Academic literature on the topic 'Contrastive analysis, transfer, language learning, error analysis'

Theories of second language acquisition (SLA) play an important role in second language (L2) learning. These theories can help both language teachers and their students to understand L2 language learning process. There are various theories and approaches of SLA which try to explain how L2 learning takes place. Each theory accounts for L2 acquisition from a different perspective. This paper describes and compares five theories of L2 acquisition: Contrastive Analysis (CA), Error Analysis (EA), Markedness Theory, Universal Grammar (UG) and Monitor Theory, explains their contributions to L2 learning and shows the criticism of each theory. First, in Contrastive Analysis, the weak and strong hypotheses and types of language transfer are explained. Second, in Error Analysis, attitudes towards errors and aims, process and models of Error Analysis are described. Third, in Markedness Theory, the role of typological markedness in the explanation of L2 learning, the Markedness Differential Hypothesis (MDH) and the Structural Conformity Hypothesis (SCH) are explained. Fourth, in Universal Grammar, it is shown that L2 acquisition occurs on the basis of first language (L1) acquisition: L2 acquisition is a matter of setting the correct L2 parameters. The Language Acquisition Device (LAD) and L2 access to UG are explained. Finally, in Monitor Theory, it is suggested that comprehensible input is crucial for L2 acquisition and the five hypotheses of the theory are explained: (a) The Input Hypothesis, (b) The Learning-Acquisition Hypothesis, (c) The Monitor Hypothesis, (d) The Natural Order Hypothesis and (e) The Affective Filter Hypothesis.

Schachter (1974) drew attention to the importance, in error analysis, of examining not only the L2 forms actually produced by the learners of a foreign language in their attempts to express themselves in L2, but also the L2 forms they seem consistently to avoid using. She also noted the close interrelation between such avoidance phenomena and the Contrastive Analysis approach to L2 teaching and learning: avoidance is the reverse side of negative transfer, since learners tend to avoid using in L2 those structures that have no parallel in their L1 and therefore provide them with no pattern for transfer. Of course, as Kleinmann (1977) has pointed out, “avoidance” implies that the structure in question is known to (i.e., can be passively recognized by) the learners, but not freely used by them; failure to use a structure or word that is unknown to the learners is an indication merely of ignorance, not of learning difficulty. Now a prime constructive purpose of error analysis is (or should be) to identify the sources of a learner's difficulties, as a necessary preliminary to helping him or her overcome them. Hence the importance of genuine avoidance phenomena that, when properly identified, can throw light on what would otherwise remain hidden recesses of uncertainty in the learner's mind. Levenston (1971) has convincingly argued, with numerous illustrations, that avoidance (“under-representation” in his terminology) of various English “clause (or group) structures” by Hebrew-speaking learners of English can be explained by the lack of Hebrew “translation-equivalents” for the English structures in question and the learners' consequent choice of less appropriate but more L1-equivalent structures. However, since Levenston was concerned not with avoidance phenomena as such, but rather with the evidence they provide of L1 interference with L2 learning and their stylistic effect on the learner's L2, he took the phenomena in question as established facts (on the basis, presumably, of his own teaching experience), without attempting to examine their frequency and extent.

Chinese initials play an inevitable role in learning Chinese as a second language. Without the proper knowledge of Chinese initials, learners fail to communicate with people smoothly. Therefore, learners from different countries face different difficulties in learning Chinese initials. The pronunciation of Chinese consonants is not easy for foreigners, especially for Bangladeshi learners. Therefore, errors occur in the Chinese initials of Bangladeshi learners.Although Bangladeshi students often encounter difficulties learning Chinese initials, no comprehensive research done in this area. This research aims to investigate the pronunciation errors of Chinese initials made by Bangladeshi learners. To know the types of initials errors and the reason behind these errors, the error analysis hypothesis, and the contrastive analysis hypothesis was used to analyze the data. However, 20 Bangladeshi students at the elementary level were chosen as the research participants. In this research, a questionnaire survey, interview and comparative analysis were used as research methods.The common finding is that the initials error of Bangladeshi learners occurs in labial, alveolar, velar, retroflex, dental, and palatal consonants. Among them, the highest rate of error has been found in the pronunciation of retroflex, dental, palato-alveolar consonants. The research found that the reason for initials errors of Bangladeshi Chinese learners is the negative transfer of mother tongue, similar phonetic symbols, lack of learning motivation and strategy etc. Finally, the researcher provides some suggestions to correct the pronunciation of initials errors of Bangladeshi Chinese learners.

