undertook between 1999 and 2001. Laboratory analysis of genetic samples was conducted by Dr R. Brenneman and his team at Henry Doorly Zoo, Omaha, NB., as well as by Mr D. Brown at UCLA, CA. Mr W. Gawa!nab and his team at the agricultural laboratory, Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Rural Affairs, Namibia, conducted chemical analyses on plant samples that form part of the giraffe’s diet. The genetic architecture of Namibian giraffe was investigated, including the samples from the desert-dwelling giraffe of the northern Namib Desert and giraffe from Etosha National Park. The results were compared with genetic profiles of giraffe subspecies throughout Africa, but in particular with G. c. giraffa which is the currently-accepted nomenclature of the Namibian giraffe. Results indicated that the Namibian giraffe has five unique haplotypes and is genetically distinct from G. c. giraffa or any other extant subspecies; it is considered here, tentatively, to represent G. c. angolensis. Furthermore, the Namibian Abstract iv giraffe has been separated from other populations for an extended period. Some gene flow has occurred between the desert-dwelling and Etosha NP giraffe population, and can be attributed to recent translocations between these regions. Within the study region, a sharing of haplotypes between three studied subpopulations indicated gene flow among giraffe throughout the northern Namib Desert, and this was confirmed by field-based monitoring. Taken together, these findings suggest that Namibian giraffe should be viewed as important for the conservation of overall genetic variation within Giraffa camelopardalis, although further investigation into the taxonomy of the Namibian form is warranted. Following these findings, I then investigated the behaviour and ecology of the desert-dwelling giraffe. As no previous study has been published on the ecology of G. c. angolensis, there is an information gap in our knowledge of this subspecies. One hundred and fifty six giraffe were identified individually using field-based identification methods and digital imagery. An assessment of the population structure and dynamics indicated marked variation in numbers, sex and age structure, herd structure and densities between three study areas. These variations possibly arose from differences in study area size, aridity, availability of forage and human impacts. I also investigated levels of associations between giraffe within the population using a simple ratio technique, and observed that increased association occurred in smaller populations; there appeared to be a matrilineal social structure. In one bull-biased population, a higher degree of association between bulls was observed compared to bulls in the other two populations. To gain further insight into the distribution and range of giraffe, I collected GPS locations from a combination of field-based monitoring and GPS satellite collars. The GPS satellite collars were the first trial of this technology on giraffe in Africa. Using Range Manager, a MapInfo animal location analysis extension program, I estimated 100% and 95% minimum convex polygon for daily, monthly and annual home range sizes of giraffe in the northern Namib Desert. Giraffe were observed to have large home ranges, with the largest individual range for a bull, Africa-wide, being recorded in this study. Large home ranges correlated with low population density, reduced diversity of forage and, in bulls, increased search areas for receptive cows. Giraffe movements occurred predominantly along riparian woodlands, although seasonal use of other habitats was recorded. Observations Abstract v Abstract vi and data from four GPS satellite-collared giraffe provided high-resolution data on daily movements, and indicated a pattern of highly biphasic movement behaviour that correlated with ambient temperatures. Diurnal activity budgets varied between the sexes, with cows spending more time feeding and resting, while bulls walked and ruminated more frequently. Juveniles rested more often than other giraffe. Seasonal variation in activity budgets was evident, perhaps reflecting use of an energy maximiser strategy for cows and an energy minimiser strategy for bulls. The establishment of artificial water points in the Hoanib River during the study period appeared to alter the seeming independence of giraffe on water in the northern Namib Desert, and also resulted in small-scale shifts in use of the riparian woodland by elephant. To investigate the diet of giraffe, I observed animals feeding in the field and also carried out laboratory analyses of the chemical content of preferred plant species. Seasonal changes in the abundance, moisture and protein content of available food plants correlated with shifts in the diet of giraffe. Giraffe impacted on their preferred forage source, Faidherbia albida, causing distinct structural changes in the individual plants and the F. albida population. This impact, combined with elephant damage and seasonal flood events, has resulted in a shift in the age structure and dynamics of the F. albida population over the past two decades. Finally, I present a brief overview on the history of conservation and management in the Kunene Region. The established CBNRM program provides a baseline for future wildlife conservation and management, of which the desert-dwelling giraffe could be an integral component for non-consumptive tourism. Long-term research on the population’s status, range, behaviour, social structure, habitat requirements, and ecology would help to provide a better understanding of the giraffe’s adaptation to the arid environment, while focussed legislation would enable increased control of communal lands and continue to benefit community-based conservancies.

