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Journal articles on the topic 'Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage'

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Published: 4 June 2021

Last updated: 27 January 2023

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1

Forrest, Craig. "A New International Regime for the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage." International and Comparative Law Quarterly 51, no. 3 (July 2002): 511–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/iclq/51.3.511.

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In November 2001, a new weapon was added to the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation's2arsenal used to protect and preserve the world's cultural heritage, in the form of the Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage.3This Convention, while not yet in force, will complement UNESCO's three other heritage conventions, the 1954 Hague Convention on the Protection of Cultural Heritage in the Event of Armed Conflict,4the 1970 Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property (1971)5and the 1972 Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage.6

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2

Blake, Janet. "The Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage." International and Comparative Law Quarterly 45, no. 4 (October 1996): 819–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0020589300059716.

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In November 1995 a draft resolution was presented to the 28th General Conference of UNESCO which, among other matters, dealt with the organisation's future activities in the field of the underwater cultural heritage.1 In conjunction with this resolution, the text of a draft Convention for the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage prepared by the International Law Association (ILA) was presented to the General Conference as the possible basis for a new international convention on the subject.2 Annexed to this draft Convention text was the Charter for the Protection and Management of the Underwater Cultural Heritage prepared by the International Council of Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS)3 to accompany the ILA draft Convention and serve as a set of criteria of good practice to be applied by States parties to the Convention. The General Conference adopted the draft resolution without any change and this therefore forms the basis for future deliberations within UNESCO over this issue, the question whether to draft an international convention on the basis of the ILA draft text having been a central part of the deliberations. Subsequent to the adoption of the resolution, meetings have been held between UNESCO and various bodies with an interest in the issue (such as the International Maritime Organisation and the International Oceanographic Commission as well as the UN Law of the Sea office). Following these consultations, it was agreed to hold a joint meeting of representatives of these organisations with chosen experts in order to examine the ILA draft Convention along with any other material relevant to a new legal instrument for the protection of the underwater cultural heritage.

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3

Guo, Ran. "China’s Maritime Silk Road Initiative and the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage." International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law 32, no. 3 (September 18, 2017): 510–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15718085-12323033.

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Abstract China’s 21st-Century Maritime Silk Road Initiative urges the protection of underwater cultural heritage on the Maritime Silk Road, which demands China’s effort as much as that of international community. The Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage (unesco Convention) provides an international legal framework for China to protect underwater cultural heritage and facilitate cooperation with other State Parties. China’s concerns over ratifying the unesco Convention mainly relate to its jurisdiction, ownership and international obligations on the issue, which can be solved with the basic principles and a revision of Chinese laws. China’s ratification will ensure the international protection of underwater cultural heritage on the Maritime Silk Road; and more importantly, it will provide an opportunity for the joint development in the South China Sea, thus breaking the bottleneck of the Maritime Silk Road Initiative. Therefore, China should ratify the unesco Convention.

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4

Martin, Josh B. "Protecting Outstanding Underwater Cultural Heritage through the World Heritage Convention: The Titanic and Lusitania as World Heritage Sites." International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law 33, no. 1 (March 12, 2018): 116–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15718085-13301069.

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Abstract Despite growing recognition of the global value of underwater cultural heritage (uch), along with intensified international efforts to ensure its protection, the possibility of its inscription on the World Heritage List has never been comprehensively examined. Arguing that the unesco 2001 Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage (uch Convention) is insufficient alone to protect globally outstanding wrecks, such as the Titanic and the Lusitania, this article examines in detail the many legal and practical challenges involved with listing such sites under the World Heritage Convention. By reviewing key international agreements such as the uch Convention, World Heritage Convention, Law of the Sea Convention and the International Titanic Agreement, it draws the conclusion that it is the improved offshore management of uch—through ‘cultural’ marine protected areas operating under the framework of the uch Convention—which would open the possibility of nomination to the World Heritage List.

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5

Dromgoole, Sarah. "2001 UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage." International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law 18, no. 1 (2003): 59–108. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/157180803x00025.

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AbstractThe UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage, adopted in November 2001, is designed to create a legal framework to regulate interference with underwater cultural heritage (UCH) in international waters. This article briefly considers the background to the Convention and discusses its main provisions. These relate to the scope of application of the Convention; its objectives and general principles; its approach to private rights; its treatment of state vessels and the question of sovereign immunity; and its relationship with the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea 1982. The article then goes on to examine in detail the control mechanisms that the Convention adopts in respect of each maritime zone and the sanctions that contracting states will be required to impose for violations. Finally, dispute settlement procedures are briefly considered, before the article concludes with comments on the Convention's likely impact and effectiveness.