Although contrastive analysis has often been questioned for its inadequacy to predict the transfer errors that learners will make in actual learning contexts it cannot be easily denied that “such interference does exist and can explain difficulties” (Brown, 1994, p. 200), especially in the phonological aspects of second/foreign language learning. In this line, the present research is trying to shed light on the concept of contrastive analysis hypothesis by focusing on the background and origins of the concept, then the procedures and its different versions. Also, the current study will discuss the differences and similarities exist in the phonology and syntax of two languages, namely Persian and English in order to be able to find the areas of possible difficulty for L2 learners of English.

Aims: With language characteristics shown to be a factor mediating bilinguals’ metalinguistic awareness, the present study attempts to give a clearer picture of the impact of language characteristics, avoiding confounds such as exposure opportunities and language experiences, which previous studies with comparisons made between monolinguals and bilinguals were subject to. Design: Two groups of bilinguals speaking the same first language (L1) but different second languages (L2s) were tested for their performance on a morphosyntactic awareness task. Other confounds (L1 proficiency and nonverbal intelligence) were statistically controlled. Data and Analysis: After five outliers were deleted, data from 22 Chinese–English bilinguals and 20 Chinese–Southern Min bilinguals were analyzed, by mainly using analyses of covariance. Findings: The results showed that, with nonverbal intelligence and Chinese proficiency controlled for, Chinese–English bilinguals scored significantly higher than their counterparts only on the past tense suffix task, one tested feature in which Chinese and English differ but which both Chinese and Southern Min lack. They did not, however, differ on the other contrasting feature, present suffix, probably due to its inconsistent presence in English. The two groups showed no difference on subject–object–verb and inflectional negation features that both their L1s and L2s lack. Originality: Unlike the metalinguistic awareness measure (grammatical error detection and correction) commonly used in previous studies, our task was adapted into a version using an unlearned third language (L3) (Japanese), which could reflect children’s cross-language transfer of metalinguistic knowledge. Besides, our metamorphological awareness measure was focused on inflectional morphology, whose influence on the bilingual advantage should be important but has yet received scant attention in the earlier literature. Significance: The overall results cross-validated the important role of language characteristics in bilinguals’ development of metalinguistic awareness and suggested that the metamorphological awareness is likely to facilitate bilinguals’ learning of an L3.

In learning Arabic, each student will experience difficulties in the learning process. The difficulties faced by these students will affect the process of acquiring and absorbing the knowledge channeled by the instructor. Some of the effects of these difficulties are the existence of errors in understanding the rules of writing letters (Imla '), the rules of compilation of sentences (Nahwu), the process of word formation and so forth. To overcome errors in language acquisition in learning Arabic, the theory of contrastive analysis and error analysis in learning Arabic was born. Contrative analysis aims to predict the difficulties students will face in the learning process. While error analysis aims to understand the nature of errors that occur. However, in fact error analysis is the result of reflection from contrastive analysis and complementary to one another in realizing effective Arabic learning.

This article aims to identify the differences between Indonesian and English in constructing affirmative, negative, and interrogative sentences in simple present and present progressive, and simple past and past progressive tenses. This research is descriptive qualitative design. The 40 first semester students of STIKOM Jayapura was selected as research subject. The result indicated that Contrastive Analysis was the systematic study of a pair of languages with a view to identifying their differences and similarities with the assumption the different elements between the native (Indonesian) and the target (English) language caused learning problems, while similar elements did not cause any problems. Contrastive analysis hypothesis is criticized for not all problems predicted by contrastive analysis always appear to be difficult for the students. Errors that do turn up are not predicted by contrastive analysis, but if errors cannot be identified through Contrastive Analysis, it will be suggested using Error Analysis.

