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1
Schwartz, R. Malcolm. A top-down approach to risk management and internal control: Relying on ongoing monitoring to test controls performance to reduce the scope of separate testing. Morristown, N.J.]: Financial Executives Research Foundation, 2006.
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2
Honig, Dan. Introduction. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190672454.003.0001.
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This chapter introduces the basic framework of the book. Agent judgment is fallible, and top-down controls may preclude useful actions by agents. International development organizations (IDOs), then, must choose between two flawed strategies in deciding whether to put agents in charge (Navigation by Judgment) or have principals retain control (Navigation from the Top). The extent to which environments are predictable and projects are externally verifiable affects how IDOs should manage interventions to increase intervention success and aid impact. This chapter introduces the quantitative and qualitative data that the book employs and previews how each chapter will contribute to the overall argument.
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Lippmann, Morton, and Richard B. Schlesinger. Risk Management. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190688622.003.0010.
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This chapter describes the means that have been and can be used as management tools to limit chemical emissions and exposures to humans and other receptors that result in adverse effects. They include top-down mandates specified in enforceable exposure and/or emission standards (regulatory controls), bottom-up approaches involving control of access or requirements for the use of personal protective equipment (administrative controls), and various technologies that limit the use of chemicals (e.g., materials substitution) and/or capture and treat chemical wastes before their emissions to environmental media (engineering controls).
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Silliman, Brian R., Brent B. Hughes, Y. Stacy Zhang, and Qiang He. Business as usual leads to underperformance in coastal restoration. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198808978.003.0027.
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This chapter shows that coastal wetland projects are underperforming because of confirmation bias. Despite two decades of work showing that top-down control can be essential to marsh restoration, the potential role of top predators is typically ignored by those responsible for restoring or maintaining marshes. Similarly ignored are experiments that indicate positive interaction between marsh plants and can enhance the pace and success of restoration. By planting marsh plants at higher densities, marsh restoration success can double, and seagrass restoration can succeed in the face of increasing drought and eutrophication effects. Continued failure to integrate top-down control and facilitative species interactions into coastal restoration designs will result in widespread underperformance of wetland conservation projects and unrealized generation of important ecosystem services.
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Honig, Dan. When to Let Go. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190672454.003.0002.
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This chapter illustrates what Navigation by Judgment is and some of its basic costs and benefits relative to Navigation from the Top. Navigation by Judgment is an organizational strategy in which front-line employees are able to meaningfully guide their organization’s work based upon their judgments. Key to Navigation by Judgment is that this judgment guides not merely the application of policy but also substantive strategic direction. This chapter introduces the basic trade-off between principal control and agent initiative as well as the parallel tension between Navigation by Judgment and top-down controls. It also differentiates Navigation by Judgment from autonomy and discretion.
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Miller, Earl K., and Timothy J. Buschman. Neural Mechanisms for the Executive Control of Attention. Edited by Anna C. (Kia) Nobre and Sabine Kastner. Oxford University Press, 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199675111.013.017.
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The prefrontal cortex is a source of internal control of attention as it captures three important components of an executive controller. First, it provides top-down selection of neural representations through descending projections, This top-down input may act by increasing the synchrony of local neural populations, enhancing their connectivity, and boosting the transmission of information. Second, intelligent top-down control of behaviour requires integrating diverse information. Neural representations in prefrontal cortex capture this breadth of information: representing anything from the specific contents of working memory to abstract categories and rules. Third, through reciprocal connections with the basal ganglia, prefrontal cortex neurons are ideally situated to learn the ‘rules’ of behaviour that allow us to know what to attend to in a given situation. These connections may support an iterative, bootstrapping, process that allows for increasingly complex rules to be learned. The prefrontal cortex acts as a generalized executive controller, acting through mechanisms such as attention, to guide thoughts and behaviour.
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Nigg, Joel T. Self-Regulation, Behavioral Inhibition, and Risk for Alcoholism and Substance Use Disorders. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190676001.003.0009.
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Addiction liability involves multiple aspects of the person and the context. The within-person aspects can be organized within a broad temperament framework involving constituents of self-regulation. A fundamental dual-process model helps organize and structure the research program because self-regulation is conceived as involving both bottom-up and top-down capacities. From this perspective, addiction liability emerges and expresses itself in relation to early consolidation of bottom-up appetitive systems, organization of top-down control and executive processes, and progressive assembly of either self-regulation or its disruption in dysregulatory psychopathology such as attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and conduct problems. Several key studies supporting this hierarchical and sequential emergence of liability and addiction risk are summarized in this chapter.