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6

Dromgoole, S. "2001 UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage plus Appendix: Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage." International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law, The 18, no. 1 (March 1, 2003): 59–108. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/157180803100380375.

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7

Petrig, Anna, and Maria Stemmler. "ARTICLE 16 UNESCO CONVENTION AND THE PROTECTION OF UNDERWATER CULTURAL HERITAGE." International and Comparative Law Quarterly 69, no. 2 (April 2020): 397–429. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0020589320000081.

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AbstractDeep-water technology and commercial interests have put the protection of underwater cultural heritage under considerable pressure in recent decades. Yet the 2001 UNESCO Convention has the potential to fend off the threat—if fully implemented. This article sets out the legislative duties States Parties have under one of the Convention's core provisions: Article 16. It requires States Parties to take a triad of legislative measures: they must enact prohibitions, impose criminal sanctions and establish corresponding jurisdiction over their nationals and vessels. In addition, the comprehensive protection of underwater cultural heritage also necessitates measures covering acts of corporate treasure hunters, even though this is not required by the Convention itself.

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8

Akintayo, John Oluwole A. "Regional Workshop on the UNESCO Conventions Protecting Cultural Property: Abuja, Nigeria, November 3–5 2003." International Journal of Cultural Property 12, no. 4 (November 2005): 483–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0940739105050344.

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The closing years of the twentieth century and the early years of twenty-first century witnessed remarkable developments in the international attempts to protect the world's cultural heritage. For instance, in 1999 the Second Protocol to the Convention on the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict was adopted. In 2001, the Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage was adopted whilst 2003 witnessed the adoption of the Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage. The United Nations declared 2002, as the UN Year for Cultural Heritage and appointed UNESCO as its Cultural Agent. There is no gainsaying that the UNESCO was faithfully committed to this mandate and discharged its responsibilities satisfactorily. However, the acknowledgment of the fact that lack of information and inadequate appreciation of the UNESCO Conventions on the protection of cultural property remained a formidable obstacle to the realisation of the aspiration of the UN and UNESCO informed the 2003 Abuja Workshop convened primarily to promote the UNESCO Conventions protecting Cultural Property. What follows is report on the 2003 Abuja Workshop.

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9

Nishikawa, Chihiro. "Underwater Cultural Heritage in Asia Pacific and the UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage." International Journal of Asia Pacific Studies 17, no. 2 (July 30, 2021): 15–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.21315/ijaps2021.17.2.2.

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Underwater cultural heritage (UCH) is a precious part of humanity’s shared history and heritage as it provides vital evidence and information about the interaction of humans with oceans, lakes and rivers. The Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage was adopted by the General Conference of UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) in 2001 to protect this heritage which has become significantly vulnerable to threats such as pillaging, commercial exploitation and the development of the seabed with the evolution of marine technology in the latter half of the 20th century. The Convention celebrates its 20th anniversary in 2021 and has been ratified by 68 countries. Its annex, which provides rules about the activities directed at UCH, has become a major reference and is recognised as the established scientific standard for underwater archaeology and research today. Despite the growing recognition and application by the international community, the Convention has been ratified only by four countries in the Asia-Pacific region. Many underwater sites and shipwrecks have been commercially salvaged, particularly in Southeast Asia, and numerous artefacts recovered from the sites were often put up for auction, leading to irrevocable damage and loss of this valuable cultural heritage to future generations. This article as one of the themed articles dedicated to the UCH in Asia Pacific argues the roles of the Convention and the challenges and opportunities for the protection of UCH particularly in Southeast Asia. UCH contributes to the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals and can play an important role in sustainable community and economic development. Its values and importance deserve to be widely recognised and advocated. Efforts for safeguarding cultural heritage in Asia Pacific needs to be pursued and enhanced through joining the 2001 Convention and with international support and cooperation.

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10

Aznar, Mariano J. "The Contiguous Zone as an Archaeological Maritime Zone." International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law 29, no. 1 (March 19, 2014): 1–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15718085-12341305.

