Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Contracts (Islamic law) Performance contracts'

The aim of this dissertation is to analyse whether contracts made by electronic agents1 might be made enforceable under Islamic law. It discusses what constitutes an enforceable contract under Islamic law and whether this is applicable when a contract is made by an electronic agent. The enforceability of these contracts under Islamic law is especially important in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) where Islamic law constitutes the legal system. Ignoring the doctrine of Islamic law in relation to the enforceability of these contracts could, therefore, fundamentally affect the future viability of these contracts in the KSA. The dissertation argues first that the principle of mutual consent under Islamic law is not satisfied in contracts made by electronic agents because there is no communication of an offer and acceptance by the contracting parties (users). Secondly, while electronic agents function like human agents, there are a number of doctrinal requirements under Islamic agency theory that prevent electronic agents from being agents proper. Thirdly, the term ‘legal personality’ is categorised in Islamic law under ‘Dhimmah’, an ethical concept designed principally for human beings which cannot, therefore, be attributed to electronic agents. This dissertation demonstrates that Islamic law creates conceptual obstacles which prevent contracts made by electronic agents being enforceable in the KSA. One implication of this will be a risk of negative impact on the development of these contracts in the KSA because they are contradictory to Islamic law. Islamic law must avoid narrow traditional interpretations of its legal concepts, because a lack of reform in this area will create difficulties and barriers against the enforceability of these contracts under Islamic law.

This examination of the common law obligation of good faith in the performance and enforcement of commercial contracts in Australia seeks to achieve a number of objectives. First, to chart the historical development of the implied good faith obligation. Secondly, to identify a number of issues that remain unresolved at Australian lower court level. Thirdly, to consider five doctrinal approaches that could be adopted by the High Court when ultimately confronted by the competing claims and tensions that have proven divisive in the courts below. Fourthly, to assess each approach against three identified benchmarks. The essential thesis is that good faith should be implied, as a matter of law, in commercial contracts that are relational in nature with an additional call being made for the High Court to explicitly recognise that the underlying basis of the implied good faith obligation is the reasonable expectations of the contractual parties. This approach is the one approach that satisfies all three benchmarks and provides the most satisfactory resolution of the issues that presently bedevil the commercial good faith debate in Australia.