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Nobre, Anna C. (Kia), and M.-Marsel Mesulam. Large-scale Networks for Attentional Biases. Edited by Anna C. (Kia) Nobre and Sabine Kastner. Oxford University Press, 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199675111.013.035.
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Selective attention is essential for all aspects of cognition. Using the paradigmatic case of visual spatial attention, we present a theoretical account proposing the flexible control of attention through coordinated activity across a large-scale network of brain areas. It reviews evidence supporting top-down control of visual spatial attention by a distributed network, and describes principles emerging from a network approach. Stepping beyond the paradigm of visual spatial attention, we consider attentional control mechanisms more broadly. The chapter suggests that top-down biasing mechanisms originate from multiple sources and can be of several types, carrying information about receptive-field properties such as spatial locations or features of items; but also carrying information about properties that are not easily mapped onto receptive fields, such as the meanings or timings of items. The chapter considers how selective biases can operate on multiple slates of information processing, not restricted to the immediate sensory-motor stream, but also operating within internalized, short-term and long-term memory representations. Selective attention appears to be a general property of information processing systems rather than an independent domain within our cognitive make-up.
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Butz, Martin V., and Esther F. Kutter. Attention. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198739692.003.0011.
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Cognition does not work without attention. Attention enables us to focus on particular tasks and particular aspects in the environment. Psychological insights show that attention exhibits bottom-up and top-down components. Attention is attracted from the bottom-up towards unusual, exceptional, and unexpected sensory information. Top-down attention, on the other hand, filters information dependent on the current task-oriented expectations, which depend on the available generative models. This computational interpretation enables the explanation of conjunctive and disjunctive search. Different models of attention emphasize the importance of the unfolding interaction processes and a processing bottleneck can be detected. As a result, attention can be viewed as a dynamic control process that unfolds in redundant, neural fields, in which the selection of one interpretation and thus the processing bottleneck is strongest at the current focus of attention. The actual focus of attention itself is determined by the current behavioral and cognitive goals.
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Kirchman, David L. The ecology of viruses. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198789406.003.0010.
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In addition to grazing, another form of top-down control of microbes is lysis by viruses. Every organism in the biosphere is probably infected by at least one virus, but the most common viruses are thought to be those that infect bacteria. Viruses come in many varieties, but the simplest is a form of nucleic acid wrapped in a protein coat. The form of nucleic acid can be virtually any type of RNA or DNA, single or double stranded. Few viruses in nature can be identified by traditional methods because their hosts cannot be grown in the laboratory. Direct count methods have found that viruses are very abundant, being about ten-fold more abundant than bacteria, but the ratio of viruses to bacteria varies greatly. Viruses are thought to account for about 50% of bacterial mortality but the percentage varies from zero to 100%, depending on the environment and time. In addition to viruses of bacteria and cyanobacteria, microbial ecologists have examined viruses of algae and the possibility that viral lysis ends phytoplankton blooms. Viruses infecting fungi do not appear to lyse their host and are transmitted from one fungus to another without being released into the external environment. While viral lysis and grazing are both top-down controls on microbial growth, they differ in several crucial respects. Unlike grazers, which often completely oxidize prey organic material to carbon dioxide and inorganic nutrients, viral lysis releases the organic material from hosts more or less without modification. Perhaps even more important, viruses may facilitate the exchange of genetic material from one host to another. Metagenomic approaches have been used to explore viral diversity and the dynamics of virus communities in natural environments.
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Boden, Margaret A. 4. Artificial neural networks. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/actrade/9780199602919.003.0004.
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Artificial neural networks (ANNs) are made up of many interconnected units, each one capable of computing only one thing. ANNs have myriad applications, from playing the stock market and monitoring currency fluctuations to recognizing speech or faces. ANNs are parallel-processing virtual machines implemented on classical computers. They are intriguing partly because they are very different from the virtual machines of symbolic AI. Sequential instructions are replaced by massive parallelism, top-down control by bottom-up processing, and logic by probability. ‘Artificial neural networks’ considers the wider implications of ANNs and discusses parallel distributed processing (PDP), learning in neural networks, back-propagation, deep learning, and hybrid systems.
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Laats, Adam. A Mote in the Eye. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190665623.003.0004.
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Without any higher organizational control such as denominational boards or conventions, fundamentalist schools struggled to figure out how to make difficult decisions. This chapter examines three cases from the 1930s in which different schools solved the dilemma of authority in very different ways. Some schools insisted on a rigid top-down autocratic system; others spread authority around. The chapter also looks at the contentious debate among fundamentalist intellectuals over the proper meaning of creationism between 1920 and 1940. A few endorsed the notion of a young earth, but many more argued that the “days” of Genesis actually represented long ages, or that a long gap stretched between early creation and the creation of humanity in Eden.