ABSTRACT There are many students still doing errors or mistakes in learning English as a foreign language (EFL) in Indonesia. Therefore, it is very important to study error. The error itself has long been an interest among foreign language researchers. The main task of error is how to describe a learning which occurs by examining students' output. It consists of correct and incorrect utterances. In this case, there are two approaches to learning students' errors, namely error analysis (EA) and contrastive analysis (CA). This paper only explains how error analysis is important in the teaching-learning process. It has many advantages when it is learned. EA has been classified into four types: linguistics category taxonomy, surface strategy taxonomy, comparative taxonomy, and communicative effect taxonomy. This study found error as an important tool for teachers and students to observe students’ learning process and learning strategies. ABSTRAK Ada masih banyak siswa yang melakukan error atau mistake dalam pembelajaran bahasa Inggris sebagai bahasa asing (EFL) di Indonesia. Oleh karena itu, hal ini sangat penting untuk mempelajari error. Error itu sendiri sudah lama menjadi perhatian peneliti-peneliti bahasa asing. Fungsi utama dari error itu sendiri adalah bagaimana mendeskripsikan pembelajaran yang terjadi dengan memeriksa hasil siswa. Hal ini terdiri dari ujaran yang benar dan salah. Dalam hal ini, ada dua pendekatan dalam mempelajari kesalahan siswa, yaitu analisis error (EA) dan analisis kontrastif (CA). Makalah ini hanya untuk menjelaskan bagaimana error analisis yang mempunyai banyak pengaruh dalam proses pembelajaran. Error analysis telah dikelompokkan menjadi empat jenis, yaitu kategori linguistik, kategori permukaan, kategori komparatif, dan kategori komunikatif. Temuan penelitian ini menyampaikan bahwa error sebagai sebuah alat yang penting bagi guru dan siswa untuk mengamati proses belajar dan strategi pembelajaran siswa. How to Cite: Irawansyah (2017). Why Study Error?. IJEE (Indonesian Journal of English Education), 4(2), 120-129. doi:10.15408/ijee.v4i2.5972

The aim of this study is to do a contrastive analysis of the dominant errors of Communication Arts 2 students’ use of cohesive devices in English essays. Its four specific objectives are (1) to know the demographic profile of the respondents in terms of academic program, age, available English reading materials and references at home, first language, gender, length of stay in college, number of English courses taken in college and types of school the respondents graduated from; (2) to determine the dominant errors the respondents commit in the use of cohesive devices in essay; (3) to reveal if there is a connection between the respondents’ profile and their use of cohesive devices; and (4) to design an instructional material that will help improve the students’ writing performance. The respondents in the study included fifty-three (53) freshmen college students aged 16-29, taking different academic programs. All of them were enrolled in Communication Arts 2 at STI College for the academic year 2013-2014. They were composed of 37 male students and 16 female students. The research findings are as follows: Academic program of the respondents. The majority of the respondents are HRS students that are 20 out of 53 or 37.7%, followed by 14 (26.4%) BSIT students. Whereas, the least frequency is accounted for is BSCS with only 3.8%; Age. The study reveals that 13 (24.5%) of the respondents are 17 years old; 12 (22.5%) of the respondents are 19 years old; 7 (13. 2%) of the respondents are 18 years old. The least age brackets are 16, 26 and 29 years old. These only accounted for 1.19% of the respondents; Available English reading materials and references at home. The study reveals that 36 (67.9%) of the respondents have a dictionary at home; (66%) of the respondents have a magazine at home; 31 (58.5%) of the respondents have a newspaper at home. Whereas, only 6 (11.3%) of the respondents have a thesaurus at home; Gender. There are more males than females among the respondents in this study. 37 (69.8%) of the respondents are males while 16 (30.2%) are females; First Language. The study reveals that 48 (90.6%) of the respondents use Tagalog as their first language; 3 (5.7%) use Bisaya as their first language; 1 (1.9%) uses Maranao as his first language; 1 (1.9%) uses Waray as his first language; Length of stay in college. The study reveals that 17 (32.1%) of the respondents have been staying in college for 3 semesters and 16 (30.2%) of the respondents have been staying in college for 2 semesters. Only 3 (5.7%) respondents have been staying in college for 7 semesters and 3 (5.7%) have been staying in college for 8 semesters; the Number of English courses taken. The study reveals that that 21 (39.6%) of the respondents have taken two (2) English courses and 18 (34.0%) of the respondents have taken one (1) English course. Only 1 (1.9%) respondent has taken five (5) English courses; Types of school the respondents graduated from. The study reveals that 32 (60.4%) of the respondents graduated from public high schools, while 21 (39.6%) graduated from private high schools; The study reveals that 51 (96.2%) of the respondents committed error in using reference; 43 (81.1%) of the respondents committed error in using conjunction; 15 (28.3) of the respondents committed error in using lexical cohesion; 7 (13.2%) of the respondents committed error in using ellipsis; 2 (3.8%) of the respondents committed error in using substitution. Thus, errors in using references and conjunction are frequently committed by the respondents. In addition, the study reveals that there is no statistical connection between the respondents’ demographic and scholastic profile (academic programs; age; gender; first language; length of stay in college; a number of English courses taken in college; type of school they graduated from) and their use of cohesive devices. The study also reveals that except for thesaurus and lexical cohesion there is no statistical connection between the respondents’ available English reading materials and references at home and the errors committed in the use of cohesive devices. The following inferences are made in the light of the above-mentioned findings: The analysis of the data shows that the respondents’ profile does not affect their writing performance. That means students commit mistakes in the use of cohesive devices regardless of their academic program, age, first language, gender, length of stay in college, number of English courses taken in college, and types of school from which they graduated from. In addition, the available English reading materials and references at home such as a dictionary, journal, newspaper, textbook, and magazine do not have a significant connection with the respondents’ errors in using cohesive devices. However, the findings reveal that there is a significant connection between the respondents with a thesaurus at home and the errors they committed in their essays; All the errors made in learning the L2 could be attributed to ‘interference’ by the L1. Contrastive Analysis could not predict all learning difficulties, but was certainly useful in the retrospective explanation of errors; Differences between two languages affect the way a person produces in the target language because differences among languages cause learning difficulties, and on the other hand, similarities among languages make for ease of learning; The researcher realized that a well-designed instructional material can be used to help improve the students’ writing performance. The following recommendations were made due to the abovementioned findings and conclusions: The Instructors should use supplementary writing materials. They may adapt existing ones or design new ones. The Library should include supplementary writing materials for the students to help and motivate them in writing. The Textbook Authors should adapt their production of English textbooks in order to address the extensive writing materials and activities of the students. The Instructional Designers should include more exercises in the syllabi they make to help the students improve their ability to properly use cohesive devices in writing. The School Administrators should consider this study as an eye-opener regarding the need to raise the level of teaching effectiveness of the faculty, students’ academic performance, and sufficiency in writing materials. The Future Researchers could use error analysis in the use of cohesive devices to make their study profound and wider in scope.

