Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Coordination polymer'

The research described within this thesis is concerned with the investigation of transition metal ion complexation within hydrophilic copolymer membranes. The membranes are copolymers of 4-methyl-4'-vinyl-2,2'-bipyridine, the 2-hydroxyethyl ester of 4,4'- dicarboxy-2,2'-bipyridine & bis-(5-vinylsalicylidene)ethylenediamine with 2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate. The effect of the polymer matrix on the formation and properties of transition metal iron complexes has been studied, specifically Cr(III) & Fe(II) salts for the bipyridyl- based copolymer membranes and Co(II), Ni(II) & Cu(II) salts for the salenH2- based copolymer membranes. The concomitant effect of complex formation on the properties of the polymer matrix have also been studied, e.g. on mechanical strength. A detailed body of work into the kinetics and thermodynamics for the formation of Cu(II) complexes in the salenH2- based copolymer membranes has been performed. The rate of complex formation is found to be very slow while the value of K for the equilibrium of complex formation is found to be unexpectedly small and shows a slight anion dependence. These phenomena are explained in terms of the effects of the heterogeneous phase provided by the polymer matrix. The transport of Cr(III) ions across uncomplexed and Cr(III)-pre-complexed bipyridyl-based membranes has been studied. In both cases, no Cr(III) coordination occurs within the time-scale of an experiment. Pre-complexation of the membrane does not lead to a change in the rate of permeation of Cr(III) ions. The transport of Co(II), Ni(II) & Cu(II) ions across salenH2- based membranes shows that there is no detectable lag-time in transport of the ions, despite independent evidence that complex formation within the membranes does occur.

Kyoto University (京都大学)<br>0048<br>新制・課程博士<br>博士(工学)<br>甲第14947号<br>工博第3174号<br>新制||工||1476(附属図書館)<br>27385<br>UT51-2009-M861<br>京都大学大学院工学研究科合成・生物化学専攻<br>(主査)教授 北川 進, 教授 榊 茂好, 教授 松田 建児<br>学位規則第4条第1項該当

<p> This dissertation reports the synthesis and characterization of nanoscale coordination polymers (NCPs) for anticancer drug delivery. Nanoparticles have been explored in order to address the limitations of small molecule chemotherapeutics. NCPs have been investigated as drug delivery vehicles as they can exhibit the same beneficial properties as the bulk metal-organic frameworks as well as interesting characteristics that are unique to nanomaterials. </p><p> Gd-MTX (MTX = methotrexate) NCPs with a MTX loading of 71.6 wt% were synthesized and stabilized by encapsulation within a lipid bilayer containing anisamide (AA), a small molecule that targets sigma receptors which are overexpressed in many cancer tissues. Functionalization with AA allows for targeted delivery and controlled release to cancer cells, as shown by enhanced efficacy against leukemia cells. The NCPs were doped with Ru(bpy)₃²⁺ (bpy = 2,2'-bipyridine), and this formulation was utilized as an optical imaging agent by confocal microscopy. </p><p> NCPs containing the chemotherapeutic pemetrexed (PMX) were synthesized using different binding metals. Zr-based materials could not be stabilized by encapsulation with a lipid bilayer, and Gd-based materials showed that PMX had degraded during synthesis. However, Hf-based NCPs containing 19.7 wt% PMX were stabilized by a lipid coating and showed in vitro efficacy against non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) cell lines. Enhanced efficacy was observed for formulations containing AA. </p><p> Additionally, NCP formulations containing the cisplatin prodrug disuccinatocisplatin were prepared; one of these formulations could be stabilized by encapsulation within a lipid layer. Coating with a lipid layer doped with AA rendered this formulation an active targeting agent. The resulting formulation proved more potent than free cisplatin in NSCLC cell lines. Improved NCP uptake was demonstrated by confocal microscopy and competitive binding assays. </p><p> Finally, a Pt(IV) oxaliplatin prodrug was synthesized and incorporated in different NCPs using various binding metals. A moderate drug loading of 44.9 wt% was determined for Zr-based NCPs. This drug loading, along with a diameter less than 200 nm, make these particles promising candidates for further stabilization via lipid encapsulation.</p>

Zinc xanthates are active catalysts in stereoregular polymerization of propylene oxide and markedly more stable than that of known classical stereoregular catalysts. But steric control of zinc xanthates is weaker. To find more effective catalyst systems the isopropyl xanthates of Cu, Pb, Ni, Fe, Al and Sn are investigated and only copper (Cu(isoPr)Xt) and tin (Sn(isoPr)Xt) isopropyl xanthates were appeared to be active, but Cu(isoPr)Xt yielded only low molecular weight product. Therefore Sn(isoPr)Xt system was investigated in detail in polymerization of propylene oxide (PO). Polymerization of PO with this catalyst produced two contrasting polymers<br>high molar mass, crystalline (K-polymer) and low molar mass (D-polymer). Formation of double bonds in D-polymer was thought to be due to as an anionic process. Polymerization reactions were studied by changing polymerization conditions and reacting catalyst with predetermined amount of water. It&amp<br>#8217<br>s found that Sn(isoPr)Xt have considerably low efficiency than that of Zn(isoPr)Xt catalyst. The yield linearly increases by increasing catalyst concentration. The propagation is competed by termination or transfer process hence overall activation energy is negative. Some mechanistic features of this system was also discussed. The catalytical activity of carbamates in this field has also been reported, without any information about catalytical efficiency and stereoregularity of the process. Therefore zinc diethyl dithiocarbamate was also studied and found as an active catalyst in stereoregular polymerization but it showed weaker efficiency in the PO polymerization than that of Zn(isoPr)Xt catalyst (about 12 times weaker).

Los polímeros de coordinación y su diseño racional permiten la formación de materiales nanoestructurados con una amplia variedad de propiedades. Las múltiples combinaciones entre iones metálicos y ligandos orgánicos como precursores de materiales autoensamblados, han fascinado a los científicos durante décadas. La aplicación de la química de coordinación a nanoescala se considera uno de los enfoques más versátiles para el desarrollo de nuevos materiales nanoestructurados debido a las infinitas posibilidades para alcanzar propiedades sin precedentes. Además, el desarrollo de sistemas metal-orgánicos ha despertado en una gran cantidad de ejemplos para su uso en una amplia gama de aplicaciones. En esta Tesis hemos estado particularmente interesados ​​en el ajuste controlado de las propiedades de los materiales nanoestructurados basados ​​en polímeros de coordinación que se obtuvieron a través de diferentes rutas sintéticas. El método de síntesis, la selección adecuada de precursores y el estudio de las propiedades finales han centrado el trabajo realizado. Además, la formación de suspensiones coloidales estables en agua se estableció como un requisito principal para su potencial aplicación. Para eso, fue necesaria una sinergia multidisciplinaria con el objetivo de buscar la aplicación final de los nuevos materiales nanoestructurados desarrollados. El logro de este objetivo fue posible gracias a un diseño adecuado de la estrategia seguida junto con la caracterización completa de las nanoestructuras preparadas. En una primera parte de esta Tesis, la nanoestructuración de sistemas conmutables basados ​​en Fe(II) con comportamiento de entrecruzamiento de espín (SCO por sus siglas en inglés) se logró siguiendo dos estrategias diferentes. Por un lado, se aplicó una metodología descendente (top-down) basada en la exfoliación en fase líquida para el aislamiento de láminas 2D de cristales multilaminares. Por otro lado, a través de un enfoque ascendente (bottom-up), la síntesis de nuevas nanopartículas fue posible modulando la difusión de la reacción utilizando metodologías basadas en microfluidica. En ambos casos, los materiales nanoestructurados se integraron en matrices poliméricas para evaluar su aplicación potencial como películas termocrómicas para su prueba de concepto. En la segunda parte de la Tesis, se estableció una nueva familia de polímeros de coordinación a nanoescala (NCP por sus siglas en inglés) basados ​​en Fe(III), Gd(III), Mn(II), In(III) y Cu(II) a través de su síntesis racional usando una reacción en un sola etapa. Las nanopartículas obtenidas se validaron mediante pruebas preclínicas in vivo que muestran un rendimiento interesante como posibles agentes teranósticos para la obtención de imágenes (resonancia magnética, tomografía por emisión de positrones y tomografía computarizada por emisión de fotón único) y pretratamiento potencial de glioblastoma y enfermedades pulmonares.<br>Coordination polymers and its rational design let the formation of nanostructured materials with a broad variety of properties. The multiple combinations between metal ions and organic ligands as precursors of self-assembled materials have fascinated scientists for decades. The application of coordination chemistry at the nanoscale is considered one of the most versatile approaches for the development of new nanostructured materials due to the infinite possibilities for reaching unprecedented properties. Furthermore, the development of metal-organic systems has aroused in a plethora of examples for their use in a wide range of applications. In this Thesis we have been particularly interested in the fine tune of the properties of nanostructured materials based on coordination polymers whose were obtained through different synthetic routes. The method of synthesis, the properly selection of precursors and the study of the final properties has centred the work carried out. Additionally, the formation of water-stable colloidal suspensions was stablished as a main requirement for their potential application. For that, a multidisciplinary synergy was necessary with the aim to pursue the final application of the novel nanostructured materials developed. Achieving this objective was possible thanks to a properly design of the strategy followed together with complete characterization of the nanostructures prepared. In a first part of this Thesis, the nanostructuration of Fe(II)-based switchable systems with spin crossover behaviour was achieved by following two different strategies. On the one hand, a top-down methodology based on liquid-phase exfoliation was applied for the isolation of 2D flakes from the bulk crystal. On the other hand, through a bottom-up approach, the synthesis of novel nanoparticles was possible by modulating the reaction diffusion using microfluidic based methodologies. In both cases, the nanostructured materials were integrated in polymeric matrices to evaluate their potential application as proof-of-concept thermochromic films. In the second part of the Thesis, a novel family of nanoscale coordination polymers (NCPs) based on Fe(III), Gd(III), Mn(II), In(III) and Cu(II) was stablished through its rational synthesis by using one-pot reaction. The nanoparticles obtained were validated by pre-clinical in vivo tests showing interesting performance as potential theranostic agents for imaging (Magnetic resonance imaging, positron emission tomography and single-photon emission computed tomography) and potential pre-treatment of glioblastoma and lung diseases.