Thesis (MPhil)--University of Stellenbosch, 2004.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Science forms an integral part of our lives. It is tied to social practices, public policies and political affairs. Yet, very little is reported on it unless it is making hard news. This thesis was written from the premise that the public requires as much accurate information as possible to make choices and decisions. In many instances, they solely depend on the news media to supply that information. Journalists have a responsibility to reflect and explain the complexity of a world that is increasingly influenced by science. In Namibia the establishment of conservancies under the CBNRM programme of government, have an influence on many rural people's lives who would previously not have been too concerned about science news. Through the Media and Publicity Strategy of the CBNRM programme, communication of the environmental message of conservancies has been successful to a large extent, especially in terms of reportage in the local press. The messages conveyed in the press have been overwhelmingly positive and supportive of the system. From the perspective of the level of journalism practised in this regard, the effort has not been that great. Publications in Namibia operate on very limited budgets and have to manage with a minimum number of reporters. This means journalists are expected to cover a range of different beats, and are seldom offered the opportunity to develop as specialist writers in specific fields. The field of science and environment is generally not regarded as an area that produces hard news on a regular basis. This was evident in the articles reviewed for the purposes of this thesis. The majority of stories were written from press releases or field trips organised by the CBNRM programme organisers. Stories that were self-generated were not very well researched, or did not follow through on potential hard news angles or ideas. In a world of war, hunger, poverty, diseases and many other tragedies, the story of the development of communal conservancies is a wonderfully positive story that highlights the success of sustainable development, the upliftment of the rural poor and achievements in terms of conservation. It is a welcome change for journalists to tell a positive story to the world. However, as journalists should know, every story has two sides. The purpose is not necessarily to find fault with the conservancy philosophy or to shoot it down or find sensationalism where it is not due. Their role is to present a full, unbiased account of the facts so that their readers can make up their own minds on whether they support the concept, or not. If journalists failed to inform their readers about the problems experienced by the implementation of conservancies, then they have failed to give their readers the full picture. The conclusions drawn in this thesis on the level of science or environmental reporting in Namibia, serve to emphasise the urgent need for specialist writers in the profession. A handful of dedicated and committed science writers that increasingly raises the level of reporting will make a vast difference in the fields of science and environment in Namibia.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Wetenskap vorm 'n integrale deel van ons lewens. Dit is gebind aan sosiale gebruike, openbare beleidsrigtings en politieke sake. Tog word daar baie min daaroor geskryf, behalwe wanneer dit harde nuus is. Hierdie tesis is geskryf vanuit die oogpunt dat die publiek soveel as moontlik akkurate inligting nodig het om keuses te maak. In baie gevalle vertrou hulle uitsluitlik op die nuus media om daardie inligting te verskaf. Joernaliste het 'n verantwoordelikheid om 'n wêreld wat al hoe meer beïnvloed word deur wetenskap te verduidelik. In Namibië het die daarstelling van bewareas deur die CBNRM-program van die regering, 'n groot invloed op die lewens van baie plattelandse mense se lewens gehad wat voorheen nie veel sou omgegee het oor wetenskapnuus nie. Die daarstelling van bewareas het 'n hele nuwe wêreld met baie nuwe uitdagings tot by hulle voordeur gebring. Dit was belangrik om hulle genoegsaam in te lig oor die voor- en nadele van die stelsel om hulle in staat te stelom te besluit of hulle wou betrokke raak of nie. Die boodskap wat die pers oorgedra het, was oorweldigend positief met baie steun vir die stelsel. Vanuit 'n joernalistieke perspektief gesien, was die beriggewing rue so noemenswaardig nie. Publikasies in Namibië werk met baie beperkte begrotings en moet klaarkom met 'n minimum aantal verslaggewers. Dit beteken daar word van joernaliste verwag om oor 'n wye verskeidenheid onderwerpe te skryf. Wetenskap- en omgewingsberiggewing word oor die algemeen gesien as 'n gebied wat nie werklik harde nuus op 'n gereelde basis produseer nie. Dit het duidelik gebleik uit die artikels wat ontleed is vir die doel van die tesis. Die meerderheid van die stories is geskryf van persverklarings en uitstappies georganiseer deur die CBNRM. Die stories wat wel self gegenereer is, was nie baie goed nagevors rue. In 'n wêreld van oorlog, hongersnood, armoede en siektes, is die ontwikkeling van . bewareas 'n wonderlike positiewe storie wat dien as bewys van die sukses van volhoubare ontwikkel, die opheffmg van plattelandse arm mense en wat bereik kan word met bewaring. Dit is 'n welkome verandering vir joernaliste om vir 'n slag 'n positiewe storie aan die wêreld te vertel. Maar, soos joernaliste behoort te weet, het elke storie twee kante. Die doel van 'n joernalis is nie noodwendig om fout te vind met die filosofie van bewareas nie, of om dit af te skiet of sensasie te soek waar dit nie nodig is nie. Hulle rol is om 'n volledige, onsydige verslag van die feite weer te gee sodat hulle lesers self kan besluit of hulle die konsep ondersteun of nie. As joernaliste daarin gefaal het om hulle lesers in te lig oor die probleme wat ondervind is met die implementering van bewareas, dan het hulle daarin gefaal om die volledige prentjie aan hulle lesers te skets. Die slotsom van die tesis oor die vlak van wetenskap- en omgewingsjoernalistiek in Namibië is dat daar 'n dringende tekort aan spesialis skrywers in die professie is. Selfs net 'n handvol toegewyde wetenskapskrywers sal al klaar 'n groot verbetering bring in die kwaliteit van verslaggewing in die wetenskap- en omgewingsvakgebied in Namibië.