The aim of this dissertation is to show the power of contrastive analysis in successfully predicting the errors a language learner will make by means of a concrete case study. First, there is a description of what language transfer is and why it is important in the matter of second language acquisition. Second, a brief explanation of the history and development of contrastive analysis will be offered. Third, the focus of the thesis will move to an analysis of errors usually made by language learners. To conclude, the dissertation will focus on the concrete case study of a Russian learner of English: after an analysis of the errors the student is likely to make, a recorded conversation will be examined.

This study investigated the effect of first language (L1) transfer on Arabic ESL learners’ acquisition of the relative clauses, the passive voice and the definite article. I used Contrastive Analysis (CA) and Error Analysis (EA) to analyze 50 papers written by Arabic ESL students at the ACTFL Advanced Mid proficiency level. The analysis was paired with interviews with five advanced students to help determine whether L1 transfer was, in fact, influencing students’ errors predicted by CA.

Students in this study made L1 errors along with other errors. Although no statistical difference was found between the frequency of transfer and other (non-transfer) errors, L1 transfer errors were still common for many learners in this data. The frequency of the relative clause L1 transfer errors was slightly higher than other errors. However, passive voice L1 errors were as frequent as other errors whereas definite article L1 errors were slightly less frequent than other errors. The analysis of the interviews suggested that L1 still played a crucial role in influencing learners errors.

The analysis also suggested that the frequency of transfer errors in the papers used in this study might have been influenced by CA-informed instruction students received and students’ language level. Specifically, learners reported that both factors helped them reduce the frequency of L1 transfer errors in their writing.

The teaching implications of this study include familiarizing language instructors with possible sources of errors for Arabic ESL learners. Language instructors should try to identify sources of errors by conducting their own analyses or consulting existing literature on CA paired with EA. Finally, I recommend adopting a CA-informed instruction to help students reduce and overcome errors that are influenced by their L1.