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Mitchinson, Ben. Attention and orienting. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199674923.003.0027.
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This chapter describes the close relationship between the mental faculty of attention and the physical faculty of orienting, and the importance of this relationship to the construction of artificial biomimetic systems. It reviews the importance of physical orienting to natural motor behavior, which places attention management at the core of all behaviors (“orienting is acting”), and the concomitant social role of physical orienting both in expressing and revealing the focus of a mind. The article highlights the efficiency of top-down and bottom-up processing for behavioral control, using map-based saliency processing as a model, and the suitability of map-based algorithms for parallel or bespoke computation. Given this, and the similar nature of the challenges faced by artificial and natural sensorimotor systems, it is argued that attention management may be a, if not the, key component of future artificial motor control systems.
14
Financial Executives Research Foundation; Inc. A Top-Down Approach to Risk Management and Internal Control-Issue #4: Relying on Ongoing Monitoring to Test Controls Performance, to Reduce the Scope of Separate Testing. 2nd ed. Financial Executives Research Foundation, Inc., 2007.
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15
Cruse, Holk, and Malte Schilling. Pattern generation. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199674923.003.0024.
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The faculty to generate patterns is a basic feature of living systems. This chapter concentrates on patterns used in the context of control of behavior. Spatio-temporal patterns appear as quasi-rhythmic patterns mainly in the domain of locomotion (e.g. swimming, flying, walking). Such patterns may be rooted directly in the nervous system itself, or may emerge in interaction with the environment. The examples given show simulation of the corresponding behaviors that in most cases are applied to robots (e.g. walking in an unpredictable environment). In addition, non-rhythmic patterns will be explained which are linked to internal states and are required to select specific behaviors and control behavioral sequences. Such states may be relevant for top-down attention and may or may not be accompanied with subjective experiences, then called mind patterns. Specific cases concern the application of an internal body model, as well as states characterized as cognitive or as conscious.
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Jacobsson, Bengt, and Göran Sundström. Governing the State. Edited by Jon Pierre. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199665679.013.20.
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In modern democracies, demands put on governments to govern are high. However, the governing of states has proven difficult. The difficulties can be explained by the fact that modern states possess a complexity unparalleled in any other organization. Ambiguity, conflicting interests, compromises, and the risk of overload reveal governments as everything but those rational, coordinated and problem-solving entities that they routinely are presented as. However, this does not mean that states are ungovernable. Governments are often able to govern state activities, but they do it in other ways than those implied by contemporary management models with their hierarchical, top-down-oriented, command-and-control methods. Based on a multitude of empirical studies in Sweden, this chapter discusses six strategies that the Swedish government uses when governing state agencies: creating formal organizations, positioning, fostering competition, distancing, forming communication channels, and storytelling.
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Schiller, Dan. From Geopolitics to Social and Political Struggle. University of Illinois Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.5406/illinois/9780252038761.003.0015.
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This chapter examines some of the larger forces that propelled digital capitalism into what was evidently a fraught future. It first considers how the historical movement of the political economy is shaped both within and beyond a top-down, state-oriented geopolitics before discussing how the onset of the digital depression brought changes to the interstate system, indicative of altering political–economic relations. It then describes attempts by numerous states to multilateralize control of U.S.-centric internet in relation to structural changes in the interstate system and to competing efforts to regenerate the political economy in ways that might capture an outsized share of overall profits for specific units of capital and particular fractions of the capitalist class. It also explains the concept of accumulation by dispossession and concludes with suggestions for resolving the digital depression on terms favorable to capital.
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Demshuk, Andrew. Demolitions and Dread, 1961–1964. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190645120.003.0004.
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Having learned its lessons in 1960, the State pursued demolitions through the following years without serious architectural competitions or involving the public. Each time the wrecking ball danced through another monument protest letters increased in number and severity, until at last the surprise 1963 toppling of the Baroque Johannis tower, directly east of the University Church, was seen by many to anticipate the destruction of the University Church as foretold in 1960. Extreme letter exchanges unleashed the regime’s open hatred for citizens who failed to correspond to its imagined majority of supporters, and the inconceivable defection of leading authorities from the party line prompted a tightening of top-down control. Although the scale of protest frightened the regime into delaying its plans for some years, engaged citizens rejoiced but were circumspect. For by now they hardly believed anything promised from above, and the regime gave no promises in 1964, only silence.
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van Koppen, Barbara. Gender and Water. Edited by Ken Conca and Erika Weinthal. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199335084.013.10.