Decentralized development approaches have in recent years gained wide acceptance in policy circles. In India the national and the state

governments have for a long time undertaken the primary responsibility for water management. In recent years however, there has been a clear shift of policy towards increased reliance on the local communities. This thesis deals with the capacity of rural communities in India to manage their water resources in a sustainable way.

Through a case study of water management in a South Indian village opportunities and barriers for rural communities in India to manage their water resources in a sustainable way is analysed. The thesis deals with both formal and informal institutions involved in the water management.Factors that can promote and obstruct locals’ contribution in water management are discussed. Also the role of external actors such as NGOs, the Panchayats and the government is dealt with, and how they may facilitate a development towards sustainability and increased locals’ contribution in order to achieve a sustainable community bases water management.

Theories on collective action and the commons have been used in the analysis. These theories deal with how to get people to cooperate regarding the management of common resources such as water in order to achieve higher collective benefits. The study is primarily based on 66 semistructured qualitative interviews with local water users in a village in Andhra Pradesh.

Decentralized development approaches have in recent years gained wide acceptance in policy circles. In India the national and the state

governments have for a long time undertaken the primary responsibility for water management. In recent years however, there has been a clear shift of policy towards increased reliance on the local communities. This thesis deals with the capacity of rural communities in India to manage their water resources in a sustainable way.