Grammar is an important aspect of language learning and is thus of concern in language teaching as well. This study sets out to investigate the kinds of grammatical mistakes Swedish secondary school pupils make in their written production of English and the possible causes behind these different mistakes. Forty essays from pupils in year nine have been used to study the phenomenon of frequently occurring mistakes and their causes, and the salient mistakes have been quantatively and qualitatively accounted for in the study.      Common mistakes found in the material were subject-verb concord mistakes, mistakes involving plural nouns, incorrect article usage as well as problems using prepositions correctly. Interlingual transfer, i.e. negative transfer from the pupils’ L1, proved to be one significant factor causing mistakes in the material. However, other causes could be traced as well, such as intralingual transfer for example.      Consequently, the findings of this study point in the direction of areas which need specific attention in English L2 learning in Swedish classrooms. Thus, the study contributes with valuable insights for English teacher and teacher trainees to consider in their future practice.

Based on the examiners’ reports of the University of Cambridge on the shortcomings of the students of form V (school certificate level) in Arabic language in the international examinations of year 2008 and 2009 and on the proposals and recommendations therein, the researcher started this research work to address the difficulties faced by students in Arabic language in the grammatical rules when writing essays and in translation from Arabic to English and vice versa in form V (school certificate level) and chose Doha Academy (secondary department) in Mauritius as model. The research work in fact confirmed the errors of students in the grammatical rules after analyzing the examination scripts of the mock examinations run at the school during the year 2009 and 2010 and the researcher came to know about the causes of errors which were also confirmed by means of a questionnaire distributed to the students at this level. The researcher’s interviews with the male and female teachers of Arabic language at School certificate level on the issue were of great benefits and they in fact made mention of the grammatical errors which the researcher came across in the mock examinations’ scripts after close study and analysis. The researcher also considered the importance of the contrastive analysis between Arabic and English due to its effect in learning Arabic as a second language. ط After analysis of the questionnaire and interviews, the researcher came across a number of important issues which he mentioned in details among the results which he concluded. The researcher concluded that most of the errors in grammar are due to the influence of the English language on the Arabic language through linguistic interference, transfer of experience, generalization, as well as errors related to the target language itself like hypercorrection and intralingual phenomenon etc. And that the errors found in translation are caused mainly because of lack of Arabic vocabularies as well as literal translation and a lack of fluency and confidence in using Arabic structures and grammar. Finally, the researcher mentioned a number of recommendations and suggestions which he considers to be a priority and should be executed if we really wish to eliminate difficulties and problems in the process of teaching and learning of the Arabic language at this level and to see the progress of this language in this island.
على (university of Cambridge) بناء على ما قدمّت جامعة كمبرج قصور الطلبة في اللغة العربية في امتحانات كمبرج الدولية للصف الخامس الثانوية للعامين 8002 8002 م، ومن اقتراحات وتوصيات انطلق الباحث في هذا البحث ليتناول الصعوبات التي – يواجهها طلاب اللغة العربية فيما يتعلق بالقواعد عند كتابة المقالات وفي الترجمة من العربية إلى الانجليزية والعكس وذلك في الصف الخامس الثانوي في جمهورية موريشيوس م اختيار أكاديمية الدوحة في موريشيوس نموذجا. لقد أشار البحث فعلا إلى أخطاء الطلاب والطالبات بعد تحليل أوراق إجابات لامتحانين 8000 م كما - في اللغة العربية أُجرِيا في الأكاديمية في العامين 8002 (mock exams) تجريبيين تعرّف الباحث على أسباب الأخطاء التي أكّدها الاستبيان الموزّع على طلاب هذا المستوى. وكانت لمقابلات الباحث م مدرسي ومدرسات هذا المستوى حول القضية ثمراتها حيث أكّدت كذلك ما وجدها الباحث من الأخطاء في النحو والصرف في أوراق إجابات الأمتحان بعد الدراسة والتحليل. رأى الباحث كذلك أهمية التحليل التقابلي بين العربية والانجليزية لتأثير هذه الأخيرة في تعلّم الطلبة اللغة العربية كلغة ثانية. بعد تحليل الاستبيان والمقابلات وصل الباحث إلى عدد من القضايا المهمة وذكرها بالتفصيل في النتائج في آخر البحث. وصل الباحث إلى أن اكثر الأخطاء ترج إلى تأثير اللغة الانجليزية على اللغة العربية تتمثل في التداخل اللغوي ونقل الخبرة والتعميم السلبي كما أن هناك أخطاء تتعلق باللغة اهمدف كالمبالغة في التصويب وتداخل اللغة نفسها. وترج الأخطاء في الترجمة أساسا إلى النقص في المفردات العربية، فضلا عن الترجمة الحرفية وعدم الطلاقة والثقة في استخدام التراكيب العربية والتدقيق النحوي. وأخيرا ذكر الباحث عددا من التوصيات والاقتراحات التي يعتبرها من الأولويات والضروريات ا ولتي يوصي بتنفيذها إذا أُريد بالفعل القضاء على الصعوبات والمشكلات في تعليم اللغة العربية وتعلمه وتقدم هذه اللغة في هذه الجزيرة.
Religious Sudies & Arabic
D.Litt. et Phil. (Arabic)