This work examines the prospective viability of derivatives and financial contracts more generally under a strict application of Shariah law. The author adopts a cross-disciplinary approach in order to convey the idea that some of the most popular contracts and arrangements in Islamic finance law are deficient from a structural and Shariah-compliance perspective. The thesis argues that the investor protection issues arising from this conclusion are sufficiently serious to undermine the viability of these instruments not only in a radical but also in a more conservative environment. This conclusion is arrived at after an in-depth analysis of the fundamental Shariah principles, relevant to finance, placing them in a historical, jurisprudential and political context. The work endeavours to guide the reader through the many turns of Islamic law, breaking down established concepts and questioning their application in modern Islamic law. For example, the author unpacks the notion of wa‘d (promise), arguing that its extensive use in Islamic contracts renders much of the resulting complex transactions deficient from a structural perspective. Furthermore, this work highlights technical and Shariah-related weaknesses in essential contract forms, with a particular focus on murabaha. Importantly, the author approaches the research question from the viewpoint of contracts – comparing constructs of Islamic Contract Law to those of its Common Law counterpart, without ignoring relevant influences and inspirations coming from the civil law tradition. The purpose of this comparison is to establish that some of the most popular financial arrangements, such as sukuk, are deficient in their investor protection provisions. What is more, the author underlines that due to the hybrid characteristics of the sukuk instrument and the lack of tailor-made regulation, investors are inadequately provisioned for the event of issuer‘s default. Starting with the idea that the sukuk instrument is structured on the basis of and resembles a number of conventional instruments, the thesis examines the possibility for a sukuk investor to obtain redress under US and UK law, as well as the comparable provisions in Malaysia and France. Alongside this, the author delves into the beginnings, inspirations, main strands and important political leaders of Islamic Revivalism. The aim of this inquiry is to arrive to a convincing explanation about the political and economic developments in established and aspired to Islamic States. To this end, this work offers a case study of Iran and ISIS, including an analysis of the Iranian Islamic finance system and a hypothesis about the possible approach of a jihadi-salafist government to the financial framework of their aspired to State. As a last point, the work considers how FinTech fits within the objectives of Shariah law and more specifically, its risk-management and social justice strategies. The thesis offers conclusions which draw on the extensive research and map out a possible view of the future of financial instruments in a radical Islamic environment.<br>Aquest treball examina la viabilitat potencial de derivats i contractes financers més generalment sota una estricta aplicació de la llei de Sharia. L‘autor adopta un enfocament interdisciplinari per tal de transmetre la idea que alguns dels contractes i arranjaments més populars en la legislació financera islàmica són deficients des d‘una perspectiva estructural i de compliment de la xaria. La tesi argumenta que els problemes de protecció dels inversors derivats d‘aquesta conclusió són prou greus per minar la viabilitat d‘aquests instruments no només en un entorn radical, sinó també en un entorn més conservador. Aquesta conclusió s‘arriba després d‘una anàlisi en profunditat dels principis fonamentals de la Sharia, rellevants per al finançament, situant-los en un context històric, jurisprudencial i polític. L‘obra s‘esforça a guiar el lector per les múltiples voltes del dret islàmic, desglossant conceptes establerts i posant en dubte la seva aplicació en el dret islàmic modern. Per exemple, l‘autor desaconsella la noció de wa‘d (promesa), argumentant que el seu ús extensiu en contractes islàmics fa que gran part de les transaccions complexes resultants siguin deficients des d‘una perspectiva estructural. A més, aquest treball posa de manifest les debilitats tècniques i relacionades amb la Sharia en les formes de contracte essencials, amb una particular atenció a la murabaha. És important destacar que l‘autor aborda la qüestió de la investigació des del punt de vista dels contractes: comparant construccions de la llei de contractes islàmica amb les de la seva contrapartida de dret comú, sense obviar les influències i inspiracions rellevants que provenen de la tradició del dret civil. L‘objectiu d‘aquesta comparació és establir que algunes de les disposicions financeres més populars, com sukuk, són deficitàries en les seves disposicions de protecció dels inversors. A més, l‘autor subratlla que, a causa de les característiques híbrides de l‘instrument sukuk i la manca de regulació a mida, els inversors no es disposen de manera adequada en cas d‘impagament de l‘emissor. A partir de la idea que l'instrument sukuk està estructurat a partir i s'assembla a diversos instruments convencionals, la tesi examina la possibilitat que un inversor sukuk obtingui redreçament segons la legislació nord-americana i del Regne Unit, així com les disposicions comparables a Malàisia i França. . Paral·lelament, l‘autor aprofundeix en els inicis, les inspiracions, les principals línies i importants líders polítics del revivalisme islàmic. L‘objectiu d‘aquesta investigació és arribar a una explicació convincent sobre els desenvolupaments polítics i econòmics dels Estats islàmics establerts i aspirants. Amb aquesta finalitat, aquest treball ofereix un estudi de cas d‘Iran i ISIS, incloent-hi una anàlisi del sistema financer islàmic iranià i una hipòtesi sobre el possible enfocament d‘un govern jihadi-salafista al marc financer dels seus aspirants a l‘Estat. Com a últim punt, el treball planteja com FinTech s‘encaixa dins dels objectius de la llei de Sharia i, més concretament, de les seves estratègies de gestió de riscos i de justícia social. La tesi ofereix conclusions que s‘extreuen en les àmplies investigacions i mostren una possible visió del futur dels instruments financers en un entorn islàmic radical.<br>Este trabajo examina la viabilidad prospectiva de derivados y contratos financieros de manera más general bajo una estricta aplicación de la ley Shariah. El autor adopta un enfoque interdisciplinario para transmitir la idea de que algunos de los contratos y arreglos más populares en la ley de finanzas islámica son deficientes desde una perspectiva estructural y de cumplimiento de la Shariah. La tesis argumenta que los problemas de protección de los inversores derivados de esta conclusión son lo suficientemente graves como para socavar la viabilidad de estos instrumentos no solo en un entorno radical sino también en un entorno más conservador. Se llega a esta conclusión después de un análisis en profundidad de los principios fundamentales de la Shariah, relevantes para las finanzas, colocándolos en un contexto histórico, jurisprudencial y político. El trabajo intenta guiar al lector a través de los muchos giros de la ley islámica, desglosando los conceptos establecidos y cuestionando su aplicación en la ley islámica moderna. Por ejemplo, el autor desempaqueta la noción de wa‘d (promesa), argumentando que su uso extensivo en los contratos islámicos hace que muchas de las transacciones complejas resultantes sean deficientes desde una perspectiva estructural. Además, este trabajo resalta las debilidades técnicas y relacionadas con la Shariah en las formas de contrato esenciales, con un enfoque particular en murabaha. Es importante destacar que el autor aborda la cuestión de la investigación desde el punto de vista de los contratos, comparando las construcciones del derecho contractual islámico con las de su contraparte del derecho consuetudinario, sin ignorar las influencias e inspiraciones relevantes que provienen de la tradición del derecho civil. El propósito de esta comparación es establecer que algunos de los arreglos financieros más populares, como el sukuk, son deficientes en sus disposiciones de protección al inversionista. Además, el autor subraya que debido a las características híbridas del instrumento sukuk y la falta de una regulación a medida, los inversores no cuentan con una provisión adecuada para el caso de incumplimiento del emisor. Comenzando con la idea de que el instrumento sukuk está estructurado en base a una serie de instrumentos convencionales y se asemeja a él, la tesis examina la posibilidad de que un inversor sukuk obtenga una reparación bajo las leyes de EE. UU. Y el Reino Unido, así como las disposiciones comparables en Malasia y Francia . Junto a esto, el autor profundiza en los comienzos, inspiraciones, líneas principales e importantes líderes políticos del revivalismo islámico. El objetivo de esta investigación es llegar a una explicación convincente sobre los desarrollos políticos y económicos en los Estados islámicos establecidos y aspirantes. Con este fin, este trabajo ofrece un estudio de caso de Irán e ISIS, que incluye un análisis del sistema financiero islámico iraní y una hipótesis sobre el posible enfoque de un gobierno yihadista- salafista al marco financiero de sus aspirantes al Estado. Como último punto, el trabajo considera cómo FinTech se ajusta a los objetivos de la ley islámica y, más específicamente, a sus estrategias de gestión de riesgos y justicia social. La tesis ofrece conclusiones que se basan en la extensa investigación y trazan una posible visión del futuro de los instrumentos financieros en un entorno islámico radical.