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Abstract The law of the sea, mainly codified in the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (losc), does not properly address the protection of underwater cultural heritage. This is particularly evident for the contiguous zone, a maritime area where different public and private marine activities may be threatening that heritage. Articles 33 and 303(2) losc are counterproductive and may create a legal problem that the 2001 unesco Convention on the protection of underwater cultural heritage tries to solve and clarify. In addition to this Convention, State practice shows how coastal States have been expanding their rights over their contiguous zone by adding legislative powers to the limited enforcement powers allegedly endorsed in the losc. This article tries to demonstrate that general and consistent State practice over the last decades, both conventional and unilateral, has produced a change in the legal rules governing the coastal States’ archaeological rights over their contiguous zone, expanding them with no clear objection among States, which now consider the protection of underwater cultural heritage—a generally absent interest during the negotiation of the losc—indispensable to safeguard for future generations the fragile elements composing that heritage.

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11

Scovazzi, Tullio. "The Law of the Sea Convention and Underwater Cultural Heritage." International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law 27, no. 4 (2012): 753–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15718085-12341249.

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Abstract As far as underwater cultural heritage is concerned, the regime of the Law of the Sea Convention (LOSC) is fragmentary, insufficient and even counterproductive. The English text of Art. 303, para. 3, can be interpreted as an invitation to the looting of the heritage under a first-come-first-served, or “freedom-of-fishing,” criterion. Only Art. 149, which applies only to “the Area”, takes into consideration the need to use the heritage for the benefit of mankind and the preferential rights of some States. The 2001 UNESCO Convention for the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage tries to bring a remedy to the disastrous aspects of the LOSC regime. In short, even the LOSC can be bad, albeit in very rare instances, and the case of underwater cultural heritage is the most notable one.

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12

Scovazzi, Tullio. "The Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage in the Mediterranean Sea." Italian Yearbook of International Law Online 31, no. 1 (November 11, 2022): 73–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/22116133-03101005.

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Abstract As stated in the 2001 Siracusa Declaration on the Submarine Cultural Heritage in the Mediterranean Sea, this sea is unique in that it embodies the common historical and cultural roots of many civilizations. Most Mediterranean States are parties to the 2001 UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage, which provides a remedy to the dubious regime established by Article 303, paragraph 3, of the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. According to the English official text, this provision, which gives priority to admiralty law, could be understood as an invitation to the looting of underwater cultural heritage. However, Mediterranean States seem rather slow in addressing the matter in a constructive way, despite the existing dangers, as demonstrated by the four expeditions undertaken by Mr Ballard in the area between Italy and Tunisia; the removal of the Victorious Youth statue; and the dispute over the shipwreck of the liner Ancona. The Mediterranean States have not yet negotiated a regional treaty and only recently have they resorted to the cooperation mechanism provided by the 2001 Convention in order to create a coordination committee composed of eight States that will manage the protection of underwater cultural heritage on the Skerki Bank site.

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13

Lamotte, K. Russell. "UNESCO: Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage." International Legal Materials 41, no. 1 (January 2002): 37–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0020782900009153.

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14

Sulistyo, A. D. Agung, and Arie Afriansyah. "KOMITMEN INDONESIA DALAM PELINDUNGAN WARISAN BUDAYA BAWAH AIR DI PERAIRAN INDONESIA." Veritas et Justitia 7, no. 2 (December 27, 2021): 271–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.25123/vej.v7i2.4339.

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This article discusses the extent to which Indonesia provides legal protection to prehistoric and historical object, especially shipwrecks, found within its national waters. It is known that Indonesia has not decide to ratify the UNESCO 2001 Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage (UNESCO 2001 Convention). Legal audit performed to existing national rules and regulations reveals that, legally wise, Indonesia has shown its commitment to ensure that underwater cultural heritage within its maritime zones enjoy protection. In addition, it may be argued that therefore Indonesia is not in a position having to ratify the UNESCO 2001 Convention soon.

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15

Gambin, Timmy, Maja Sausmekat, and Darko Kovacevic. "The Innovative and State of the Art Public Access Management of Malta’s Underwater Cultural Heritage." Heritage 4, no. 4 (October 13, 2021): 3365–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/heritage4040187.