Through a case study of water management in a South Indian village opportunities and barriers for rural communities in India to manage their water resources in a sustainable way is analysed. The thesis deals with both formal and informal institutions involved in the water management.Factors that can promote and obstruct locals’ contribution in water management are discussed. Also the role of external actors such as NGOs, the Panchayats and the government is dealt with, and how they may facilitate a development towards sustainability and increased locals’ contribution in order to achieve a sustainable community bases water management.

Theories on collective action and the commons have been used in the analysis. These theories deal with how to get people to cooperate regarding the management of common resources such as water in order to achieve higher collective benefits. The study is primarily based on 66 semistructured qualitative interviews with local water users in a village in Andhra Pradesh.

The ISRN in the pdf-file is incorrect. The correct ISRN is shown below.

Participatory monitoring of ecological and socioeconomic effects of harvesting and trading natural resources is advocated as a promoter of natural resource conservation and local communitiy empowerment. Nevertheless, the strategys success depends upon peoples willingness and availability to participate. Yet little is known about the factors that drive local communities to volunteer in participatory monitoring, particularly in relation to small-scale communities living in remote locations. This thesis investigated whether a number of candidate factors were able to predict peoples participation in monitoring. To do so, we conducted a study in a forest community of the Brazilian Amazon that harvested and traded Carapa guianensis (andiroba), a non-timber forest product (NTFP). Two methods of data gathering were employed: (i) an interview-based survey of 166 adults ( 18 y.o.; 51 households) to estimate peoples self-stated intention to participate and the drivers of their participation, and (ii) experimentally-implemented monitoring tasks of the effects of harvesting and trading C. guianensis to measure peoples actual participation. Results are presented in three chapters. In Chapter 1, we evaluated whether economic benefits received from the NTFP trade or, alternatively peoples cooperativeness, were more important in predicting peoples participation. Results indicated that both variables raised peoples intention and actual levels of participation in monitoring, but cooperativeness was a stronger and better predictor across monitoring tasks. In Chapter 2, we investigated the psychology of engaging in monitoring, departing from the theoretical framework of the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) for understanding whether the variables in the model were appropriate to predict the willingness to volunteer in monitoring tasks. We found that the TPB model, in general, was able to predict peoples intention to volunteer in monitoring tasks. Specifically, one of the attitude indicators (attitude pleasure) explained the intention to engage in all monitoring tasks assessed. Subjective norms were also important to predict the intention to collect data on natural resource populations and to interview community inhabitants, whereas perceived behavioral control predicted the intention to collect data on natural resources and to deal with data management and storage. Finally, in Chapter 3 we hypothesized that the awareness of ecological and socioeconomic impacts of NTFP harvest and trade should explain peoples participation in monitoring. Results indicated that both factors were important, particularly regarding to peoples actual participation, although factors such as gender, age and schooling were occasionally stronger predictors. Nevertheless, there is evidence that combining monitoring of ecological and socioeconomic factors will boost the practices success. The study conclusions contribute to lessons aimed at stimulating participation in monitoring. Among those, we highlight the importance of strategies to increase levels of cooperativeness among people, spreading information about the possible negative effects of natural resource harvest and trade, and granting financial compensations equivalent to the opportunity costs of participation.
O monitoramento participativo dos efeitos ecológicos e socioeconômicos da coleta e do comércio de recursos naturais é uma estratégia considerada promotora tanto da conservação ambiental, quanto do empoderamento das comunidades locais. O sucesso da estratégia, todavia, depende, sobretudo, da disponibilidade e disposição dos indivíduos em participarem. Apesar disso, sabe-se pouco sobre os fatores que determinam a participação voluntária no monitoramento, especialmente em comunidades de pequena escala habitantes de áreas remotas. Sendo assim, esta tese teve por objetivo investigar o efeito de determinantes da participação no monitoramento. Para tal, foi estudada uma comunidade da Amazônia brasileira que coleta e comercializa Carapa guianensis (andiroba), um produto florestal não madeireiro (PFNM). Dois métodos de coleta de dados foram utilizados: (i) survey por meio de entrevistas a 166 adultos ( 18 anos; 51 unidades domésticas) para estimar a intenção de participar e os determinantes da participação, e (ii) implementação de monitoramento experimental dos efeitos da coleta e do comércio de C. guianensis para quantificar a participação real no monitoramento. Os resultados são apresentados em três capítulos. No Capítulo 1, avaliamos se os benefícios econômicos obtidos com o comércio de PFNM ou, alternativamente, o comportamento cooperativo são determinantes mais importantes da participação. Os resultados indicaram que as duas variáveis aumentam a intenção e a participação real no monitoramento. Porém, o comportamento cooperativo foi um indicador mais forte da participação entre as diferentes atividades de monitoramento avaliadas. No Capítulo 2, investigamos os fatores psicológicos que afetam a participação, utilizando como base a Teoria do comportamento planejado (TCP) e avaliando o efeito das variáveis deste modelo sobre a probabilidade da participação voluntária no monitoramento. Os resultados indicaram que, em geral, o modelo da TCP é adequado para prever a intenção de participar em diferentes etapas do monitoramento avaliadas. Em particular, um dos indicadores de atitude (prazer) é capaz de explicar a participação nas quatro etapas de monitoramento. Normas subjetivas também foram importantes preditores da intenção de participar da coleta de dados da população de andiroba e entrevistar outros moradores da comunidade. Já o controle comportamental percebido previu a intenção de participar da coleta de dados sobre a população do recurso natural e a entrada e armazenamento de dados. No Capítulo 3, partimos da hipótese de que a percepção dos impactos ecológicos e socioeconômicos da coleta e do comércio de PFNM pode explicar a participação no monitoramento. Os resultados indicaram que a percepção dos dois tipos de impactos é importante, sobretudo para a participação real. Porém, outros fatores como gênero, idade e escolaridade são determinantes mais fortes da participação em algumas atividades. Ademais, encontramos evidências de que aliar o monitoramento de impactos ecológicos e socioeconômicos aumenta o sucesso da prática. As conclusões do estudo contribuem com lições práticas para aumentar a participação no monitoramento. Destacamos, dentre elas, a importância de estratégias para aumentar a cooperação entre os comunitários, a disseminação de informações sobre os possíveis impactos negativos da coleta e do comércio de recursos naturais, e o fornecimento de compensações financeiras equivalentes ao custo de oportunidade de participação