Making errors while learning a language is nothing else than part of the learning process itself. The transfer of the mother tongue (L1) into a second language (L2) acquisition process is inevitable and mainly noticeable in the initial learning levels. The results of an Error Analysis (EA) in the written discourse become an advantage in the teaching of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) since it provides a clear image of what should be reinforced in the classroom. The aim of this study is to identify the most common errors made by EFL beginning level Ecuadorian college students in their written discourse. The researchers elaborated a linguistic corpus from writing samples provided by a group of forty-five students from three public universities in Ecuador. The EA process yields a high percentage of errors related to Word Missing; Form Spelling; Lexical Single; Lexico-Grammar, Verbs, Complementation; Style, Grammar, Verbs, Number; Grammar Articles; and, Grammar – Adjective Order. Errors in the analyzed samples mainly occur due to the interference and negative transfer resulting from the L1 (Spanish) over the L2 (English). Poor lexical and grammar knowledge are also causatives of the errors found in the study.

In second language acquisition (SLA) transfer is predominantly explored as either positive or negative influence of learners’ first language (L1) on their second/foreign language (L2) performance. Studies in this field serve not only to describe the learner’s interlanguage, but also to inform, improve and refine foreign language teaching. However, the scope of SLA studies is such that it leaves the other transfer direction under-researched (L2 to L1), assuming that once the learner’s L1 system has fully developed, their L1 competence will not be subject to change. More recent studies of adult bilinguals have shown a bidirectional interaction between the two linguistic systems: not only does L1 influence L2, but L2 influences L1 as well. In this study, conducted among adult students of English (B2 to C1 level language users, according to CEFR), we examine the influence of English as a foreign language upon Serbian as a native tongue in terms of tense transfer. More precisely, the study explores how the subjects interpret and translate the secondary meanings of the English past tense. The basic meaning of the past tense is to locate an event (or state) in the past. However, in its secondary meanings (backshift past in reported clauses, counterfactual present in adverbial clauses of condition and ‘past subjunctive’ when expressing wishes and regrets) it does not refer to the past time. The error analysis of students’ English to Serbian translations provides evidence of L2 influence: learners tend to use the Serbian past rather than the present tense in their translations. Pedagogical implications of this study of misuse of L1 tense include focusing on explicit corrective feedback and polishing instructional materials.

Sentence compression is the task of removing redundant information from a sentence while preserving its original meaning. In this paper, we approach deletion-based sentence compression for the Russian language. We use the data from the plagiarism detection corpus (ParaPlag) to create a corpus for sentence compression in Russian of almost 3,000 pairs of sentences. We align source sentences and their compressions using the NeedlemanWunsch algorithm and perform human-evaluation of the corpus by readability and informativeness. Then we use bidirectional LSTM to solve sentence-compression task for Russian, which is a typical baseline for the problem. We also experiment with RuBert and Bert-multilingual. For the latter, we use transfer-learning, firstly pretraining the model on English data, which improves performance. We conduct human evaluation by readability and informativeness and do error analysis for the models. We are able to achieve f-measure of 74.8%, readability of 3.88 and informativeness of 3.47 (out of 5) on test data. We also implement post-hoc syntax-based evaluator, which can detect some of the wrong compressions, increasing overall quality of the system. We provide the data and baseline results for future studies.