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The obligation to preserve underwater cultural heritage is a core principle of the UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage. A key element of this obligation is a balance of scientific research, protection, and the promotion of responsible access to underwater cultural heritage sites. Such a balance requires the setting up of a network of communication between the tourism and heritage sectors on the one hand and the maritime and diving communities on the other hand. A variety of approaches have been developed to promote responsible access to underwater cultural heritage sites, and since the vast majority of the public does not dive, this also includes the development of virtual access. In Malta, maritime archaeology can be traced to humble and sporadic beginnings in the 1950s. The following decades brought a growing interest in diving activities and a rising number of diving schools and clubs. Whilst Malta has today established itself as a diving tourism destination, responsible access to underwater cultural heritage sites was not always entrenched in dive operations or institutionally recognized. The protection and management of underwater cultural heritage has recently been firmly established within Heritage Malta, the national agency for museums, conservations, and cultural heritage. This paper is intended to outline the trajectory of Malta’s underwater cultural heritage management and to present the innovative and state of the art public access system that is managed by the Underwater Cultural Heritage Unit within Heritage Malta.

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16

O'keefe, Patrick J., and James A. R. Nafziger. "The draft convention on the protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage." Ocean Development & International Law 25, no. 4 (October 1994): 391–418. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00908329409546041.

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17

Roberts, Hayley. "THE BRITISH RATIFICATION OF THE UNDERWATER HERITAGE CONVENTION: PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS." International and Comparative Law Quarterly 67, no. 4 (September 3, 2018): 833–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0020589318000210.

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AbstractThe UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage 2001 came into force in 2009, providing a much-needed international legal framework for the protection of underwater cultural heritage (UCH). This article explores the reasons why the UK has neglected to ratify the Convention and why accession should now be prioritized. In doing so, the article reconciles the UK's stance with the agreement; moving the State into a position where it can reconsider ratification. In this context, it examines the definition of UCH and the purpose of the Convention, the extension of sovereign immunity for wrecked warships, and the likelihood of creeping coastal State jurisdiction beyond the competences conferred by the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea. This transformative analysis moves forward the debate on these issues and is of international significance to States that have been similarly hesitant to ratify the Convention until now.

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18

Perez-Alvaro, Elena, and Craig Forrest. "Maritime Archaeology and Underwater Cultural Heritage in the Disputed South China Sea." International Journal of Cultural Property 25, no. 3 (August 2018): 375–401. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0940739118000176.

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Abstract:China’s broad geopolitical strategy and positioning for global influence includes its averred legal position in relation to its sovereignty and jurisdiction in the South China Sea. A response to this legal position was the Philippines’ initiation of arbitral proceedings constituted under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. Despite the non-participation of China in these proceedings, the arbitral decision of 2016 clarified a number of legal provisions pertinent to the ongoing territorial and maritime disputes in the South China Sea. This decision impacted directly on China’s assertion of sovereign and jurisdictional historical title or rights, which, in part, relies on evidence obtained from underwater cultural heritage and the associated maritime archaeology. This article critically evaluates China’s maritime archaeology program and its policy with respect to underwater cultural heritage in light of the 2016 arbitral decision and the underlying international law of the sea. While recognizing that China’s policy is not inconsistent with its broader heritage policy, and its national approach to the protection of underwater cultural heritage, this article argues that this cannot be used to support China’s South China Sea claims and is not only misplaced, such as to pose a risk to the archaeological record, but also inconstant with international developments in the form of the 2001 United Nations Convention of the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage.

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19

Gaskell, Nicholas, and Sarah Dromgoole. "Draft UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural I Heritage 1998." International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law 14, no. 2 (1999): 171–206. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/157180899x00093.

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AbstractThis article considers certain issues relating to the draft UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage 1998. It is not intended to provide a comprehensive analysis of the draft, which is still only a working document, but the aim is (1) to give a very general introduction to the draft Convention; (2) to consider the relationship between the draft Convention and the UN Law of the Sea Convention 1982; (3) to assess the impact that the draft Convention would have on ownership rights in wrecks; (4) to examine whether the draft Convention should exclude warships and other State vessels from its scope; and (5) to analyse the relationship between the draft Convention and the law of salvage.

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20

Bruno, Fabio, Maurizio Muzzupappa, Loris Barbieri, Alessandro Gallo, Gerardo Ritacco, Antonio Lagudi, Mauro Francesco La Russa, et al. "The CoMAS Project: New Materials and Tools for Improving the In situ Documentation, Restoration, and Conservation of Underwater Archaeological Remains." Marine Technology Society Journal 50, no. 4 (July 1, 2016): 108–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.4031/mtsj.50.4.2.