This thesis is an assessment of the position of English, American, French and German law, UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (CISG), the UNIDROIT Principles of International Commercial Contracts and Principle of European Contract Law (PECL) regarding the problem of economic hardship in performance of contracts. As such, it has four aims: first, to establish a comprehensive concept of economic hardship; second, on the basis of the concept of economic hardship established, to examine this concept in the four main legal systems to determine the extent to which they recognise this problem and what kind of legal consequences they consider for it; third, by a comparative approach, to consider and explore the points of convergence and divergence between the legal systems under study; and, fourth, by examining some international and regional laws and models to find out how non-domestic laws and models have treated the issue. In relation to the first aim, after establishing that a general theory of hardship is needed, it is argued that economic hardship occurs when, as a result of unforeseen and unforeseeable supervening events for which none of the parties is responsible and could not have been avoided the consequences, the performance of the contract has become excessively onerous and the original equilibrium of the contract has been fundamentally altered. In relation to the second aim, different conclusions are reached in the four legal systems being studied: in English law, although the doctrine of frustration by its dominant test of ‘fundamental change’ is theoretically applicable to cases of economic hardship, in practice, English courts have rejected the notion that hardship can be regarded as a ground for excuse for non-performance of the contract. In American law, the modern doctrine of commercial impracticability has recognised the problem of economic hardship. However, in practice American courts have been unsuccessful in properly applying this doctrine to cases of economic changes in contracts. French law has only accepted economic changes as a ground for revision in administrative contracts under the doctrine of <i>imprévision. </i> The German doctrine of frustration has played a broader function compared to that of other legal systems; German law has recognised the problem of economic hardship as a ground for excuse of non-performance of the contract in its case law and also in its recently revised Civil Code. In relation to the third aim, it is submitted that CISG, an international convention for international sale of goods, has not adopted the concept of economic hardship, and impossibility is the only ground for the exemption rule under Article 79 of CISG. However, the two modern models UNIDROIT Principles and PECL have properly recognised the problem of economic hardship and anticipated appropriate solutions for it. Although the presence of a concept of economic hardship is needed as a general guidance in changed economic circumstances, it is concluded that the most peaceful way to deal with the problem of economic hardship is to provide express causes at the time of conclusion of the contract.