Les travaux entrepris au cours de cette thèse ont eu pour objectif d'élaborer de nouvelles nanoparticules magnétiques pour l'imagerie médicale. Ce manuscrit abordera la méthode de synthèse des nanoparticules, leurs caractérisations puis leur évaluation comme agent de contraste pour l'imagerie par résonance magnétique (IRM) et radio-traceur pour la scintigraphie.Dans un premier temps, nous proposerons une méthode de synthèse pour obtenir des nanoparticules magnétiques à base de polymères de coordination cyano-pontés élaborées à partir de précurseurs moléculaires de métaux de transitions et de lanthanides en utilisant des ligands cyanure pontant et stabilisées par des ligands solubles dans l'eau et biocompatibles. Nous présenterons la synthèse, les caractérisations structurales et texturales et les propriétés magnétiques de ces nano-objets de formule générale My[M'(CN)6]z @stabilisant avec M = Fe, Gd, Tb, Y, Ni, Cu ; M' = Fe, Co et stabilisant = PEGNH2, PEG400, Glu-TEG, D-Mannitol, NADG. Nous évaluerons ensuite leur potentielle pour des applications en imagerie médicale. Pour ce faire, nous discuterons de leur capacité à se comporter comme agent de contraste pour l'IRM et comme radio-traceur pour la scintigraphie ou plus précisément la tomographie par émission mono-photonique. Nous développerons une discussion sur les paramètres fondamentaux qui doivent être optimisés afin d'obtenir des nano-objets comme agents de contraste pour l'IRM et dans le but de comprendre le mécanisme de relaxivité de ces nano-objets. Enfin, nous testerons ces agents de contraste et radio-traceurs in vitro et in vivo sur le petit animal. Puis, nous évaluerons la cytotoxicité, la cinétique et les voies d'élimination, la biodistribution, la génotoxicité et la carcinogénèse des nanoparticules utilisées<br>The goal of the present research is to elaborate new magnetic nanoparticles for medical imaging. This manuscript will describe the nanoparticles' synthesis method, their characterization and their evaluation as contrast agent for magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and functional probe for scintigraphy.In a first time, we will propose synthesis processes allowing to obtain cyano-bridged coordination polymer based magnetic nanoparticles elaborated from transition metals or lanthanides molecular precursors using cyano-bridged ligands and stabilizing ligands soluble in water and biocompatible. We will introduce the synthesis, structural and textural characterizations and magnetic properties of these nano-objects with general formula My[M'(CN)6]z @stabilizer with M = Fe, Gd, Tb, Y, Ni, Cu ; M' = Fe, Co and stabilizer = PEG NH2, PEG400, Glu-TEG, D-Mannitol, NADG.In a second time, we will evaluate their potential as nanoprobles for application in medical imaging. For that, we will discuss about their capacity to act as a contrast agent for MRI and as a functional probe for scintigraphy or more specifically single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT). We will develop discussion about fundamental parameters which must be optimized to obtain contrast agent nano-objects for MRI and to understand nano-object relaxivity mechanisms. Then, we will test these contrast agents and functional probes in vitro and in vivo on mice. Also, we will evaluate the cytotoxicity, the kinetics and way of elimination, the biodistribution, the genotoxicity and the carcinogenesis of the used nanoparticles

The research group where I performed my PhD researches is interested in the synthesis and characterisation of Coordination Polymers (CPs). CPs are infinite systems built up with metal ions (connectors) and organic ligands (linkers) as main elementary units, connected via coordination bonds and other weak interactions [Robin & Fromm, Coord. Chem. Rev., 2006, 250, 2127]. One of the interests in building CPs is the creation of new tuneable functional materials, since CPs are promising materials for applications in gas storage, anion exchange, catalysis, conductivity, luminescence, chirality, magnetism, spin transition behaviour, NLO or deposition of thin films. CPs can be normally prepared by reacting a suitable polynucleating ligand with a transition metal ion, having at least two coordination sites available. In order to obtain new CPs, during the first year of my PhD studies, two different classes of new potentially polynucleating nitrogen containing ligands were designed, synthesised and fully characterised. Unfortunately, some preliminary tests on the reactivity of these linkers with Cu(II), Ag(I), Zn(II) and Ru(II) in hydroalcoholic solvents evidenced the relatively easy hydrolysis of the ligands. For these reasons, at the moment, the study of the coordination properties of these ligands to transition metal ions has been set aside, and the attention has been focused on the understanding of the decomposition mechanism upon treatment with transition metal compounds [Casarin et al. Inorg. Chim. Acta, 2009, 362, 4358; Casarin et al. J. Phys. Chem. A, 2008, 112, 6723]. Moreover, we continued some other studies, concerning the synthesis of trinuclear triangular Cu(II) clusters. The latter can be easily prepared by reacting copper(II) carboxylates with pyrazole (Hpz) in hydroalcoholic solvents, obtaining 1D, 2D or 3D CPs [Casarin et al. Inorg. Chem., 2004, 43, 5865; Casarin et al. Inorg. Chem., 2005, 44, 6265; Di Nicola et al. Inorg. Chem., 2007, 46, 221]. Particularly, during my PhD studies some other trinuclear triangular Cu(II) clusters (starting both from saturated and unsaturated Cu(II) carboxylates) were synthesised and characterised [Di Nicola et al. Eur. J. Inorg. Chem., 2009, 666; Contaldi et al. Dalton Trans., 2009, 4928]. We started also to study the reactivity of the trinuclear triangular copper(II)/carboxylate/pyrazolate clusters towards substitution reactions. Particularly, we examined first the stability of the trinuclear triangular moiety by treating [Cu3(μ3-OH)(μ-pz)3(CH3COO)2(Hpz)], 2, with strong acids, observing that the trinuclear moiety was in a good extent maintained, and obtaining new hexanuclear and heptanuclear coordination polymers, in some cases porous [Casarin et al. Cryst. Growth Des., 2007, 4, 676]. Since the trinuclear moieties resulted to be quite stable towards decomposition, we decided to use them as starting material to synthesise new different CPs, having the trinuclear Cu(II) clusters directly bridged by polynucleating ligands. We decided to follow two different approaches: i) substitution of the monocarboxylates with bicarboxylates; and ii) replacement of the neutral ligands coordinated to the Cu(II) centres (pyrazole and/or solvent molecules) with neutral bidentate nitrogen-containing ligands. First attempts under bench-top conditions to replace the carboxylate ions by reacting the trinuclear compounds with bicarboxylic acids were not successful, leading to the isolation of the starting materials, while reactions carried out upon deprotonation of the acids led to the instantaneous precipitation of insoluble powders. The reaction with bidentate nitrogen-containing ligands gave instead interesting results, and numerous new CPs were isolated and fully characterised. Noteworthy, upon reaction between [Cu3(μ3-OH)(μ-pz)3(HCOO)2(Hpz)2(H2O)], 1, and an excess of 4,4’-bipyridine, a porous coordination polymer was obtained. The electrochemical properties of some selected copper(II) CPs isolated by us were examined; we also investigated the catalytic activities of some of these compounds in the peroxidative oxidation of cyclohexane. Both of these researches were performed in prof. Armando J. L. Pombeiro laboratories, at the Centro de Química Estrutural of the Instituto Superior Técnico (Lisbon). Finally, more recently, we started to investigate the catalytic activity of 2 in the oxidation of methyl-p-tolyl sulfide to the corresponding sulfoxide. Preliminary results indicated that 2 is able to bind reversibly oxygen coming from H2O2 and transfer it to the sulfide.<br>Il gruppo di ricerca presso cui ho svolto il Dottorato di Ricerca si occupa della sintesi e caratterizzazione di Polimeri di Coordinazione (CP). I CP sono dei sistemi polimerici infiniti, costruiti a partire da ioni metallici (connettori) e leganti organici (linkers) come principali unità di base, connessi tra loro attraverso legami di coordinazione e altre interazioni relativamente deboli [Robin & Fromm, Coord. Chem. Rev., 2006, 250, 2127]. Uno dei principali interessi nella costruzione di CP è l'ottenimento di nuovi materiali funzionali, dotati di proprietà modulabili; i CP, infatti, presentano potenziali applicazioni in diversi settori, quali ad esempio immagazzinamento di gas, scambio ionico, catalisi, conduttività, luminescenza, chiralità, magnetismo, ottica non lineare o deposizione di strati sottili. I CP vengono generalmente sintetizzati per “copolimerizzazione” di un opportuno legante polinucleanti con uno ione di un metallo di transizione avente almeno due siti di coordinazione disponibili. Al fine di ottenere nuovi CP, durante il primo anno del Dottorato di Ricerca sono state progettate e sintetizzate due diverse classi di nuovi leganti azotati potenzialmente polinucleanti. Test preliminari sulla reattività di questi composti con Cu(II), Ag(I), Zn(II) e Ru(II) in solventi protici hanno messo in evidenza la relativamente facile idrolisi dei leganti. Per questo motivo, lo studio delle loro proprietà coordinative a metalli di transizione è stato momentaneamente accantonato, e l’attenzione è stata focalizzata sulla comprensione del meccanismo della decomposizione in seguito al trattamento con metalli di transizione [Casarin et al. Inorg. Chim. Acta, 2009, 362, 4358; Casarin et al. J. Phys. Chem. A, 2008, 112, 6723]. E’ stato inoltre sviluppato un secondo progetto, riguardante la sintesi di cluster trinucleari triangolari di rame(II). Questi composti possono essere preparati facendo reagire carbossilati di Cu(II) con pirazolo (Hpz) in solvente protico (H2O, MeOH o EtOH). L’autoassemblaggio dei building blocks porta alla formazione di CP di diversa dimensionalità (1D, 2D o 3D) [Casarin et al. Inorg. Chem., 2004, 43, 5865; Casarin et al. Inorg. Chem., 2005, 44, 6265; Di Nicola et al. Inorg. Chem., 2007, 46, 221]. Sono stati quindi sintetizzati e caratterizzati nuovi cluster trinucleari triangolari di Cu(II) (partendo sia da carbossilati di Cu(II) saturi che insaturi) [Di Nicola et al. Eur. J. Inorg. Chem., 2009, 666; Contaldi et al. Dalton Trans., 2009, 4928]. Abbiamo inoltre esaminato la stabilità del frammento trinucleare [Cu3(μ3-OH)(μ-pz)3]2+ facendo reagire il composto [Cu3(μ3-OH)(μ-pz)3(CH3COO)2(Hpz)], 2, con diversi acidi forti. Benché in tutti i casi siano stati isolati complessi mononucleari, derivanti dalla parziale decomposizione del cluster trinucleare, la contemporanea formazione di derivati tri-, esa- ed eptanucleari, in alcuni casi porosi [Casarin et al. Cryst. Growth Des., 2007, 4, 676], ha messo in evidenza la relativa stabilità del frammento [Cu3(μ3-OH)(μ-pz)3]2+. Si è deciso quindi di utilizzare i differenti cluster trinucleari come materiale di partenza per la sintesi di nuovi CP, in cui più unità trinucleari fossero connesse tra loro tramite leganti polinucleanti. Abbiamo deciso di seguire due diversi approcci: i) sostituzione dei monocarbossilati con bicarbossilati; e ii) sostituzione dei leganti neutri coordinati ai centri di Cu(II) (pirazolo e/o molecole di solvente) con leganti azotati neutri bidentati. I primi tentativi in condizioni bench-top di sostituire gli ioni carbossilato facendo reagire i composti trinucleari con acidi bicarbossilici non hanno avuto successo, portando all’isolamento dei composti di partenza, mentre le reazioni condotte utilizzando i bicarbossilati hanno portato all’istantanea precipitazione di polveri insolubili. Le reazioni con leganti azotati neutri bidentati hanno invece portato all’ottenimento di risultati interessanti; infatti, sono stati isolati e caratterizzati numerosi nuovi CP. In particolare, dalla reazione di [Cu3(μ3-OH)(μ-pz)3(HCOO)2(Hpz)2(H2O)], 1, con un largo eccesso di 4,4’-bipiridina, è stato isolato un polimero di coordinazione poroso. Infine, sono state esaminate sia le proprietà elettrochimiche di alcuni CP di rame(II) da noi isolati che l’attività catalitica di alcuni di questi composti nella reazione di ossidazione perossidativa del cicloesano. Entrambi questi studi sono stati condotti nei laboratori del prof. Armando J. L. Pombeiro, presso il Centro de Química Estrutural dell’Instituto Superior Técnico (Lisbona). Più recentemente, abbiamo iniziato a studiare l’attività catalitica di 2 nell’ossidazione del metil-p-tolil solfuro al corrispondente solfossido. Risultati preliminari indicano che 2 è in grado di legare in modo reversibile l’ossigeno proveniente da H2O2 e di trasferirlo al solfuro.