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AbstractOn November 2, 2001, the UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage provided a detailed state cooperation system and set out the basic principles for the protection of underwater cultural heritage. To date, the Convention has been ratified by 51 countries. One of the four main principles states that the In situ preservation of underwater cultural heritage should be considered as the first option before allowing or engaging in any further activities. In accordance with these principles and recommendations, in the last years many projects intended for developing and testing new techniques and tools to support In situ conservation of underwater archaeological remains have been funded and are now underway.This paper describes the contribution of the CoMAS project (In situ conservation planning of Underwater Archaeological Artifacts—<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" href="http://www.comasproject.eu">http://www.comasproject.eu</ext-link>), funded by the Italian Ministry of Education, Universities and Research (MIUR) and run by a partnership of private companies and public research centers. The CoMAS project aims at the development of new materials, techniques, and tools for the documentation, conservation, and restoration of underwater archaeological sites in their natural environment. The paper describes in detail the results achieved during the project in the development of innovative materials, mechatronic tools, and armed remotely operated vehicle systems that can efficiently support the restorers' work in all their activities for preserving underwater cultural heritage in its original location on the seafloor.

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21

Dromgoole, S., and N. Gaskell. "Draft UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage 1998." International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law 14, no. 2 (May 1, 1999): 171–206. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15718089920492375.

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22

Gribble, John. "The UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage 2001." Journal of Maritime Archaeology 6, no. 1 (September 10, 2011): 77–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11457-011-9076-3.

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23

Croff, Katherine L. "The Underwater Cultural Heritage and Marine Scientific Research in the Exclusive Economic Zone." Marine Technology Society Journal 43, no. 1 (March 1, 2009): 93–100. http://dx.doi.org/10.4031/mtsj.43.1.6.

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AbstractThis paper reviews the relationship between activities aimed at the underwater cultural heritage and marine scientific research in the exclusive economic zone, in particular the question of whether or not underwater cultural heritage research can be classified as marine scientific research. The study examines the definitions, practice, and jurisdiction of each, according to the Third UN Conference on the Law of the Sea, the UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage, and States’ current practice. By revising the current interpretation of international law, underwater cultural heritage research can potentially be classified as marine scientific research. The inclusion of archaeology as marine science would have implications that would open up new rights and responsibilities of coastal and research States, as both fulfill their duties to protect and preserve archaeological and historical objects found on the seabed.

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24

Nafziger, James A. R. "The Cultural Heritage Law Committee of the International Law Association: General Session, August 16, 2010." International Journal of Cultural Property 17, no. 4 (November 2010): 661. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0940739110000391.

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Twenty-two members of the International Law Association's Committee on Cultural Heritage Law attended a working session in The Hague. The committee first reviewed the status of its past projects, focusing this time on the UNESCO Convention for the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage, which resulted from the Committee's Buenos Aires Draft Convention on that subject. Now that the treaty is in force, the committee considered the actual and potential status of accession by maritime powers.

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25

Forrest, Craig J. S., and John Gribble. "The Illicit Movement of Underwater Cultural Heritage: The Case of the Dodington Coins." International Journal of Cultural Property 11, no. 2 (January 2002): 267–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0940739102771439.

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In October 1997 the Times of London announced the sale by auction of fourteen hundred gold coins that formed part of the hoard lost by Clive of India when the East Indiaman Dodington was wrecked in Algoa Bay on July 17, 1755. The wreck and its contents lie within South African territorial waters and are protected by South African heritage legislation. Very little gold has ever been reported recovered, despite ongoing excavations, and only a single permit has been issued for the export and sale of twenty–one gold coins. This article will consider the legal steps taken to repatriate the coins, and the difficulties encountered when taking such steps before a foreign court. It evaluates the extent to which existing international conventions, including the recently adopted UNESCO Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage, are able to assist states in repatriating stolen or illegally exported underwater cultural heritage.

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Nafziger, James A. R. "The Buenos Aires Draft Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage." International Journal of Cultural Property 6, no. 1 (January 1997): 119–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0940739197000088.

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27

Kirwan, Seán. "Ireland and the UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage." Journal of Maritime Archaeology 5, no. 2 (December 2010): 105–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11457-010-9067-9.