The purpose of this study was to investigate the social, economic and technological factors that influence rates of adoption of innovative stormwater management approaches in municipal organizations in the Great Bay watershed, NH. The scope of this study was to investigate how innovations spread through municipal populations in a specific region and watershed area of the US. The methodology used mixed qualitative methods, including semi-structured interviews, case studies, and surveys to examine perceptions, attitudes, and beliefs that influence the adoption of innovative stormwater management solutions, as well as the governance characteristics of municipalities at different stages of adoption. Major findings include: adopter categories can be relatively easily and quickly categorized into early and late majorities as a preliminary means to identify populations of ready and willing audiences interested in and capable of advancing innovations; early and late adopter classifications followed general diffusion theory, but differed in substantial ways that could influence overall project or program success; and finally that early majority communities have more internal and external capacity to advance innovations as well as higher levels of peer-to-peer trust to offset perceptions related to economic risk that can either advance or stall innovative stormwater management solution adoption. This research offers insights on how to allocate scarce resources to optimally improve water quality through stormwater management solutions, and makes recommendations for how to effectively and efficiently generate greater understanding of complex barriers to adoption that thwart innovation in municipal governance organizations. One significant implication is that agents of change who want to move innovations through a broad municipal population should focus their efforts on working with innovators and early adopters that have status within relevant peer networks and who have capacity to evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of innovations.