In natural photosynthetic systems localised charge transfer (CT) interactions are employed to prolong photoexcited charge separated states, facilitating conversion to chemical energy. This thesis explores localised CT in redox-active Metal-Organic Frameworks (MOFs) for applications in electrocatalysis and photoelectrocatalysis. Two design strategies are adopted, the first of which incorporates cofacial dimeric units of the photo- and redox-active N,Nʹ-di(4-pyridyl)-1,4,5,8-naphthalenediimide (DPNDI) ligand into a Cd(II) MOF. Crystallographic characterisation of the structural flexibility in this MOF was achieved and linked to an enhanced capability for the MOF to stabilise photoexcited and radical states through localised Intervalence CT interactions. The ability of the material to stabilise the NDI photoexcited radical monoanion state (redox potential -2.1 V vs. SCE) was capitalised on to reduce a discrete organometallic Re(I) based CO2 electrocatalyst to its catalytically active form. Photoelectrocatalytic conversion of CO2 to CO was confirmed at modest reduction potentials of -1.2 V vs. Ag/Ag+. The second approach adopted in this project was the incorporation of the Ni bisdithiolene redox-active unit into a Zn(II) MOF, in the form of the [Ni(pedt)2]- metalloligand (where pedt represents 1-(pyridine-4-yl)ethylene-1,2-dithiolate). The combination of Zn(II) nodes and carboxylate co-ligand coordination resulted in effective electronic isolation of each [Ni(pedt)2]- ligand. The Ni bisdithiolene MOF was successfully applied as a heterogeneous proton reduction electrocatalyst under acidic conditions of 90 mM CH3COOH in 0.1 M [n-Bu4N]PF6/MeCN electrolyte. Tafel analysis of the electrocatalytic behaviour of both the ligand in solution and the MOF demonstrated similarities in catalytic mechanism, evidencing the conservation of molecular electrocatalytic behaviour.

La thèse commence le 1er octobre 2012. IL s'agit pour cette première année de thèse de synthétiser différents complexes de coordination a base du Ruthénium, Fer, Manganèse et de Cobalt à ligands polypyridinique. Ces complexes seront ensuite assemblés par lien covalent. Nous proposons d'utiliser entre autre les techniques d'electrochimie pour induire ces couplages. On cherchera aussi a immobiliser les assemblages sur surface. La principale difficulté attendue dans cette etape du travail concerne la fonctionalisation dissymétrique des ligands pour l'obtention de triade<br>This thesis deals with the synthesis and characterization of inorganic triads for photoinduced charge separation. A range of photosensitizers will be studied, and the effect of the donor and acceptor will be assesed as well. These systems will be studied in solution and immobalized on surfaces. Cette thèse traite de la synthèse et la caractérisation des triades inorganiques pour la séparation de charge photoinduite. Une gamme de photosensibilisateurs seront étudiées, et l'effet du donneur et accepteur sera ainsi étudié. Ces systèmes seront étudiés en solution et immobalizes sur les surfaces

Conjugated organic materials comprise a field of materials chemistry focused on the development of semiconducting organic plastics, popular applications of which are plastic solar cells and display technologies. One of the reasons these materials have gained so much attention is that their optical and electronic properties can be tuned through engineering at the molecular level. Thiophene, an aromatic heterocycle, is a popular building block in the synthesis of many conjugated materials, prized for both the ease in which it can be synthetically functionalized and its ability to form highly conductive and low band gap materials. The Rasmussen group has previously reported on the generation of two classes of materials, the inorganic metal thiophenedithiolenes and the fused-ring heterocycle unit thieno[3,4-b]pyrazine (TP), both of which have applications in conducting materials. In an effort to expand upon the applicability and versatility of these materials, a series of interconnected projects were performed to further tune their optical, electronic, and physical (e.g. solubility) properties. This involved synthetic molecular design, including judicious consideration of structure-function relationships, and characterization of the resulting materials. Highlights include a sterics vs. electronics consideration of the catalyzed hydrodebromination of the molecular building-block 2,3,5-tribromothiophene, variation of the coordinating metal in thiophenedithiolenes to tune the optics and electronics, and characterization of the effects of ring-fusion on TP-based terthienyl homopolymers. Additionally, a new application of the TP monomer was found, whereby it was successfully incorporated as a bridging ligand into a multi-metallic Ru(II) supramolecular assembly, which demonstrated good metal-metal communication.

Two new coordination polymers, DUT-82 and DUT-83 (DUT – Dresden University of Technology), were synthesized by a solvothermal reaction in methanol of rhodium(II) acetate and the tricarboxylic acid H₃btc (btc – benzene-1,3,5-tricarboxylate) or H₃btb (btb – benzene-1,3,5-tribenzoate), respectively. After drying using supercritical carbon dioxide, aerogels with specific surface areas of up to 1150 m² gˉ¹ and pore volumes of up to 2.26 cm³ gˉ¹ were obtained. Although there is no long range order in the materials, the presence of rhodium paddle-wheel units and thus a local order was proven by X-ray absorption spectroscopy measurements. DUT-82 shows good performance in the adsorption of hydrogen and a high affinity for carbon monoxide, which is rarely observed for metal–organic frameworks. Catalytic investigations demonstrate the activity of DUT-82 in the heterogeneous hydrogenation of styrene as a model system. DUT-82 can be recycled for at least ten cycles underlining the stability during the course of reaction.

Les alginates, polysaccharides extraits des algues brunes, sont des copolymères à blocs linéaires formés d'unités mannuronates (M) et guluronates (G). Leur structure dépend de la source naturelle. La complexation de cations divalents ou trivalents (sauf Mg2+) par les fonctions carboxylates conduit à la formation d'un hydrogel. Pour approfondir l'étude de la formation des gels ionotropiques d'alginate, des hydrogels et des aérogels séchés en conditions supercritiques ont été caractérisés à plusieurs échelles par différentes techniques. L'analyse orbitalaire ab initio de petits complexes a montré la formation de liaisons covalentes fortes avec les métaux de transition alors que les alcalino-terreux ne mettent en jeu que des interactions électrostatiques. Selon le rapport M/G et la nature des cations, différents régimes structuraux ont pu être identifiés par des mesures SAXS (~10-200Å) : des gels fibrillaires ou formés d'agglomérats interconnectés. Les propriétés mécaniques des hydrogels et les surfaces spécifiques des aérogels correspondants sont directement reliées à ces morphologies. La présence simultanée de plusieurs métaux dans les gels peut induire des effets coopératifs dans la formation mais aussi dans les propriétés des matériaux. De nouvelles méthodes ont été mises au point pour contrôler la synthèse de gels hétéro-cationiques, en considérant les effets d'affinité.Sur la base de cette étude, des synthèses originales de matériaux fonctionnels nano-structurés ont été développées. Certains ont été construits directement dans le réseau d'alginate en exploitant les cations de gélification ; d'autres ont nécessité le sacrifice de la matrice pour former des oxydes simples ou mixtes nanocristallins<br>Alginates, polysaccharides produced by brown algae, are linear block-copolymers formed by mannuronate (M) and guluronate (G) units. Their structure depends on the natural source. The coordination of divalent or trivalent cations (except Mg2+) with the carboxylate functions leads to the formation of a hydrogel. In order to get some insight in ionotropic alginate gel formation, hydrogels and supercritical dried aerogels were analysed through various characterizations at different scales. The ab initio molecular orbital analysis on small complexes revealed strong coordination-covalent bonds in the transition metal complexes, whereas only ionic interaction occurs between the alkaline-earth cations and the carboxylates. Depending on the M/G ratio and the nature of the cation, different structural regimes were identified by SAXS analysis (~10-200Å) : well-defined fibrillar gels or gels with multiple junction nature. The mechanical properties of the hydrogels and surface areas of the resulting aerogels are directly related to these morphologies. The concomitant presence of different metals in the gel can bring cooperative effect for the formation but also for the properties of the materials. New methods to control the synthesis of hetero-cationic gels were implemented, taking into account the affinity effects. On the basis of this study, we developed new nanostructured functional materials synthesis. Some were built directly in the alginate network using the gelling cations. Others needed to sacrifice the matrix to form nanocrystalline single or mixed oxides

Les polymères de coordination (PC) présentent un intérêt tant fondamental qu'appliqué de par leur structure et composition modulables ouvrant de nouvelles perspectives au niveau des propriétés chimiques (catalyse, conversion matériaux mous-durs…) et physiques (magnétisme, optique…). L'objectif principal de ces études consiste à vérifier le transfert de la structure, méso-structure et composition du PC vers la céramique obtenue par traitement thermique. Dans ce contexte, ce manuscrit décrit des études sur la conversion de polymères de coordination obtenus à partir d'un auto-assemblage entre des métaux 4f, 5f et de la 2,5-dihydroxy-1,4-benzoquinone (DHBQ). Dans un premier temps, des méthodes de synthèses, aqueuse et anhydre en atmosphère contrôlée, ont été mises au point. Ainsi, plusieurs types de PC ont été obtenus (4f, 4f-4f, 4f-5f), les composés mixtes formant des solutions solides. Après caractérisation de ces composés, leur comportement sous traitement thermique a été étudié. Les principaux résultats montrent que les précurseurs à base de DHBQ obtenus par voie aqueuse possèdent une méso-structure micrométrique, formée par l'assemblage de sous-unités monocristallines possédant la même structure cristallographique quelle que soit la morphologie observée. L'étude de l'assemblage de cette méso-structure a permis de contrôler la morphologie du grain élémentaire (cylindre, cube, disque…) avec une très bonne distribution en taille. La mise en œuvre de systèmes anhydres en atmosphère contrôlée a permis d'accéder à une plus large gamme de paramètres micro-structuraux (surface spécifique, porosité…). Pour l'ensemble des composés de type PC, la conversion thermique en céramique n'a pratiquement pas altéré la morphologie des matériaux. Les aspects microstructuraux ont pu être contrôlés via la méthode de synthèse<br>Coordination polymers (CP) are of great academic and industrial interest due to flexible structure and composition and offer prospects for original chemical (catalysis, soft-hard materials conversion…) and physical properties (magnetism, optics…). The major interest of these studies is to check the transfer of the structure, meso-structure and composition from the CP to the ceramic via a thermal treatment. In this context, this thesis describes studies on conversion of coordination polymers obtained by self-assembly of 4f and 5f metal ions with 2,5-dihydroxy-1,4-benzoquinone (DHBQ). Aqueous and anhydrous synthetic ways were developed, which yielded different kinds of CPs (4f, 4f-4f, 4f-5f) ; solid solutions were obtained with the mixed compounds. The products were characterized and their behaviour under thermal treatment was studied. The main results show that the DHBQ-based precursors obtained by aqueous way have a micrometric meso-structure, formed by the assembly of micro-crystalline subunits which all posses the same crystallographic structure. The study of the assembly of the meso-structure allowed controlling the morphology of the elementary grain (cylinder, cube, disk ...) with very good size distribution. The implementation of anhydrous systems in a controlled atmosphere allowed yielded a wider range of micro-structural parameters (surface area, porosity ...). For all CP-type compounds, the thermal conversion to ceramic has barely altered the morphology of the materials. The microstructural aspects could be controlled via the method of synthesis