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28

O'Keefe, Patrick J. "Protecting the underwater cultural heritage. The international law association draft convention." Marine Policy 20, no. 4 (July 1996): 297–307. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0308-597x(96)00018-8.

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29

Koschtial, Ulrike. "The 2001 UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage: advantages and challenges." Museum International 60, no. 4 (December 2008): 63–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0033.2008.00665.x.

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30

Kowalski, Wojciech. "Wydobywanie zabytków z morza w świetle Konwencji UNESCO o ochronie podwodnego dziedzictwa kulturowego z 2001 roku." Santander Art and Culture Law Review 8, no. 1 (October 31, 2022): 17–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.4467/2450050xsnr.22.004.16394.

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Recovery of cultural heritage objects from the sea in light of the 2001 UNESCO Convention on the protection of underwater cultural heritage In this article, the author argues that the 2001 UNESCO Convention introduced for the first time in the evolution of the law of the sea more radical solutions aimed at the protection of underwater heritage. One of them is a far-reaching limitation of the legal possibility to recover cultural heritage objects from international waters. According to the Convention’s provisions, such an option will constitute merely an exception to the general principle of their preservation in situ, i.e. the place where they have been located for at least 100 years. Recovery is acceptable only on the condition that leaving these objects in the sea will not fulfill the objectives of the Convention and will bring about detrimental effects in practice. It is also possible for the purpose of scientific studies. In all such cases, the methods and techniques used must be as non-destructive as possible and recovered objects shall be deposited, conserved and managed in a manner that ensures their long-term future preservation. At the legal level, they receive the special status of res extra commercium, which means they shall not be traded, sold, bought or bartered as commercial goods. The author ends his article concluding that measures of prevention and sanctions adopted in the Convention also demonstrate its strength and positive development, especially in comparison with the previous legal situation. Their enforcement provides a real chance that the principles of the Convention will be followed properly by States to ensure and strengthen the protection of underwater cultural heritage and will help stop the unauthorized exploitation of historical wrecks. Przyjęta w 2001 r. Konwencja UNESCO o ochronie podwodnego dziedzictwa kulturowego jest pierwszym instrumentem prawa międzynarodowego, który wprowadził skuteczne rozwiązania ochrony tego dziedzictwa. Jednym z głównych rozwiązań jest daleko idące ograniczenie legalnego wydobywania zabytków z wód międzynarodowych, które stanowi jedynie wyjątek od zasady zachowania ich in situ, to znaczy w miejscu lokalizacji przez ostatnich 100 lat. Wydobycie konkretnego obiektu jest dopuszczalne wyłącznie w przypadku, gdy pozostawienie go na miejscu nie spełniałoby wymogów Konwencji i przyniosło szkodliwe skutki, albo jest uzasadnione względami naukowymi. W każdym takim przypadku zastosowane metody wydobycia muszą mieć charakter niedestrukcyjny, a wydobyte obiekty winny mieć zapewnione przechowywanie, konserwację i zarządzanie gwarantujące ich długotrwałe zachowanie. Na płaszczyźnie prawnej uzyskują one status res extra commercium, czyli nie mogą być przedmiotem obrotu komercyjnego. We wnioskach podkreślono, że środki ochrony i instrumenty ich realizacji przyjęte w Konwencji są mocną jej stroną, szczególnie w porównaniu z wcześniejszymi aktami prawnymi. Stosowanie ich w praktyce daje natomiast szansę spełnienia zasad określonych w Konwencji, wzmocni ochronę podwodnego dziedzictwa kulturowego i będzie pomocne w ograniczaniu nielegalnego wydobywania zabytków z morza.

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Evans, Amanda M., Matthew A. Russell, and Margaret E. Leshikar-Denton. "Local Resources, Global Heritage: An Introduction to the 2001 UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage." Journal of Maritime Archaeology 5, no. 2 (December 2010): 79–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11457-010-9066-x.

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Gambin, Timmy, Kari Hyttinen, Maja Sausmekat, and John Wood. "Making the Invisible Visible: Underwater Malta—A Virtual Museum for Submerged Cultural Heritage." Remote Sensing 13, no. 8 (April 16, 2021): 1558. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rs13081558.