Never before have humans wielded a greater ability to alter and disrupt planetary processes. Our impact is becoming so noticeable that a new geological epoch has been proposed – the Anthropocene – in which Earth systems might no longer maintain the stable and predictable conditions of the past 12 millennia. This is particularly evident in the rapid expansion of urban areas, where a majority of humans now live and where environmental changes such as rising temperatures and habitat loss are happening faster than elsewhere.  In light of this, questions have been raised about what a more responsible relationship between humans and the rest of the planet might look like. Scholars in sustainability science employ the concept of ‘stewardship’ in searching for an answer; however, with multiple different applications and definitions, there is a need to better understand what stewardship is or what novelty it might add to sustainability research. This thesis investigates stewardship empirically through two case studies of civic engagement for protecting nature in cities – Bengaluru, India and New York City, USA. Further, the thesis also proposes a conceptual framework for how to understand stewardship as a relation between humans and the rest of nature, based on three dimensions: care, knowledge and agency. This investigation into stewardship in the urban context uses a social–ecological systems approach to guide the use of mixed theory and methods from social and natural sciences. The thesis is organized in five papers. Paper I reviews defining challenges in managing urban social–ecological systems and proposes that these can more effectively be addressed by collaborative networks where public, civic, other actors contribute unique skills and abilities. Paper II and Paper III study water resource governance in Bengaluru, a city that has become dependent on external sources while its own water bodies become degraded and depleted.Paper II analyzes how locally based ‘lake groups’ are able to affect change through co-management arrangements, reversing decades of centralization and neglect of lakes’ role in Bengaluru’s water supply.Paper III uses social–ecological network analysis to analyze how patterns in lake groups’ engagements and collaborations show better fit with ecological connectivity of lakes.Paper IV employs sense of place methods to explore how personal bonds to a site shapes motivation and goals in waterfront stewardship in New York City. Finally,Paper V reviews literature on stewardship and proposes a conceptual framework to understand and relate different uses and underlying epistemological approaches in the field. In summary, this thesis presents an empirically grounded contribution to how stewardship can be understood as a human–nature relation emergent from a deep sense ofcare and responsibility, knowledge and learning about how to understand social–ecological dynamics, and theagency and skills needed to influence these dynamics in a way that benefits a greater community of humans as others. Here, the care dimension is particularly important as an underappreciated aspect of social–ecological relations, and asset for addressing spatial and temporal misalignment between management institutions and ecosystem. This thesis shows that care for nature does not erode just because green spaces are degraded by human activities – which may be crucial for promoting stewardship in the Anthropocene.

At the time of the doctoral defense, the following papers were unpublished and had a status as follows: Paper 3: Manuscript. Paper 4: Manuscript. Paper 5: Manuscript.

The current landscape of small farms is approaching a major shift as more and more small farms are poised to come onto open marketplace around urban areas. A different farming business model called Community Supported Agriculture (CSA) has been utilized as new way for farmers to potentially earn above average revenue. However, small farmers still feel dissatisfied with their overall farm income, but when implementing the CSA business model the producers do feel that the CSA enhances their overall income satisfaction. Three essays were developed to examine this predicament. The first essay examined possible economic pricing models that a CSA is espoused to operating under, a multiproduct club good and monopoly. Utilizing these theories and data collected from prior research, I postulate that the CSA business model is not operating at the Pareto equilibrium because producers seem worse off and the shareholders are better off. The solution to this equilibrium problem seems to be two fold. One is that the producer is acting inefficiently and needs better control of their production and distribution. Second, the true cost of the product is not being communicate as espoused by CSA business model concept. Increasing efficiencies and fully communicating all costs to the shareholders are needed so that the correct consumers’ willingness to pay can be revealed and the Pareto optimal be achieved.

The second essay constructs and illustrates a mathematical model implemented by the gardening by the square foot method and expands it so that it can be applied by the CSA farmer. Comparing this planting method to other CSA row cropping models, the needed square footage for growing the need harvest can be reduced by 80%. Although the land needed is drastically decreased using this cropping method, labor costs have not been evaluated and field studies still need to be conducted. Also, this technique now segregates the shareholders production area from other production areas on the farm. This not only allows a CSA producer to better detail their specific production cost per shareholder but also has the advantage of allowing for more exclusion required to exert more monopoly or club good power, thus possibly correcting the dissatisfaction of producers’ personal income as described in essay one.