Research in metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) has risen greatly in recent decades Owing to their unequaled potential tunability and structural diversity. MOFs may be described as crystalline structures composed of metal cations or clusters of cations, commonly referred to as secondary building units (SBUs), and custom-designed organic ligands. The variety of structural motifs, ligands, and SBUs that may be incorporated promote the attainment of essentially countless potential MOFs and application in numerous areas of interest, such as gas adsorption, catalysis, gas separation, and sensing. Further functionalization of MOF materials by means of post-synthetic modification(PSM)33–37 of metal clusters or organic ligands, constructing frameworks using functional ligands or metal clusters, and incorporating advantageous molecules including organometallic molecules,38–41 enzymes,42–45 metal nanoparticles (NPs),8,46–48 heteropolyacids49–51 within the pores advance the diverse number of species, including organic ligands, inorganic metal ions/clusters, and guests, used to construct MOFs materials lead to MOFs materials possessing phenomenal properties. Implementation of these materials in sensing arises from the frameworks’ characteristic ability to increase the concentration of a desired analyte to a greater degree than its overall presence within the system; imparting an inherent sensitivity to the aforementioned analyte. MOFs materials also possess the potential for selectivity for specific analytes or classes of analytes through mechanisms such as size exclusion (molecular sieving), chemically specific interactions between the adsorbate and framework, and the directed design of pore and aperture size through the selection of appropriate organic linkers or struts. Flexible azamacrocycle-based ligands are constructed through the use of pliable carboxylate pendant arms and azamacrocycles, e.g cyclen and tacn, and used in the pursuit of novel metal macrocycle frameworks (MMCF). Polyazamacrocycles represent a popular class of macrocyclic ligands for supramolecular chemistry and crystal engineering. This popularity may be due to their complexes’ high thermodynamic stability, relative kinetic inertness, basicity, transition metal-ion coordinating ability and rigid structure. Furthermore, their utilization promotes intriguing network topologies as coordination in complexes containing tetradentate azamacrocycles generally produces only two isomers differing via the coordination ligand’s conformation. The highly reported equatorial N4¬ ¬coordination of the macrocycle allows for interaction at the two vacant trans-axial positons, whilst the folded conformations permits interaction at two vacant cis positions. Azamacrocycle complexes differ from those of other classes of macrocycles due to the fact the macrocyclic cavity is commonly occupied by metal cations. Materials containing azamacrocycles have found use in applications such as bleaching and oxidative catalysis and molecular recognition. Cyclen units have reportedly been incorporated to construct pH-dependent selective receptors for copper (II), zinc(II), yttrium(III), and lanthanum(III) ions. Herein, we describe the synthesis and characterizations of a new lanthanide framework, La(C40H40N4O8)(NH2(CH2)2)NO3 or MMCF-3, which retains a vacancy in the macrocycle unit encourages the utilization of the framework as a cation receptor and precursor for heterometallic frameworks. The inclusion of azamacrocycles into MOF materials combine the characteristic high thermodynamic stability, basicity, and strong metal complexation of the macrocycles with the high porosity, surface area, and tunability of the frameworks. Full realization of the potential of Azamacrocyclic-based MOFs requires the preparation of new entrants to this class of materials that espouse various topological structures while incorporating diverse azamacrocycles. It has been shown that the hierarchical porosity associated with macrocyclic based frameworks can be obtained using this class of ligands.71,99 The development of more frameworks exhibiting this characteristic is needed to fully investigate the potential applications of MOFs retaining the vacant cavities of the azamacrocycles. Effectuation of hierarchical porosity of azamacrocyclic frameworks will broaden sensing applications, e.g. azamacrocycles have performed as receptors of anions, cations, amino acids and other analyte molecules, and provide an ideal slot to integrate open metal site into MOFs.

Thesis (MSc (Chemistry and Polymer Science))--University of Stellenbosch, 2010.<br>ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The number of coordination complexes utilizing bis-pyridyl diamide ligands has increased significantly over the past decade. This is attributed to the relatively easy synthetic procedure of the ligands and interesting structural features such as helicity, water clusters and porosity that the coordination complexes possess. In the first part of this study, the following eight structurally related bis-pyridyl diamide ligands: • N,N'-bis(pyridin-4-ylmethyl)isophthalamide (ISO); • N,N'-bis(pyridyl-4-ylmethyl)terephthalamide (TER); • N,N'-bis(pyridin-4-ylmethyl)hexanediamide (ADI); • N,N'-bis(pyridin-4-ylmethyl)butanediamide (SUC); • N,N'-bis(pyridin-4-ylmethyl)biphenyl-4,4'-dicarbonyl dicarboxamide (DIP); • N,N'-dipyridin-2-ylpentanediamide (GLUT); • (2E)-N,N'-bis(2-pyridin-4-ylmethyl)but-2-enediamide (FUM); • 4-(pyridin-4-ylmethyl)aminocarbonyl benzoic acid (TER-A). were synthesized and characterized by NMR, FTIR, MS and SCD. In the second part, the synthesized ligands were reacted with a variety of transition metal salts to yield fifteen novel coordination polymers and one discrete complex. SCD analysis showed that of the sixteen complexes thirteen formed 1-D chains, two formed 2-D networks, and one formed a discrete unit. Hydrogen bonding interactions between water molecules, the counterions and the amide groups resulted in connection of the lower dimension entities into higher dimension networks. The synthesized ligands were co-crystallized with trimesic acid and a novel co-crystal consisting of ADI and trimesic acid was obtained. SCD analysis showed that the co-crystal featured the amide homosynthon as well as the pyridine/carboxylic acid heterosynthon.<br>AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die aantal koördinasie komplekse met dipiridieldiamied ligande het noemenswaardig vermeerder oor die afgelope dekade. Hierdie groei kan toegeskryf word aan die eenvoudige sintetiese prosedure en interessante strukturele eienskappe van dié koördinasie komplekse, wat o.a. helikse, waterbondels en poreuse materiale vorm. In die eerste deel van hierdie studie is die agt onderstaande struktureel verwante dipiridieldiamied ligande se sintese en karakterisering deur kernmagnetieseresonansie, Fourier transform infrarooi, massaspektrometrie en enkel kristal X-straal diffraksie (SCD) beskryf: • N,N'-bis(piridien-4-ielmetiel)isoftalamied (ISO); • N,N'-bis(piridien-4-ielmetiel)tereftalamied (TER); • N,N'-bis(piridien-4-ielmetiel)heksaandiamied (ADI); • N,N'-bis(piridien-4-ielmetiel)butaandiamied (SUC); • N,N'-bis(piridien-4-ielmetiel)bifeniel-4,4'-dikarbonieldikarboksamied (DIP); • N,N'-dipiridien-2-ielpentaandiamied (GLUT); • (2E)-N,N'-bis(2-piridien-4-ielmetiel)but-2-eendiamied (FUM); • 4-(piridien-4-ielmetiel)aminokarboniel bensoësuur (TER-A). In die tweede gedeelte is bg. ligande met 'n reeks oorgangsmetaalsoute gereageer om vyftien nuwe koördinasiepolimere, asook een diskrete kompleks, te lewer. SCD analise toon dat van hierdie sestien komplekse vorm dertien 1-D kettings, twee vorm 2-D netwerke en slegs een vorm 'n diskrete eenheid. Waterstofbindings tussen die water molekules, die teen-ione en die amied groepe het laer dimensie (1-D) eenhede verbind om hoër dimensionele netwerke (2-D) te vorm. Mede-kristallisasie van die gesintetiseerde ligande met trimesielsuur het 'n nuwe mede-kristal tussen ADI en triemesielsuur opgelewer. Enkelkristal diffraksie toon dat die mede-kristal beide die amied homosinton en die piridien/karboksielsuur heterosinton bevat.

A theoretical model has been developed to advance the study of the thermodynamics of highly concentrated binary polymer solutions. This statistical mechanical theory was developed to allow the modeling of the molar Gibbs and Helmholtz free energies of mixing as well as the standard derived functions, such as the solvent and solute activities, and the molar enthalpies and entropies of mixing. Three major results have been generated from this work: (1) The polymer/solvent interactions can be partitioned into a coordination term, which leads to a configurational entropy, and an interaction energy of mixing term, which leads to the standard enthalpy of mixing; (2) The temperature dependence of the enthalpy of mixing yields an interaction energy of mixing which incorporates an additional entropy of mixing which is present for all types of systems, even athermal mixtures; and (3) The theory enables the use of experimentally obtained enthalpies of mixing to be used directly in the prediction of solvent activities, and experimentally determined solvent activities to be used as a predictor of the enthalpies of mixing without differentiating the experimental data. The theory was tested on fifteen binary systems. These systems had a range of physical property characteristics, from mixtures which can be considered almost ideal, to highly non-ideal athermal polymer solutions, to aqueous polymer solutions. The studied systems were; benzene/cyclopentane, benzene/cyclohexane, benzene/biphenyl, benzene/diphenylmethane, benzene/1,2-diphenylethane, cyclohexane/bicyclohexyl, n-hexane/n-hexadecane, toluene/polystyrene, chloroform/polystyrene, methylethylketone/polystyrene, cyclohexane/polystyrene, benzene/polypropylene glycol, benzene/polyethylene glycol, water/glucose, and water/polyethylene glycol. Parameters for each of these systems and components are tabulated. The experimental solvent activity data are graphed with the regression lines, and the experimental enthalpy of mixing data are graphed with the curves predicted from the solvent activity parameters. The average relative error of fit for the regression of the solvent activity data up to a polymer volume fraction of about 0.85 is less than ±0.0035, while for the entire solvent activity data set it is ±0.025. The average relative error of fit for the molar enthalpy of mixing predictions (excluding the water/PEG data) is less than ±0.005.