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The seabed can be considered as the world’s largest museum, and underwater sites explored and studied so far provide priceless information on human interaction with the sea. In recognition of the importance of this cultural resource, UNESCO, in its 2001 Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage, determined that objects/sites should be preserved in situ, whilst also advocating for public access and sharing. The implementation of these principles is not without difficulties. Some states have opened up underwater sites to the public—mainly through diving, yet the vast majority of the world’s population does not dive. In Malta, 7000 years of human occupation is reflected in and on the landscape, and recent offshore surveys show that the islands’ long and complex history has also left an indelible mark on the seabed. Besides difficulties related to their protection and management, these sites also present a challenge with regard to sharing and communicating. Recent advances in underwater imaging and processing software have accelerated the development of 3D photogrammetry of submerged sites and the idea for a virtual museum was born. The virtual museum, UnderwaterMalta, was created out of a need to share the plethora of underwater sites located on the seabed of the Maltese Islands. A multitude of digital tools are used to share and communicate these sites, offering visitors a dry dive into submerged sites that would otherwise remain invisible to the vast majority of the public. This paper discusses the basic principle of the sharing of underwater cultural heritage and the difficulties that beset the implementation of such a principle. A detailed explanation and evaluation of the methods used to gather the raw data needed is set in the context of the particular and unique working conditions related to deep water sites. The workings of this paper are based on first-hand experiences garnered through the recording of numerous wrecks over the years and the creation and launch of The Virtual Museum-Underwater Malta—a comprehensive virtual museum specifically built for “displaying” underwater archaeological sites that are otherwise invisible to the general public.

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González, Ariel W., Patrick O'Keefe, and Michael Williams. "The UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage: a Future for our Past?" Conservation and Management of Archaeological Sites 11, no. 1 (March 2009): 54–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1179/135050309x12508566208443.

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Srong, Ieng. "Current status of the draft UNESCO/DAOLOS Convention for the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage." Conservation and Management of Archaeological Sites 3, no. 3 (January 1999): 155–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1179/135050399793138545.

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35

Varmer, Ole, Jefferson Gray, and David Alberg. "United States: Responses to the 2001 UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage." Journal of Maritime Archaeology 5, no. 2 (December 2010): 129–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11457-010-9070-1.

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Gambin, Timmy, Alberto Bravo-Morata Rodríguez, and Maja Sausmekat. "From Discovery to Public Consumption: The Process of Mapping and Evaluating Underwater Cultural Heritage in Malta." Heritage 4, no. 4 (September 28, 2021): 2732–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/heritage4040154.

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The in situ promotion and preservation of underwater cultural heritage sites is one of the main ideas of the UNESCO Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage. Currently, most shipwrecks are found in water shallower than the 50 m contour. The continued technological advances and increases in technical diving and deep-water exploration point towards a shift in this statistic, which is set to increase exponentially in the not-too-distant future. Thus, it is imperative to look at ways in which such directives can be implemented. This paper will highlight the synergy between existing remote sensing technologies and the management of underwater cultural heritage with examples of on-going research projects, such as Malta’s approach to surveying and implementing a scoring system for historic wreck sites based on local and global considerations of historic and natural conditions of site elements. Such an approach allows for the scaling of sites based on a number of parameters and provides instructive information for the creation of management strategies. The intention here is to demonstrate how large-scale remote sensing surveys can make major contributions to site management, which, in turn, facilitates the decision-making process in terms of how and what information is transmitted to divers and members of the public.

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O'Keefe, Patrick J. "Forth Meeting of Governmental Experts to Consider the Draft Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage." International Journal of Cultural Property 11, no. 1 (January 2002): 168–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s094073910277166x.

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Yorke, Robert Anthony. "The UNESCO Convention and the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage in International Waters: The United Kingdom Situation." Journal of Maritime Archaeology 5, no. 2 (December 2010): 153–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11457-010-9064-z.

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Erreguerena, Pilar Luna. "Mexico: A Leader in Ratification of the UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage." Journal of Maritime Archaeology 5, no. 2 (December 2010): 143–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11457-010-9069-7.

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Scovazzi, Tullio. "The entry into force of the 2001 UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage." Aegean Review of the Law of the Sea and Maritime Law 1, no. 1 (August 4, 2009): 19–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12180-009-0001-7.

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Bugajski, Dariusz Rafał. "Sytuacja prawna wraku RMS Titanic." Santander Art and Culture Law Review 8, no. 1 (October 31, 2022): 41–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.4467/2450050xsnr.22.001.16391.