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This chapter “lifts the roof of the household” across the irrigation and water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) sub-sectors in agrarian low- and middle-income settings. Focusing on age-old intersections between gender, class, and agrarian technology, the chapter explores how colonial conquest was served by the ideology of the male breadwinner‒ female housewife as a divide-and-rule process to vest control over people, land, and water. After independence, the same ideology enabled top-down services in both sub-sectors and also marginalized women. This is contrasted with implications of global policy commitments to gender-equal households for the water sector. In particular, evidence of the multiple-use water services (MUS) approach is examined. This inclusive, people-driven water services approach meets both women’s and men’s multiple domestic and productive needs. Overcoming the same administrative silos in human rights frameworks, a gender-equal human right to water for livelihoods is proposed.
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Karoly, Paul. Chronic Pain and Psychopathology. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190627898.003.0010.
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This chapter presents a motivational model designed to forge conceptual and empirical links among chronic pain perception, cognitive-affective pain processing, everyday task performance, and the emergence of psychopathology. Organized around the GRASSP perspective (introduced in chapter 1), the current chapter first addresses the nature of multi-leveled (top-down and bottom-up) regulatory/control systems and the hypothesized motivational mechanisms around which such systems are organized. Based on the twin premises that (a) dysfunctions of the goal-guided, self-regulatory system underlie most forms of psychopathology, and (b) chronic pain can disrupt goal- and self-regulatory system functioning, the chapter seeks to locate chronic pain and two prominent forms of psychological disturbance—depression and anxiety—within a broad, heuristic “motivational context.” Among the key explanatory building blocks of the hypothesized model are goal episodes, extended goal striving processes, and four moderation pathways hypothesized to connect pain-related disruptions of self-regulation to the eventual emergence of depression and/or anxiety.
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Wingfield, Nancy M. Introduction. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198801658.003.0008.
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This study of prostitution addresses female agency and experience, contemporary fears about sexual coercion and the forced movement of girls/women, and police surveillance. Rather than treating prostitutes solely as victims or problems to be solved, it seeks to find the historical subjects behind fin-de-siècle constructions of prostitutes, to restore agency to the women who participated in commercial sex, illuminate their quotidian experiences, and to place these women, some of whom made a rational economic decision to sell their bodies, in a larger social context. It investigates their interactions with police and other supervisory agents, as well as with other inhabitants of their world, rather than focusing top-down on the state-constructed apparatus of surveillance. Close reading of the sources shows that some prostitutes in late imperial Austria took control over their own fates, at least as much as other working-class women, in the decades before the end of the Monarchy.
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Wood, Amy Louise, and Natalie J. Ring, eds. Crime and Punishment in the Jim Crow South. University of Illinois Press, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.5622/illinois/9780252042409.001.0001.
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This collection of nine original essays explores the development of a modern criminal justice system in the Jim Crow South, from the 1890s through the 1950s. It covers key transformations surrounding the practices of policing, incarceration, and capital punishment, as municipal police departments became professionalized and as authority over criminal punishment shifted from local jurisdictions to the state. The collection’s essays address the history of segregated police forces, black-on-black crime, police brutality, organized crime and government corruption, restrictions on ex-felons’ rights, convict labor, prison reform, and the introduction of the electric chair. Together, they make a case for southern distinctiveness. Criminal justice in the Jim Crow South looked quite different than it did in the North due to white southern demands for racial control, as well as white southerners’ suspicions of centralized state power and modern bureaucracies. This collection examines these relationships between white supremacy, the modernizing state, and crime control. In doing so, it provides a more nuanced portrait of the dynamic between state power and white supremacy in the South beyond a story of top-down social control. The essays reveal stories of state institutions grappling with their expanding authority, stories of political leaders and reformers anxious to render that power modern and efficient, and stories of African Americans appealing to the regulatory state in order to push back against racial injustice.
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Vaughan-Williams, Nick. Vernacular Border Security. Oxford University Press, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198855538.001.0001.
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Since the peak of Europe’s so-called 2015 ‘migration crisis’, the dominant governmental response has been to turn to deterrent border security across the Mediterranean and construct border walls throughout the EU. During the same timeframe, EU citizens are widely represented—by politicians, by media sources, and by opinion polls—as fearing a loss of control over national and EU borders. Despite the intensification of EU border security with visibly violent effects, EU citizens are nevertheless said to be ‘threatened majorities’. These dynamics beg the question: Why is it that tougher deterrent border security and walling appear to have heightened rather than diminished border anxieties among EU citizens? While the populist mantra of ‘taking back control’ purports to speak on behalf of EU citizens, little is known about how diverse EU citizens conceptualize, understand, and talk about the so-called ‘crisis’. Yet, if social and cultural meanings of ‘migration’ and ‘border security’ are constructed intersubjectively and contested politically, then EU citizens—as well as governmental elites and people on the move—are significant in shaping dominant framings of and responses to the ‘crisis’. This book argues that, in order to address the overarching puzzle, a conceptual and methodological shift is required in the way that border security is understood: a new approach is urgently required that complements ‘top-down’ analyses of elite governmental practices with ‘bottom-up’ vernacular studies of how those practices are both reproduced and contested in everyday life.