Nous avons mis en place un dispositif de microscopie par génération de somme de fréquences optiques pour étudier les milieux isotropes chiraux. Ce dispositif a tout d'abord été validé en utilisant la molécule chirale de bi-2-naphtol en solution liquide et en milieu sol-gel. Nous avons établi les conditions expérimentales permettant de limiter les phénomènes de blanchiment par absorption biphotonique du chromophore. Nous avons ensuite entrepris une étude des polymères de coordination chiraux élaborés à partir de l'auto-assemblage de ligands organiques chiraux et d'ions métalliques en solution. Nous avons mesuré un signal SFG chiral apparaissant lors du séchage de films de polymères et de complexes de coordination chiraux. Nous démontrons ainsi que la technique de microscopie SFG spécifique des milieux isotropes chiraux permet de détecter le processus de coordination des polymères de coordination chiraux en phase condensée et de suivre l'établissement de la phase solide<br>We have built a set-up to perform sum frequency generation (SFG) microscopy in order to study isotropic chiral media. This set-up was first validated with molecules of bi-2-naphthol in liquid solution and sol-gel matrices. We have established the experimental conditions to limit the bleaching phenomena of the chromophore by two-photon absorption. Next, we have conducted a study of chiral coordination polymers produced through the self-assembly of chiral organic ligands and metal ions in solutions. We have measured a chiral SFG signal developing while films of chiral coordination polymers and complexes are drying. Thus we show that SFG microscopy specific to isotropic chiral media makes it possible to detect the coordination process of chiral coordination polymers in the condensed phase and monitor the establishment of the solid phase

Thesis (Ph. D.)--Chemistry and Biochemistry, Georgia Institute of Technology, 2005.<br>Weck, Marcus, Committee Chair ; Jones, Christopher, Committee Member ; Collard, David, Committee Member ; Liotta, Charles, Committee Member ; Bunz, Uwe, Committee Member. Includes bibliographical references.

La conception de matériaux capables de piéger sélectivement le CO2 revêt un enjeu majeur dans le développement de procédé de capture post-combustion pour de nombreux secteurs industriels. Nos travaux visent l'élaboration de nouveaux polymères de coordination de type MOF (“Metal-Organic Framework”) préparés par auto-assemblage de briques moléculaires polycarboxyliques avec des métaux de transition qui constituent les noeuds du réseau tridimensionnel. Ces matériaux hybrides microporeux présentent des propriétés d’adsorption du CO2 importantes. Notre approche a consisté à synthétiser des polymères de coordination dans le but d'accroître la capacité et la sélectivité d'adsorption du CO2 vis-à-vis d'autres gaz comme CO, CH4, N2 et O2 grâce à des interactions physiques impliquant le moment quadripolaire élevé du CO2 et le potentiel électrostatique existant dans les pores du matériau. Dans ce mémoire sont décrites les synthèses des différentes briques moléculaires organiques constituées de polyamines et de polyazamacrocycles Nfonctionnalisées par des terminaisons benzocarboxylate. Des matériaux homo- et hétéro- bimétalliques présentant des structures cristallines originales ont été obtenus à partir de briques moléculaires triazamacrocycliques N-fonctionnalisées par des terminaisons acides carboxyliques et différents cations métalliques (Zn2+, Co2+, Cd2+ et Ni2+). Les études de ces polymères de coordination poreux ont révélé leur capacité d’adsorption importante du CO2 avec une sélectivité remarquable dans les conditions normales de température et de pression<br>The design of material able for CO2 capture is a major issue to achieve post-combustion capture process for many industries. Our work aims to develop new coordination polymer MOF (“Metal-Organic Framework”) prepared by self-assembling polycarboxylic linkers and transition metals. These microporous hybrids materials show important CO2 adsorption properties and are promising in the field of gas separation. The main topic of our work is to synthesise MOFs with high adsorption capacity and selectivity for CO2 over other gases (CO, CH4, N2 and O2). The gas-solid interactions are due to physical phenomena involving the high quadrupolar moment of CO2 and the electrostatic potential lying in the pore of the material. In this manuscript, the synthesis of various organic linkers incorporating N-functionalised polyamines and polyazamacrocycles with benzocarboxylate functions is described. Homo- and hetero- bimetallic materials with original tridimensional structure were obtained from a N-functionalised triazamacrocyclic linker and different metal cations (Zn2+, Co2+, Cd2+ and Ni2+). Studies of porous coordination polymers have shown high CO2 adsorption capacity with a remarkable selectivity in the ambient temperature and pressure conditions

La present Tesi Doctoral s'ha dedicat a explorar les capacitats de coordinació d’aminoàcids i pèptids per tal de desenvolupar nous Polimers de Coordinació (PCs) en forma de nanofibres a escala nanoemetrica, i poder utilitzar-los com a (doble) plantilla per la síntesi de superestructures fetes amb nanopartícules inorgàniques (INPs). Utilitzar PC en forma de nanofibres com a doble plantilla té l’avantatge de poder aprofitar tant les propietats de plantilla com les característiques inherents de reconeixement dels pèptids per tal de formar CPs. En el primer capítol es mostra una breu introducció als PC, centrant-se en l’ús de biomolècules. Aquest capítol inclou el treball titulat "Metal–biomolecule frameworks (MBioFs)", Chem. Commun (2011), on es fa una estesa i detallada descripció sobre aquests tipus de materials. A continuació, els objectius generals d'aquesta tesi es descriuen en el capítol 2. El Capítol 3 resumeix els resultats reportats en "Amino acid-based metal-organic nanofibers", J. Am. Chem. Soc. (2009). Aquí, es mostra la síntesi i caracterització de nanofibres de CP i gels construïts a partir de la coordinació d'amino àcids (L-o àcid D-aspàrtic, Asp) i ions metàl · lics (Cu (II) ions). Les nanofibres quirals de Cu(II)-Asp resultants s’han sintetitzat utilitzant tècniques de precipitació ràpida i de difusió lenta, amb les quals la longitud d’aquestes pot arribar fins a 1 centímetre. En el capítol 4, les nanofibres de Cu(II)-Asp s'han utilitzat com a cas-escenari de prova per explorar la tècnica de microfluídica (més precisament flux laminar) com a nou mètode sintètic per tal d'aconseguir un control més precís sobre l’assamblatge d'ions metàl·lics amb AA. S’ha demostrat que, a diferència dels procediments sintètics comuns, aquesta aproximació permet la síntesi en paral·lel amb un eminent nivell sobre el control de la coordinació, facilitant la formació de 1-D PC ensamblats a escala nanomètrica. A més de les nanofibres de Cu(II)-Asp, l’ús de la microfluidica ha permès la síntesis d’un segon tipus de nanofibres fetes amb aminoàcids, Ag(I)-Cisteina (Cys). S’ha confirmat que aquestes nanoestructures no es poden obtenir amb mètodes tradicionals com el de la precipitació ràpida dels dos components. Aquests resultats s'inclouen en el manuscrit "Coordination polymer nanofibers generated by microfluidic synthesis", J. Am. Chem. Soc. (2011). En un següent pas, el capítol 5 es centra en l'ús de les nanofibres de Ag (I)-Cys com a plantilles per tal de sintetitzar i acoblar NP inorgàniques en superestructures 1-D. En aquest capítol, primer es motra la síntesi de NPs de Ag2S ensamblades en 1-D exposant les nanofibres de Ag(I)-Cys sota un bombardeig d'electrons. A continuació, es mostra que aquestes plantilles sintetitzadades poden localitzar-se en posicions precises mitjançant la tecnologia de la microfluidica amb la incorporació de vàlvules de fluids microfabricades incorporades. La microfluídica permet orientar i localitzar la formació de les nanofibres de Ag (I)-Cys i a més, l'ús de vàlvules permet la immobilització de les fibres i poder utilitzar-les com a plantilles per a la síntesis de 1-D superestructures de NPs deAg. Aquestes superestructures s'han sintetitzat mitjançant la reducció (àcid ascòrbic) dels ions de Ag(I) que es troben dins de la plantilla. El nivell de control assolit amb la microfluídica ha permès que es puguin utilitzar més a fons aquestes superestructures de Ag NP com a segones plantilles per sintetitzar cristalls conductors de Ag (I)-tetracyanoquinodinmethane (TCNQ), permetent a més la mesura directe de les seves propietats de conductivitat. Tots aquests resultats estan inclosos en l'article presentat en el capítol 4 i en l'article titulat "Localized template growth of functional nanofibers from an metal-amino acid-supported framework in a microfluidic chip", ACS Nano 2014. Finalment, en el capítol 6, s'ha incrementat la complexitat dels PCs de Ag(I) fets a partir d'aminoàcids amb pèptids per tal d’explotar les característiques inherents de reconeixement que tenen els pèptids. S'ha sintetitzat una nova classe de plantilles metall-pèptid, cristalls de Ag(I)-DLL similars a cintes, amb els quals s'ha demostrat que poden ser utilitzats com a doble plantilla per a la síntesi i assamblatge de dos tipus de NPs inorgàniques, unes sobre la seva superfície (cara del cristall) i les altres dins de les seves estructures internes. En aquestes plantilles, les capacitats d'auto-assamblatge i reconeixement dels pèptids, i la reducció selectiva dels ions Ag(I) a Ag s'han explotat simultàniament per tal de controlar el creixement i l'assamblatge de més complexos multicomposicionals de superestructures amb NP inorgàniques. S'ha demostrat que aquests cinturons Ag(I)-DLL poden ser utilitzats com a dobles plantilles per crear llargues (> 100 µm) i polimetàl·liques superestructures conductores de Ag@AgNP i compostos multifuncionals de NPs de Fe3O4@Ag combinant les propietats magnètiques i conductores dels dos tipus de NPs. Aquests resultats han estat reportats en el manuscrit titulat "“Dual-template” Synthesis of one-dimensional conductive NP superstructures from coordination metal-peptide polymer crystals", Small (2013).<br>The present PhD Thesis has been dedicated to explore the coordination capabilities of amino acids and peptides to create novel nanoscale Coordination Polymers (CPs) in the form of nanofibers, and to use these nanofibers as (dual) scaffolds for the synthesis of superstructures made of inorganic nanoparticles (INPs). The use of CP nanofibers as dual scaffolds has taken advantage of the templating characteristics of CPs as well as the inherent recognition-template characteristics of the peptide that has been used to form the CP. In the first Chapter, we show a brief introduction to CPs, focusing on those constructed from biomolecules. This Chapter includes the review entitled "Metal–biomolecule frameworks (MBioFs)", Chem. Commun (2011), in which an extended, detailed description of this type of materials was reported. Then, the general objectives of this Thesis are described in Chapter 2. Chapter 3 summarizes the results reported in "Amino acid-based metal-organic nanofibers", J. Am. Chem. Soc.(2009). Here, we show the synthesis and characterization of CP nanofibers and gels built up from the coordination of amino acids (L- or D-aspartic acid, Asp) and metal ions (Cu(II) ions). The resulting chiral Cu(II)-Asp nanofibers have been synthesized using fast precipitation and slow diffusion techniques, from which their lenght could be extended up to 1 centimeter. In Chapter 4, Cu(II)-Asp nanofibers have been used as the test-case-scenario to explore microfluidics technology (more precisely, laminar flow) as a new synthetic approach to achieve precise control over the assembly of metal ions and amino acids. We have demonstrated that unlike common synthetic procedures, this approach enables parallel synthesis with an unprecedented level of control over the coordination pathway and facilitates the formation of 1D CP assemblies at the nanometer length scale. In addition to Cu(II)-Asp nanofibers, the use of microfluidics has allowed the synthesis of a second type of CP nanofibers made of amino acids Ag(I)-Cysteine (Cys) nanofibers. We have also confirmed that these nanostructures can not be synthesized with more traditional methods, such as fast mixing of both components. All these results are included in the manuscript entitled "Coordination polymer nanofibers generated by microfluidic synthesis", J. Am. Chem. Soc. (2011). In a next step, Chapter 5 focuses on the use of the Ag(I)-Cys nanofibers as templates to synthesize and assemble inorganic NPs into 1D superstructures. In this Chapter, we first show the synthesis of 1-D assemblies of Ag2S NPs by exposing the Ag(I)-Cys nanofibers to e-beam bombardment. We then show that this template synthesis can be localized at precise positions by using microfluidic technology with micro-engineered fluidic clamps incorporated. Microfluidics allows guiding and localizing the formation of Ag(I)-Cys nanofibers, whereas the use of clamps allows immobilizing these fibers and use them as templates to synthesize 1-D Ag NP superstructures. These superstructures have been synthesized via reduction (ascorbic acid) of the Ag(I) ions inside the scaffold structure. We anticipate that the level of control achieved with microfluidics has allowed us to further use these Ag NP superstructures as second templates to synthesize conductive Ag(I)-tetracyanoquinodinmethane (TCNQ) CP crystals, allowing also the direct measurement of their conductivity properties. All these results are included in the article presented in Chapter 4 and in the article entitled "Localized template growth of functional nanofibers from an metal-amino acid-supported framework in a microfluidic chip", ACS Nano 2014. Finally, in Chapter 6, we have increased the complexity of the Ag(I)-based CP from amino acids to peptides to exploit the inherent recognition-template characteristics of peptides. Here, we have synthesized a new class of metal-peptide scaffolds, Ag(I)-DLL belt-like crystals, that were proved to be used as dual-templates for the synthesis and assembly of two types of inorganic NPs, one on their surface (crystal face) and the other within their internal structures. In these CP scaffolds, the self-assembly and recognition capacities of peptides and the selective reduction of Ag(I) ions to Ag are simultaneously exploited to control the growth and assembly of more complex, multicompositional inorganic NP superstructures. We demonstrate that these Ag(I)-DLL belts could be applied as dual templates to create long (> 100 μm) conductive Ag@Ag NP superstructures and polymetallic, multifunctional Fe3O4@Ag NP composites that marry the magnetic and conductive properties of the two NP types. These results have been reported in the manuscript entitled "“Dual-template” Synthesis of one-dimensional conductive NP superstructures from coordination metal-peptide polymer crystals", Small (2013).