L’une des causes de la richesse des nations, la coopération, repose sur un échange de promesses. Si le droit des contrats est considéré comme un outil efficace - bien qu’imparfait - pour garantir ces dernières, il n’est cependant pas le seul : un tissu entier d’institutions formelles et informelles est à l’œuvre pour faciliter la coopération entre les agents économiques. Ce travail examine cette problématique dans le cadre de la finance islamique, considérée comme l’application moderne du droit des contrats islamiques. Alors qu’elle est censée utiliser des instruments de financement participatifs, la pratique de la finance islamique est dominée par le financement par la dette. Les causes généralement avancées pour expliquer cet état de fait sont des problèmes informationnels, considérés comme des vecteurs d’influence sur le comportement des banques. Cette thèse montre que ces problèmes informationnels ne sont en réalité que la conséquence d’un problème sous-jacent. Par une analyse du rôle et de la raison d’être des institutions, ce travail montre que le droit des contrats islamiques a été conçu à l’origine avec un objectif clair: assurer l’équilibre des transactions et garantir la propriété. Le respect des promesses était pour sa part assuré par d’autres types de mécanismes, notamment à travers la réputation, complétant dans les faits le droit des contrats. Cette conclusion permet d’appréhender le débat « forme vs substance » dans la finance islamique à travers l’échec d'un « transplant institutionnel intertemporel », pour montrer que les contrats évités sont dépendants du contexte dans lequel ils ont vu le jour et s’adaptent mal au contexte moderne<br>One of the main causes of the wealth of nations, cooperation, is based on exchanged promises. Contract law is viewed as an efficient, though imperfect, tool to ensure promise keeping. However, contract law is not the only mechanism playing that role. A whole body of formal and informal institutions is at work easing economic agents cooperation.This work considers this issue in the Islamic finance framework which is seen as a modern application of Islamic contracts law. Islamic finance is a fruitful object of study as it is facing a paradoxe. While this finance is supposed to rely on participatory financing tools, its practice is dominated by debt based financings. Informational problems are usually identified as a cause of such practices.This work shows that information problems are not a cause but a consequence of a deeper problem. Through an analysis of the role and the raison d’être of institutions, this work puts the development of Islamic contracts law into the perspective of an economic and social context. It shows that Islamic contracts law had originally been developed with a clear goal: ensure transactions equilibrium and protect property. The respect of promises, for its part, was made possible by other mechanisms, such as reputation, supplementing contract law. This conclusion allows us to view the debate “form vs. substance” in Islamic finance as an “intertemporal institutional transplantation” failure and to show that the avoided contracts are dependent of their original context and adapt poorly to the modern one

L’arbitrage commercial international est le mode alternatif de règlement de différends le plus utilisé dans le monde. Ce qui contribue notamment à en faire l’acteur principal de la diffusion des règles anationales telles que les principes généraux du droit, les usages du commerce international, ou encore la "lex mercatoria" qui sont souvent choisies par les arbitres en tant que droit applicable au fond du litige. Ce choix s’est étendu aux nouvelles règles élaborées par des institutions internationales privées telles que les Principes d’UNIDROIT relatifs aux contrats du commerce international. Une codification doctrinale conçue comme un instrument de "soft law" et qui trouve de plus en plus application dans la pratique arbitrale. Notre étude cependant montre que peu de sentences arbitrales rendues dans des affaires dont l’une des parties est arabe ont fait référence aux Principes Unidroit. L’explication n’est pas à rechercher dans une incompatibilité entre ceux-ci et le droit des contrats des pays arabes mais dans la méconnaissance de cette codification doctrinale par les juristes arabes. À cela s’ajoute un sentiment de méfiance à l’égard d’une manifestation de la soft law. Il convient dès lors de s’interroger sur les moyens qui permettraient aux Principes Unidroit de trouver leur place dans le droit et la pratique des pays arabes<br>International commercial arbitration is the Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) the most used in the world. Which contributes in particular to make the main actor of the diffusion of a-national rules as the general principles of law, usages of international trade, or the lex mercatoria, often chosen by the arbitrators as the law applicable to the substantive of the dispute. This choice was extended to the new rules developed by private international institutions such as the UNIDROIT Principles of International Commercial Contracts. A doctrinal codification conceived as a soft law instrument, which is increasingly applied in arbitration practice. Our study shows, however, that few awards rendered in cases in which one of the parties is Arabic made a reference to UNIDROIT Principles. The explanation is not to look for in an incompatibility between them and contract law in Arab countries but in the ignorance of this doctrinal codification by Arab jurists and lawyers. Added to this, a feeling of distrust a manifestation of soft law. It is therefore necessary to consider the ways in which the UNIDROIT Principles to find their place in the law and practice of the Arab countries