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Krauzlis, Richard J. Attentional Functions of the Superior Colliculus. Edited by Anna C. (Kia) Nobre and Sabine Kastner. Oxford University Press, 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199675111.013.014.
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The superior colliculus (SC) plays an important role in both overt and covert attention. In primates, the SC is well known to be a central component of the motor pathways that orient the eyes and head to important objects in the environment. Accordingly, neurons in the SC show enhanced responses that will be the target of orienting movements, compared to stimuli that will be ignored. Single-neuron recordings in the SC have revealed a variety of attention-related effects, including changes in activity related to bottom-up and top-down attention, attention capture, and inhibition of return. These findings support the view of the SC as a priority map that represents the location of important objects in the visual environment. Manipulation of SC activity by electrical microstimulation and chemical inactivation shows that the SC is not simply a recipient of attention-related effects, but plays a causal role in these processes. In particular, activity in the SC plays a major role in the selection of targets for saccades, and also for pursuit eye movements and movements of the hand. Moreover, activity in the SC is important not only for the control of overt attention, but also plays a crucial role in covert attention—the processing of visual signals for perceptual judgements even in the absence of orienting movements. The mechanisms mediating the role of the SC in the control of covert attention are not yet known, but current models emphasize interactions between the SC and areas of the cerebral cortex.
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Colvin, Lesley A., and Marie T. Fallon. Pain physiology in anaesthetic practice. Edited by Jonathan G. Hardman. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199642045.003.0009.
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The International Association for the Study of Pain defines pain as ‘an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with actual or potential tissue damage, or described in terms of such damage’. A good understanding of the physiology of pain processing is important, with recent advances in basic science, functional neuroimaging, and clinical pain syndromes contributing to our understanding. It is also important to differentiate between nociception, the process of detecting noxious stimuli, and pain perception, which is a much more complex process, integrating biological, psychological, and social factors. The somatosensory nervous system, from peripheral nociceptors, to sensory nerves and spinal cord synapses has many potential sites for modulation, with ascending pathways to the brain, balanced by ‘top-down’ control from higher centres. Under certain circumstances, for example, after tissue injury from trauma or surgery, there will be continued nociceptive input, with resultant changes in the whole somatosensory nervous system that lead to development of chronic pain syndromes. In such cases, even when the original injury has healed, the pathophysiological changes in the nervous system itself lead to ongoing pain, with peripheral or central sensitization, or both. Additionally, in some chronic pain syndromes, for example, chronic widespread pain, it has been postulated that abnormalities in central processing may be the initiating factor, with some evidence for this from neuroimaging studies. Further work is needed to fully understand pain neurobiology in order to advance our management.
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Horn, Gerd-Rainer. The Moment of Liberation in Western Europe. Oxford University Press, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199587919.001.0001.
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The moment of liberation in Western Europe, 1943-1948, regards the final two years of World War II and the immediate post-liberation period as a moment in twentieth century history, when the shape and contours of postwar Western Europe appeared highly uncertain and various alternatives and conflicting visions were up for grabs. After close to six years of total war, Nazi terror and brutal occupation policies, a growing number of Europeans were no longer content solely to fight for national liberation from fascist control. Having staked their lives in military and civilian resistance to Nazism and Italian fascism across the continent, surviving activists were aiming to ensure that such a political and social catastrophe would never befall Europe again. In the closing moments of World War II, hundreds of thousands of antifascist activists had begun to identify with the famous quote penned by the exiled German social theorists, Max Horkheimer, who had boldly proclaimed in early September 1939: ‘Whoever is not prepared to talk about capitalism should also remain silent about fascism.’ The economic and political elites in prewar societies were increasingly regarded as co-responsible for war, fascism and occupation policies, from which many had benefited significantly and often enthusiastically. There were extensive popular social movements at work in almost every single state which aimed to construct postwar societies in which grassroots democracy and the free association of rank-and-file activists would replace the profit principle and the top-down Jacobin orientation by traditional elites. This book for the first time reconstructs the parameters of this contest over the shape of postwar Western Europe from a consistently transnational perspective.