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The legal protection of the RMS Titanic Almost immediately after the Titanic sank on 15 April 1912, proposals were advanced to salvage the ship from her resting place. The wreck was ultimately discovered on 1 September 1985. This article will discuss the application of the 1982 UN Law of the Sea Convention and the 2001 UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage and the development of the law of salvage through orders of the courts with respect to the protection of the wreck of the RMS Titanic and her artifacts. The paper will discuss the matter of ownership and other legal titles to such property. The 2001 UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage applies to all traces of human existence having a cultural, historical or archaeological character which have been submerged for at least 100 years. Thus, 15 April 2012 marks the moment when the Titanic wreckage became protected under this Convention. The Titanic lies currently in international waters, outside of the exclusive jurisdiction of any State. Legal jurisdiction over the seabed may change when Canada extends its Continental Shelf under the 1982 UN Law of the Sea Convention. Niemal natychmiast po zatonięciu RMS Titanic 15 kwietnia 1912 r. pojawiły się pomysły jego wydobycia. Szczątki Titanica zostały odnalezione 1 września 1985 r. W artykule podjęto zagadnienie zastosowania przepisów Konwencji Narodów Zjednoczonych o prawie morza z 1982 r. i Konwencji UNESCO o ochronie podwodnego dziedzictwa kulturowego z 2001 r. do ochrony szczątków RMS Titanic oraz zagadnienie ewolucji tejże ochrony w świetle orzecznictwa sądów krajowych. Przedmiotem badań jest także własność i inne tytuły prawne związane z wrakiem Titanica. Konwencja UNESCO z 2001 r. ma zastosowanie do wszystkich śladów ludzkiej egzystencji mających znaczenie kulturowe, historyczne lub archeologiczne, które są zatopione od ponad 100 lat. Od 15 kwietnia 2012 r. Titanic i jego artefakty są chronione na podstawie tej Konwencji. Obecnie szczątki tego liniowca spoczywają na wodach międzynarodowych poza wyłączną jurysdykcją jakiegokolwiek państwa. Jurysdykcja w stosunku do dna morskiego może się zmienić, kiedy Kanada rozszerzy swój szelf kontynentalny zgodnie z Konwencją o prawie morza z 1982 r.

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Fletcher-Tomenius, Paul, and Michael Williams. "The draft UNESCO/DOALOS Convention on the protection of underwater cultural heritage and conflict with the European Convention on Human Rights." International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 28, no. 2 (May 1999): 145–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1095-9270.1999.tb00828.x.

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FLETCHERTOMENIUS, P., and M. WILLIAMS. "The draft UNESCO/DOALOS Convention on the protection of underwater cultural heritage and conflict with the European Convention on Human Rights." International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 28, no. 2 (May 1999): 145–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s1057-2414(99)80063-6.

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Carducci, Guido. "New Developments in the Law of the Sea: The UNESCO Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage." American Journal of International Law 96, no. 2 (April 2002): 419–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2693936.

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Cogliati-Bantz, Vincent P., and Craig J. S. Forrest. "Consistent: the Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage and the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea." Cambridge Journal of International and Comparative Law 2, no. 3 (2013): 536–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.7574/cjicl.02.03.120.

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Fu, K.-c. "Current Legal Development: China—A Chinese Perspective on the UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage." International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law, The 18, no. 1 (March 1, 2003): 109–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/157180803100380384.

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Li, Xintong, and Yen-Chiang Chang. "A step closer to the convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage 2001: China’s latest efforts in regulation." Marine Policy 147 (January 2023): 105346. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2022.105346.

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Guérin, Ulrike, and Barbara Egger. "Guaranteeing the Protection of Submerged Archaeological Sites Regardless of their Location: The UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage (2001)." Journal of Maritime Archaeology 5, no. 2 (December 2010): 97–103. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11457-010-9063-0.

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GRIBBLE, JOHN. "The Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage: National Perspectives in light of the UNESCO Convention 2001 - Edited by Sarah Dromgoole." International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 36, no. 1 (March 2007): 195–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1095-9270.2007.140_1.x.

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Alves, Francisco J. S. "Portugal’s Declaration During the Negotiation of the 2001 UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage: International Protection and Cooperation versus Possession." Journal of Maritime Archaeology 5, no. 2 (December 2010): 159–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11457-010-9065-y.

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