O presente trabalho visa apresentar um panorama geral a respeito da terceira espécie de inadimplemento no Direito brasileiro, considerando os esforços da doutrina e da jurisprudência em nosso sistema jurídico no trato deste tema, bem como considerando aspectos relevantes colhidos na experiência estrangeira. Na tentativa de contribuir para debate, será apresentada uma proposição para a identificação dessa terceira espécie de inadimplemento no Direito brasileiro.<br>The present work aims to present an overview regarding the third kind of default in Brazilian law, considering the efforts of the doctrine and of the jurisprudence in our legal system in dealing with this issue, as well as considering relevant aspects gathered from the experience of foreign law. In an attempt to contribute to debate, a proposition will be presented for the identification of this third kind of default in Brazilian law.

Les sukuk sont réputés être des titres financiers sui generis du fait qu’ils procurent à leurs titulaires un droit de propriété sur l’actif sous-jacent. Ce droit leur a été transmis à l’aide de la structuration contractuelle des sukuk qui détruit la barrière entre ses contrats constitutifs juxtaposés. Le terme propriété en droit musulman classique désigne le droit aux utilités d’un bien. De plus, les dispositions du standard 17 AAOIFI précisent que le sous-jacent demeure attaché aux titres jusqu’au dénouement de l’opération. Toutefois ils ne donnent au titulaire aucun droit de disposer individuellement de la quote-part que représenterait son titre dans l’actif tangible. Le caractère accessoire de ce droit réel est avéré. En vertu du contrat d’émission, tous les sukuk confèrent à leurs titulaires un droit personnel à l’encontre de l’émetteur pour la rétribution des sommes issues de l’actif que ce dernier gère dans l’intérêt des titulaires. Seuls les asset-backed sukuk octroient en sus un droit réel sur l’actif dont la possession a été confiée à l’émetteur en vue de son exploitation pendant l’opération. Ainsi, les titulaires de tout type de sukuk peuvent être considérés comme des obligataires de droit commun jouissant d’un droit de propriété sur leur titre, d’un droit aux utilités issues de l’actif et, le cas échéant d’une sûreté sur l’actif tangible. L’indexation de leur rémunération aux revenus de l’actif n’a aucune influence sur la nature obligataire des titres, telle que l’entendent la loi et la jurisprudence française.De ce fait, les sukuk pourront être émis en France sous la forme et le régime des titres obligataires domestiques et internationaux le cas échéant<br>The sukuk are deemed to be a sui generis type of securities, because they supposedly represent a right of ownership on the underlying asset in the interest of their holders. This right of ownership is transmitted through the structuring of the sukuk that allows the junction between its constitutive contracts. However, the classic Islamic law defined the term ownership as the right of use of an asset that entitles the owner for its civil fruits. In addition, the AAOIFI standard 17 does not give the owner a right of disposal of the asset ratio that his securities represent. It also stipulates, that the underlying asset remains attached to the sukuk until the end of the operation. This highlights the collateral role fulfilled by the ownership right of the sukuk holders.Pursuant to the sukuk issue contract, all of the sukuk owners have a personal right against the issuer for the payment of the asset income, held and managed by the latter in their interest. Besides that, asset-backed sukuk which underlying asset is held by the issuer grant their holders a right to the asset performance income during the operation, as well as its proceeds at the sukuk maturity if applicable. Therefore, the sukuk have the bonds’ features as they are defined by the French legislative and case law. Consequently, the sukuk can be issued in France under the bonds’ form and regime either on the domestic or international level, if applicable

With the rapid development of the Islamic banking and finance in South Africa, the legal regime of South Africa, must be able to progress at the same rate of development. The recognition of a foreign legal system such as Islamic law in South Africa is challenging and difficult. South Africa, has an interest based insurance legislative framework and this is not aligned with the principles of the Islamic financial system. As a result of this, regulators have taken various measures to develop and promote the Islamic Industry. The amendment to the South African Tax legislation has created an equitable and level playing field for Islamic law. The South African government also has a further obligation which is to develop a legislative framework to govern Islamic law, as well as to enhance the regulatory and supervisory framework. The study of the development of the Islamic legal regime is an important area that aids legal practitioners in identifying and resolving legal disputes. The purpose of this paper is to examine the accommodation of the Islamic law of Takaful under the South African Insurance legal framework.<br>Public, Constitutional and International Law<br>LL. M. (Public, Constitutional and International Law)