The third essay discusses the results of a survey, e-mailed to 673 producers listed on the USDA CSA website. The results of this survey were compared to previous CSA producer surveys and shows that not much has changed in the demographics of the CSA operations across the U.S. Using survey and census data, a linear regression econometric model was developed to explain full share pricing at CSAs. Five variable coefficients were found to have large impacts on full share prices. The variable of CSA farmers participating in other marketplaces had a negative impact of $294.62. When farmers used prices of other CSAs in their pricing, share prices were $120.82 higher. The preparation of the CSA harvest for distribution was found to have a negative effect on the price with a coefficient of $232.83. The factor of the management and labor of the family and shared risk coefficients were positive $226.45 and $169.65, respectively. Finally the weeks of harvest was positive with a coefficient of $12.38. All these variables were found to be significant at the 1% or 5% significance level. However, many other non-monetary attributes espoused in the literature as reasons for a producer choosing the CSA business model, did not have any discernable impact on pricing. More research is needed to clarify the value of these non-market items.

Common pool resource management systems are complex to manage due to the absence of a clear understanding of the effects of users' behavioral characteristics. Non-cooperative decision making based on individual rationality (as opposed to group rationality) and a tendency to free ride due to lack of trust and information about other users' behavior creates externalities and can lead to tragedy of the commons without intervention by a regulator. Nevertheless, even regulatory institutions often fail to sustain natural common pool resources in the absence of clear understanding of the responses of multiple heterogeneous decision makers to different regulation schemes. While modeling can help with our understanding of complex coupled human-natural systems, past research has not been able to realistically simulate these systems for two major limitations: 1) lack of computational capacity and proper mathematical models for solving distributed systems with self-optimizing agents; and 2) lack of enough information about users' characteristics in common pool resource systems due to absence of reliable monitoring information. Recently, different studies have tried to address the first limitation by developing agent-based models, which can be appropriately handled with today's computational capacity. While these models are more realistic than the social planner's models which have been traditionally used in the field, they normally rely on different heuristics for characterizing users' behavior and incorporating heterogeneity. This work is a step-forward in addressing the second limitation, suggesting an efficient method for collecting information on diverse behavioral characteristics of real agents for incorporation in distributed agent-based models. Gaming in interactive virtual environments is suggested as a reliable method for understanding different variables that promote sustainable resource use through observation of decision making and behavior of the resource system beneficiaries under various institutional frameworks and policies. A review of educational or "serious" games for environmental management was undertaken to determine an appropriate game for collecting information on real-agents and also to investigate the state of environmental management games and their potential as an educational tool. A web-based groundwater sharing simulation game—Irrigania—was selected to analyze the behavior of real agents under different common pool resource management institutions. Participants included graduate and undergraduate students from the University of Central Florida and Lund University. Information was collected on participants' resource use, behavior and mindset under different institutional settings through observation and discussion with participants. Preliminary use of water resources gaming suggests communication, cooperation, information disclosure, trust, credibility and social learning between beneficiaries as factors promoting a shift towards sustainable resource use. Additionally, Irrigania was determined to be an effective tool for complementing traditional lecture-based teaching of complex concepts related to sustainable natural resource management. The different behavioral groups identified in the study can be used for improved simulation of multi-agent groundwater management systems.
M.S.
Masters
Civil, Environmental, and Construction Engineering
Engineering and Computer Science
Civil Engineering; Water Resources Engineering

Thesis (Ph.D.)-- University of Western Sydney, 2008.
A thesis submitted to the University of Western Sydney in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, School of Natural Sciences, College of Health and Science. Includes bibliographies.