Thesis (MSc (Chemistry and Polymer Science))--Stellenbosch University, 2008.<br>In this study the coordination of ligands with several coordination sites, 2-aminoazoles (2- amino-4-methylthiazole), 2-aminobenzothiazole, 2-aminobenzoimidazole and 2- aminothiazoline and a biguanidine (N-(2-methylphenyl)imidodicarbonimidic diamide) to soft metal centres [gold(I) (group 11), chromium(0) (group 6) and tungsten (0) (group 6)] was investigated. The aminoazoles have three coordination sites, an exocyclic amine nitrogen, an endocyclic imine nitrogen and an endocyclic thioether sulphur. The biguanidine ligand has three sites for deprotonation, one central amine and two imine nitrogens, and at least five sites available for nitrogen coordination.

Ces travaux portent sur la conception et l’étude des propriétés photophysiques de polymères de coordination et organométalliques. Dans un premier temps, nous nous sommes intéressés aux adduits formés à partir d’halogénure de cuivre(I) (CuxXyLz ; X= I, Br, Cl). Cette famille de composés possède une grande richesse structurelle de part les conditions de synthèse (choix du ligand, stoechiométrie, choix du solvant, température…) et des propriétés de luminescence variées. Nous nous sommes concentrés sur la synthèse, la caractérisation physique et photophysique d’adduits de CuX à ligands de types monothioéther (RSR) et dithioéther (RS(CH2)nSR). Nous avons ensuite étendu notre étude aux adduits CuX coordinés à des ligands P-chirogéniques (i.e chiralité portée par l’atome de phosphore) puis à des adduits CuX coordinés à la fois par des ligands phosphorés (PPh3 ou dppm) et par des ligands mono- ou dithioéthers. Dans un second temps, nous avons voulu connaître l’impact de l’incorporation de ligands P-chirogéniques (P(C17H35)(Ph)(i-Pr)) sur les propriétés photophysiques de polymères organométalliques conjugués 1D à base de platine(II) et de ligands arylbiséthynyles (-C≡C(Ar)C≡C-). Ce type de polymère basé sur le platine(II) est souvent utilisé comme modèle dans la compréhension des transferts d’énergie dans les états excités. Ces polymères, une fois caractérisés, ont été comparés aux analogues achiraux contenant le fragment trans-Pt(P(PBu)3)2 et plusieurs différences ont été notées. Les observations et conclusions sur la relation structure-propriété sont utiles pour la conception future de matériaux photoniques portant des groupements chiraux<br>This work focuses on the design and study of photophysical properties of coordination and organometallics polymers. Initially, we focused on adducts formed from copper(I) halides (CuxXyLz; X = I, Br, Cl). Indeed, these compounds have great structural diversity depending on the synthesis conditions (nature of ligand, stoichiometry, choice of solvent, temperature...) and various luminescence properties. We focused on the synthesis, physical and photophysical characterization of copper(I) halide adducts based on monothioether (RSR) and dithioether (RS(CH2)nSR) ligands. Then, we extended our study to the adducts of copper(I) halide coordinated by phosphorus P-chirogenics ligands (ie chirality carried by the phosphorus atom) and then to CuX adducts coordinated by both phosphorus ligands (PPh3 or dppm)) and mono- or dithioether ligands. Secondly, the impact of the incorporation of P-chirogenics ligands (P(C17H35)(Ph)(i-Pr)) on the photophysical properties of organometallic conjugated polymers 1D based on platinum(II) and arylbisethynyles ligands (-C≡C(Ar)C≡C-) was investigated. This type of polymer based on platinum(II) is often used as a model for the understanding of excited states energy transfers. These polymers, once characterized, were compared to the achiral analogues containing the fragment of trans-Pt(P(PBu)3)2 and several differences were noted. The findings and conclusions on the structure-property relationship are useful in the future design of photonic materials bearing chiral groups

Ces travaux consistent en l’étude selon trois axes de la chimie de coordination des ligands de type acyle-hydrazone, faisant suite à l’isolation d’un complexe binucléaire de manganèse (III) portant un tel ligand, et montrant un fort couplage ferromagnétique. Le développement de leur chimie de coordination avec des éléments de la première série de transition a permis la synthèse de plusieurs complexes binucléaires, permettant d’étudier la relation entre les structures moléculaires de ces systèmes, et leurs propriétés magnétiques. En parallèle, une série de polymères de coordination de métaux alcalins et alcalino-terreux portant des ligands acyle-hydrazone fonctionnalisés par un groupement sulfonate a été étudiée. Enfin, la synthèse de deux ligands dérivés d’un anthracène est présentée, celle-ci est accompagnée d’une étude de leurs propriétés de coordination<br>This work consists in the study of the coordination chemistry of acyl-hydrazone ligands, following the discovery of a manganese (III) dinuclear complex showing a strong ferromagnetic coupling. The development of the acyl-hydrazone coordination to first-row transitional metals resulted in several dinuclear complexes allowing the study of the relationship between their structural and magnetic properties. In a second part the study of several coordination polymers of alkali and alkali-earth metals bearing acyl-hydrazone ligands functionalized with a sulfonate group is presented. Finally the synthesis of two anthracene-based ligands is presented along a study of their coordination properties

Les polymères de coordination (PCs) à base de thiolates de métaux monétaires sont bien connus pour leurs propriétés luminescentes. Cependant, leurs structures sont sous-explorées. Dans cette thèse, nous présentons une étude pionnière visant la compréhension de la formation de la structure et de la corrélation ‘structure-propriétés’ des PCs homoleptiques neutres, [M(SR)]n, M = Cu(I), Ag(I), Au(I). Les composés avec les dérivés du thiophénolate étudiés dans ce travail, illustrent comment l'utilisation de certains ligands organiques fonctionnalisés conduit à la formation de réseaux 2D étendus ou de colonnes 1D par l'addition d'un encombrement stérique. De plus, la première étude structurelle comparative des PCs thiolées amorphes a été réalisée par analyse PDF. Les études photophysiques ont montré la diversité des propriétés luminescentes des PCs à base de thiolates de métaux monétaires. Des pics d'émission doubles ou multiples, un rendement quantique élevé, des émetteurs orange à proche infrarouge, des variations significatives de durée de vie en fonction de la température... toutes ces propriétés intrinsèques révèlent le potentiel élevé de ces composés pour diverses applications optiques<br>The coordination polymers (CPs) based on thiolates of coinage metals are well known for their luminescence properties. However, their structures stayed underexplored. In the thesis we present a pioneering study targeting the understanding of the structure formation and the ‘structure-properties’ correlation for neutral homoleptic CPs, [M(SR)]n, M = Cu(I), Ag(I), Au(I). The compounds with thiophenolate derivatives studied in the work, illustrate how the use of some functionalized organic ligands leads to the formation of extended 2D networks or 1D columns by addition of some steric hindrance. The first comparative structural study of amorphous thiolated CPs was performed by PDF analysis. The photophysical studies showed the diversity of luminescent properties of the CPs based on thiolates of coinage metals. Double or multiple emission peaks, high quantum yield of orange-toinfrared emitters, significant lifetime variation with temperature… all of these intrinsic properties reveal the high potential of these compounds for diverse optical applications

Proprietes electrochimiques des complexes co-l, cu-l, ni-l (ou l=methyl-4, bipyridine-2,2', derive du pyrrole) dans l'acetonitrile. Polymerisation electrolytique de ces complexes sur des electrodes d'or, platine et carbone. Proprietes electrochimiques du polymere co-bipyridyl-polypyrrole; utilisation dans la reduction catalytique des derives allyliques