Islamic banking in the United States of America, became recognized as an alternative to expand into the market of traditional Muslim consumers, living in the United States. Because of strict regulatory guidelines, no Islamic banks exist in the United States. Instead, conventional banks, Islāmic banking windows (IBW) and other financial institutions offer Shari‘ah compliant products by modifying classical Islamic contracts or attaching a rider to define contract verbiage. This study reviewed techniques of adapting contracts used for Shari‘ah compliant products in the United States to determine if the contracts maintain the true characteristics of the original classical Islamic contracts. Contracts in Islamic sacred law provide protections by ensuring wealth is not wasted, and no injustice is performed by either of the contracting parties. Wealth protection and justice are the inherit characteristics of contracts in the Islāmic law. Any changes or modifications may void or decrease the protections provided in Islamic law. This research reviewed the theoretical aspects of contract modifications, by analyzing the procedures used for the derivative Shari‘ah compliant product contracts used in the Islamic finance industry in the United States. Data was evaluated and compared with the requirements of classical Islamic contract equivalents, to determine the effects of these changes.<br>Religious Studies and Arabic<br>D. Phil. (Religious Studies)

碩士<br>東吳大學<br>法律學系<br>104<br>Although the Governing Council of UNIDROIT promulgated in 1994, amended and adopted the third edition of Principles of International Commercial Contracts (PICC) in 2004 and 2010, the aforesaid Principles are not legally binding instrument under international agreement. However, the Principles above-mentioned affect many countries while drafting and revising their contract laws, and have been actually applied in daily practice. Growing with an ever-important role, the Principles set forth general rules for international commercial contracts. They shall be applicable when the parties have agreed in their contract as governing principles. These Principles can be used to interpret or supplement uniform law, international or domestic. In the meantime, they can serve as a model for national and international legislators. Further, the said Principles may be employed as course materials in universities and law schools, thereby promoting the teaching of contract law on a truly comparative basis. Referring to United Nation Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (CISG), The Principles of European Contract Law (PECL) and UNIDROIT Principles of International Commercial Contracts (PICC), Germany has revised her Law of Obligations. Following the new international trends, Japan has also revised her Law of Obligations. Our contemporary civil law study has made reference to German, Japanese as well as other international commercial contracts instruments. This paper mainly discusses the non-performance part under UNIDROIT Principles of International Commercial Contracts in contrast to the relevant provisions of our Civil Code. The author hopes to furnish her suggestions towards the development of our civil law. Recent development of the contract law in international law has been towards the abrogation those three systems of impossibility of performance, delay in performance and incomplete performance of obligation. Instead, the core aims to breach of contract or violation of obligations, and such discussions towards remedial relief based on the essentiality and uncontrollable events with regard to imputed grounds, such as the recognition of force majeure.

Law and development mainstream conceptions of labour market policies, while still marked by long-dominant views of contract law as economically superior to any labour regulation, have recently incorporated certain specific labour (human) rights. Core labour rights are thus accepted by global policy-makers, on the basis of their radical distinction from non-core labour standards and their rationalization according to certain foundational principles. This thesis criticizes the prevailing dichotomies between core labour rights and non-core standards, on the one hand, and contract law and regulation, on the other, bringing to bear the post-legal realist idea of legal indeterminacy. It argues that the organizing legal concepts that justify these dichotomies contain gaps and ambiguities that often lead to contradictory and indeterminate outcomes. It thus suggests that the core/non-core labour standards and contract/regulation distinctions are unproductive and should be rejected if a better conception of labour governance is to come to fruition.

This study examines the basis of contractual liability in indigenous law. It concludes that contractual liability arises only from real contracts where one party has performed fully or partially in terms of an agreement. Attention is given to both the nature and concept of indigenous contracts to ascertain the function of contracts in indigenous societies in order to bring a holistic perspective to the topic. It is demonstrated that the settlement of disputes arising out of indigenous contracts is primarily focused on the reconciliation of people and the consequent maintenance of harmony within the community. The foremost concern in indigenous law of contract is with human justice rather than with strict legal justice, and expression is thereby given to prevailing community values.<br>Indigenous Law<br>LL.M.