Ce travail théorique vise à étudier, via les méthodes Premiers Principes, les propriétés des complexes de métaux de transitions, left[Mleft(dmbpyright)_{3}right]^{n+}nCi^{-} pour un usage en batterie. Pour cette étude ab-initio, les composés mono et bi-nucléaires ont été retenus. La pertinance de notre modélisation a été validée sur les composés mononucléaires. Nous nous sommes interessé au complexes de Fe, Ru et Cu pour lesquels une validation expérimentale était possible. Notre étude a principalement consisté à faire varier les degrés de liberté que nous possédons pour optimiser le voltage et la cinétique de chargement des batteries. Pour cela, nous avons fait varier le TM = Fe, Ru, et Cu, la nature des contre-ions Ci^{-}=PF_{6}^{-}, TFSI^{-} et ClO_{4}^{-} en interaction avec le polymère lors du processus de charge, ainsi que la longeur de la chaîne alkyl qui sépare les deux monomers dans le cas des composés binucléaires. Le composé à base de Fe avec une chaîne -left(CH_{2}right)_{n=6}- a été retenu comme le meilleur candidat pour une application batterie. Le composé à base Ru montre un comportement proche de celui du Fe, quant-au complexe de Cu, il présente des changements de géométrie locale sous chargement trop importants, le rendant peu apte à conduire à une cinétique efficace. Cette étude nous a permis de déterminer que l'approximation PBE était le meilleur choix possible pour modéliser nos complexes dans les conditions de fonctionnement en batterie (dans le champ créé par les contre-ions) et que l'approximation PBE0, généralement utilisée dans la littérature, ne pouvait rendre compte de la physico-chimie de nos composés dans de telles conditions.De surcroît, nous avons dévelopé pour le complexe de Fe, un potentiel atomistique de type “Champ de forces” de manière à pouvoir aborder les aspects dynamiques impliquant de plus grandes tailles de boîte de simulation. Ici, nous modélisons une structure 3D, totalement réticulée à partir de nos monomères à base de Fe. Nous nous sommes servi de la base de donnés DFT que nous avions généré (énergies, géométries, état de spin et fréquences vibrationnelles calculées) pour ajuster les paramètres entrant dans l'écriture du modèle. La construction de la géométrie initiale du polymère 3D a nécessité l'écriture d'un code de calcul visant à produire un arrangement complétement réticulé et à assigner les charges effectives issues des calculs DFT. Ce modèle nous a permis de déterminer les coefficients de diffusion des contre-ions pour les états totalement chargé et non-chargé. Un calcul plus ambitieux vise à déterminer les chemins de diffusion des contre-ions lors d'un processus de chargement en considérant un seul centre de degré d'oxydation 3+ au centre du polymère 3D, pour lequel les centres actifs possèdent un degré d'oxidation 2+. Les contre-ions assurent la neutralité globale.Keyword: Polymer, Electrochemistry, Li-ion Battery, DFT, Force Field development, 3D structure, Atomistic modeling<br>Abstract Standard redox potentials for mono and bi-nuclear transition metal (TM) complexes left[Mleft(dmbpyright)_{3}right]^{n+}nCi^{-}, have been investigated using First Principles Calculation. Three metal centers are investigated: Fe, Ru, and Cu. Our modeling is validated on mono-nuclear compounds. This approach consists in determining the best small polymer (bi-nuclear) made out of these monomers for a battery application. For that, we varied the three available degrees of freedom i.e., the nature of the central TM atom (Fe, Ru, and Cu), counter-ions Ci=PF_{6}^{-}, TFSI^{-} and ClO_{4}^{-} in interaction with the polymer, and the alkyl chain -left(CH_{2}right)_{n}- of length n that connects both mono-nuclear in the bi-nuclear compound. The Iron compound with -left(CH_{2}right)_{n=6}- is found to be the best candidate. The left[Culeft(dmbpyright)_{2}right]^{n+}nCi^{-} complex shows too much structure deformation upon loading, making it less reliable for cathode material. Moreover, we studied two XC functional, PBE and PBE0 and found, for three complexes PBE approximation retains the ligand field picture whereas PBE0 functional induces an exaggerated and unexpected band dispersion by dissolving the ligand field picture expected for the octahedral environment of the TM in the studied complexes. These findings validate that hybrid functional for which it was designed to localize and cancel self-interaction error does not work for all system. More particularly, the PBE0 approximation fails to model the three complexes (Fe, Ru, and Cu) in functional conditions (in the field made by the counter-ions).Abstract Further, we have developed an atomistic potential relying on the Force Field scheme for the Iron complex in order to study the dynamical properties of this compound at larger simulation scale (3D reticulated polymerization made of our Fe complex monomers). We made an intensive use of our DFT data (energies, geometries, spin-state configurations and calculated vibrational properties) to develop the required parameters entering the model. Moreover, computational techniques (written python language) were developed specifically to create a 3D structure of transition metal complexes satisfying the condition to be fully reticulated. Bounding conditions had to be designed and a procedure aiming at fixing reliable and physical effective charges on each atom of the simulation cell (compatible with DFT results) were developed. Our first simulations have been attached to calculate the diffusion coefficients of the counter-ions in both the fully loaded and unloaded states. A more ambitious and realistic calculation aims at investigating the paths of the counter-ions when one single center starts to be loaded in an unloaded environment.Abstract Keyword: Polymer, Electrochemistry, Li-ion Battery, DFT, Force Field development, 3D structure, Atomistic modeling

Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit war zum einen die Entwicklung einer Synthesestrategie und deren praktischen Umsetzung zur Verwirklichung der Idee eines organometallischen Koordinationspolymers, in dem das verknüpfende Bindungsmotiv Metall-Kohlenstoff-Bindungen sind. Der zweite und größere Teil der Arbeit beschäftigte sich mit der Synthese von neuen metallorganischen Gerüstverbindungen auf der Basis von Carboxylatliganden. Diese sollten Eigenschaften besitzen, die sie als Gasspeichermaterialien, vor allem für Methan und Wasserstoff, geeignet erscheinen lassen. Durch Kombination von H3BTB und Co(NO3)2•6H2O wurde ein strukturell hochkomplexes MOF, DUT-28, erhalten, dessen hohe theoretisch, geometrisch berechnete Oberfläche (3875 m2/g) gute Gasspeichereigenschaften hätte erwarten lassen. Leider schlugen sämtliche Versuche, die metallorganische Gerüstverbindung in lösungsmittelfreier Form zu erzeugen, fehl. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass sich die Raumgruppe, in der DUT-28 kristallisiert, bei Verringerung der Temperatur (298 K auf 100 K) von C2/m zu C2/c ändert. Die durch dieses Faktum implizierte strukturelle Flexibilität könnte ein Grund für das Scheitern aller Bemühungen, DUT-28 unter Erhalt der Struktur zu aktivieren, sein. Die Entdeckung eines metallorganischen Polyeders, bestehend aus sechs Kupferschaufelradeinheiten und 12 Carbazol-3,6-dicarbonsäuren, regte eine Änderung der Synthesestrategie für die Darstellung weiterer MOFs an. Im Gegensatz zu der explorativen Vorgehensweise bei der Synthese von DUT-28 wurden im Folgenden durch Anwendung des sogenannten SBB Konzepts vergleichsweise kontrolliert weitere hochporöse MOFs dargestellt. Das SBB Konzept beschreibt im Kern den Aufbau dreidimensionaler Strukturen durch geeignete Verknüpfung von metallorganischen Polyedern und wurde vor allem durch ZAWOROTKO und EDDAOUDI bekannt. Die Verknüpfung der MOPs kann dabei sowohl über koordinative als auch kovalente Bindungen erfolgen. Ausgehend von dem beschriebenen Carbazol-MOP wurden zwei verschiedene Strukturen generiert, die sich durch Reduktion der SBBs auf 12-konnektive Knoten, als fcu bzw. ftw-a beschreiben lassen. Beide Strukturen wurden jeweils einmal isoretikular erweitert. Im Fall des fcu Netzes wurden die Carbazole über ihren Stickstoff mit einer starren Phenylen (DUT-48) bzw. Biphenylen (DUT-49) verbunden. Zur Erzeugung des ftw-a Netzwerks wurde eine Carboxyphenyl- (DUT 75) bzw. Carboxybiphenyleinheit (DUT 76) an den Carbazolstickstoff gebunden (Abbildung 1). Alle vier Verbindungen müssen überkritisch mit Kohlendioxid getrocknet werden. Alle Verbindungen zeigen hohe bis sehr hohe Oberflächen und Porenvolumina und sehr gute bis herausragende Wasserstoffspeicher- und Methanspeicherkapazitäten. DUT-76 besitzt mit rund 6400 m2/g eine herausragende spezifische Oberfläche und mit 3,25 cm3/g ein sehr großes spezifisches Porenvolumen. Alle vier Verbindungen zeigen hohe bis sehr hohe gravimetrische Speicherkapazitäten für Wasserstoff und Methan. Dabei ragt DUT-49 mit einer Rekordkapazität für Methan von 308 mg/g, und DUT-76 mit einer Wasserstoffkapazität von 82 mg/g, heraus. Zusammenfassend ist festzuhalten, dass es gelungen ist, eine Reihe metallorganischer Gerüstverbindungen zu synthetisieren, die sehr hohe bzw. rekordbrechende Gasspeicherkapazitäten für die alternativen Energieträger Wasserstoff und Methan aufweisen. Zur Synthese eines organometallischen Koordinationspolymers wurde ein besonders stabiler Übergangsmetallolefinkomplex als Bindungsmotiv gewählt (Abbildung 2a). Dieser Komplex ist nur ein lineares Verknüpfungsmotiv. Zur Herstellung von Dreidimensionalität wurden vier 7-norbornadienylreste, in jeweils 4-Position an ein Tetraphenylsilangerüst geknüpft. Die Synthese des Liganden (TNPS, vgl. Abbildung 2b) gelang in einer kurzen Sequenz von 3 Stufen ausgehend von reinem Norbornadien. Der TNPS-Ligand wurde in einer Ligandenaustauschreaktion mit dem oben genannten Rhodium-Norbornadienkomplex umgesetzt. Dabei wurde eine amorphe, gelartige Substanz erhalten (DUT-37) (vgl. Abbildung 2c und 3a). Durch Röntgenabsorptionspektroskopie, NMR-Experimente und Elementaranalyse konnte gezeigt werden, dass tatsächlich ein Ligandenaustausch stattgefunden hat, und die Bindungsverhältnisse innerhalb des Festkörpers denen im monomeren Komplex entsprechen. DUT-37 konnte ebenfalls nur durch überkritische Trocknung als permanent poröses Material erhalten werden. In diesen Zustand besitzt es eine spezifische Oberfläche von 470 m2/g und ein spezifisches Porenvolumen von 0,38 cm3/g. Es zeigt eine für poröse Polymere charakteristische Hysterese über den gesamten Relativdruckbereich und ist im aktivierten Zustand über mehrere Wochen stabil gegenüber atmosphärischen Bedingungen. DUT-37 zeigt eine merkliche Kapazität für Kohlenstoffmonoxid bei Raumtemperatur. Ein großer Anteil der CO-Moleküle wird allerdings chemisorbiert, was durch IR-Messungen gezeigt werden konnte. Durch Wasserdampfphysisorption konnte eine relativ hohe Hydrophobizität des Materials gezeigt werden, die möglicherweise eine Ursache für die überraschende Stabilität von DUT-37 ist. Abschließend, ist DUT-37 katalytisch aktiv in der Transferhydrierung von Cyclohexanon mit 2-Propanol (Abbildung 3b). Zusammenfassend ist es gelungen, im Rahmen dieser Arbeit erstmals ein poröses organometallisches Koordinationspolymer zu synthetisieren. Dieses zeigte interessante Adsorptionseigenschaften, eine unerwartete Stabilität und katalytische Aktivität.

L'objet majeur de cette étude est de contrôler la taille de nanoparticules de matériaux à transition de spin (TS), et d'étudier l'influence d'une réduction de taille sur les propriétés de commutation thermique. Plusieurs voies ont été explorées :<br />La première stratégie basée sur la synthèse d'oligomères puis l'assemblage en unités supérieures s'est révélée difficile due à un manque de réactivité. La deuxième approche a consisté à utiliser le confinement moléculaire au sein d'une nanogouttelette pour synthétiser des oligomères de coordination de quelques nanomètres, et mettre en place une véritable “ingénierie moléculaire” en microémulsion. La dernière partie de ce travail est consacrée à la synthèse de particules à TS d'une centaine de nanomètre en milieu micellaire inverse permettant la discussion de l'influence de la taille des particules sur le comportement coopératif.

Thesis (MSc (Chemistry and Polymer Science))--University of Stellenbosch, 2007.<br>A comprehensive, comparative structural study of gold(I), gold(II) and gold(III) compounds with the general formula [Aux(C6F5)y(tht)z] (tht = tetrahydrothiophene) was performed. The series of compounds included the unprecedented dinucleur gold(II) compound, tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)bis(tetrahydrothiophene)digold(II), which could be prepared in a rational manner. This very unique compound represents the first example of an unbridged dinucleur gold(II) compound in which the gold(II) centres are not stabilised by chelating ligands. Formation of this compound was postulated to have taken place by radical pentafluorophenyl (pfp) ligand migration along with AuII–AuII bond formation. It may therefore be regarded as a rare example of labile behaviour by a generally inert pfp ligand. In addition to this compound, the crystal and molecular structures of the wellknown gold(I) and gold(III) precursor compounds, (pentafluorophenyl)(tetrahydrothiophene) gold(I) and tris(pentafluorophenyl)(tetrahydrothiophene)gold(III) were carried out and are described for the first time. The latter underwent a unique mononuclear ligand rearrangement (metathesis or disproportionation) reaction in solution to yield the novel rearrangement product, bis(pentafluorophenyl)bis(tetrahydrothiophene)gold(III)tetrakis- (pentafluorophenyl)gold(III). In all the complexes, the Au–C and Au–S bond lengths displayed a variation which appears to be dependent on the oxidation state of the central gold atom. Both of these bond types were found to descrease in the order Au(II) > Au(III) > Au(I)...

La photosynthèse artificielle nécessite des catalyseurs pour des conversions efficaces et sélectives de petites molécules. Les catalyseurs moléculaires sont avantageux à utiliser dans ces cas car ils offrent un contrôle précis de la réactivité chimique. Ils peuvent être accordés synthétiquement et leurs mécanismes catalytiques sont souvent bien documentés et plus faciles à comprendre que ceux des catalyseurs à l'état solide. Dans cette thèse, l'incorporation synthétique de catalyseurs moléculaires dans des anodes moléculaires hétérogènes pour l'oxydation de l'eau est évaluée. Les catalyseurs sont incorporés en tant que lieurs structurels dans des cadres métallo-organiques poreux (MOFs) et en tant qu'oligomères de coordination empilés sur des surfaces graphitiques.La préparation de matériaux hybrides MOF/catalyseurs moléculaires de deux topologies, UiO (UiO = Universitet i Oslo) et NU-1000 (NU = Northwestern University), a été étudiée. De multiples méthodes de synthèse pour incorporer des catalyseurs moléculaires à base de ruthénium dans les MOF ont été discutées dans les articles I et II. Dans l'article III de cette thèse, un complexe moléculaire Ru-bda a été utilisé avec succès dans la synthèse solvothermique d'un nouveau MOF. Le matériau résultant est le premier de son genre qui est construit exclusivement à partir de lieurs moléculaires de catalyseurs d'oxydation de l'eau. Il est démontré que l'incorporation du MOF améliore de manière significative la stabilité structurelle du lieur catalytique dans les expériences d'oxydation chimique de l'eau, donnant lieu à des nombres de rotation plus élevés par rapport à un système de référence homogène. Enfin, l'article IV décrit un complexe moléculaire de ruthénium stable et inerte, qui possède un ligand équatorial multidenté adaptatif flexible (FAME) avec un carbanion sur le ligand équatorial qui forme une liaison C-Ru. Ce complexe moléculaire est étudié en phase homogène, puis incorporé dans un oligomère de coordination, qui peut être activé pour la catalyse de l'oxydation de l'eau. Cette découverte élargit considérablement le champ de la catalyse moléculaire et démontre que les interactions supramoléculaires peuvent être utilisées pour promouvoir l'électrocatalyse dans des complexes qui sont autrement trop inertes et stables pour s'engager dans des réactions électrocatalytiques<br>Artificial photosynthesis requires catalysts for efficient and selective conversions of small molecules. Molecular catalysts are advantageous to use in these instances as they offer precise control over chemical reactivity. They are synthetically tunable, and their catalytic mechanisms are often well documented and more readily understood than those of solid-state catalysts. In this thesis, the synthetic incorporation of molecular catalysts into heterogenised molecular anodes for water oxidation are evaluated. The catalysts are incorporated as structural linkers into porous metal-organic framework (MOF) structures, and as coordination oligomers stacked onto graphitic surfaces.The preparation of MOF/molecular catalyst hybrid materials of two topologies, UiO (UiO = Universitet i Oslo) and NU-1000 (NU = Northwestern University), were investigated. Multiple synthetic methods for the incorporation of molecular ruthenium-based catalysts into MOFs were examined in papers I and II. In paper III of this thesis, a Ru-bda type molecular complex was successfully used in the solvothermal synthesis of a new MOF. The resulting material is the first of its kind that is built exclusively from molecular water oxidation catalyst linkers. It is shown that MOF incorporation greatly enhances the structural stability of the catalyst linker in chemical water oxidation experiments, giving rise to higher turnover numbers compared to that of a homogenous reference system. Finally, paper IV describes a stable and inert molecular ruthenium complex, which possesses a flexible adaptative multidentate equatorial (FAME) type equatorial ligand with a carbanion on the equatorial ligand that forms a C-Ru bond. This molecular complex is studied in homogeneous phase, and subsequently incorporated into a coordination oligomer, which can be activated for water oxidation catalysis. This finding broadens the field of molecular catalysis significantly, and proves that supramolecular interactions can be used to promote electrocatalysis in complexes which are otherwise too inert and stable to engage in electrocatalytic reactions

Thesis (MSc (Chemistry and Polymer Science))--University of Stellenbosch, 2010.<br>ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Resorcinarenes are macrocyclic products formed from the condensation of aldehydes (aliphatic or aromatic) and resorcinol and have been used in a wide range of applications since their first synthesis. Applications include: HPLC stationary phases for the separation of pyrimidine bases, racemic drugs and isomers, the selective extractions of lanthanides and actinides, as molecular receptors, catalysis, NMR chiral shift agents, GC separations and as starting materials for the synthesis of macrocyclic compounds (e.g. cavitands and carcerands) to name but a few. The use of resorcinarenes in catalysis is still quite new and unexplored, while catalysis using calix[4]arenes, a related macrocycle, has been widely studied. In this thesis it was attempted to synthesise a C2v symmetric resorcinarene precursor that could be further functionalised to form distal bidentate ligands for coordination to transition metals. These compounds would then ultimately be used in catalytic testing, especially for Pd catalysed C-C bond formation. A dibromo resorcinarene precursor was synthesised starting from resorcinarene, using methodology developed by Shivanyuk. This molecule was functionalised with a small range of different electrophiles using lithium halogen exchange methodology, although low yields were returned for the expected distal resorcinarene compounds. Other methods of functionalisation of the resorcinarene, using an anionic ortho-Fries rearrangement and the reduction of a dinitrile resorcinarene to amine and aldehyde functionalities proved unsuccessful. Using a dithioether resorcinarene a di-nuclear coordination compound was formed with Pd(II). This compound was tested for catalytic activity with a Heck reaction, showing low yields for the coupling of styrene with bromobenzene.<br>AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Resorsinarene is makrosikliese produkte wat gevorm word deur die kondensasie van aldehiede (alifaties of aromaties) met resorsinol en word in ‘n verskeidenheid van toepassings gebruik sedert hulle eerste sintese. Tipiese voorbeelde sluit in: stationêre fases vir die HPLC-skeiding van pirimidien-basisse, rasemiese farmaseutiese middels en isomere, die selektiwe ekstraksie van lantaniede en aktiniede, molekulêre reseptore, katalise, chirale verskuiwingsreagense vir KMR spektrometrie, GC-skeidings en as uitgangverbindings vir die sintese van ander makrosikliese verbindings (bv. kavitande en karserande). Die gebruik van resorsinarene in katalise is ’n splinternuwe onontginde veld. In teenstelling hiermee is calix[4]areen, ’n verwante makrosikliese verbinding, baie meer bestudeer en vir katalise gebruik. Die doel van hierdie tesis was om ’n C2v simmetriese uitgangstof te sintetiseer wat verder gefunksionaliseer kan word om distale, bidentate ligande vir koordinasie met oorgangsmetale te lewer. Daar is beplan om die katalitiese eienskappe van die komplekse te toets, veral vir Pd-gekataliseerde C–C-koppelings reaksies. Deur gebruik te maak van ’n protokol wat deur Shivanyuk ontwikkel is, is ’n dibromo-resorsinareen gesintetiseer uit resorsinareen. Verskillende elektrofiele is in ’n litium-halogeen uitruilreaksie gebruik om ’n beperkte verskeidenheid nuwe ligande te sintetiseer wat verskillende funksionele groepe besit. Ongelukkig was die opbrengste aan distale ligande baie laag en ander metodes is dus ook ondersoek om die funksionalisering te bewerkstellig. ’n Anioniese orto-Fries herrangskikkingsreaksie en die reduksie van ’n dinitriel-resorsinareen om amien- en aldehiedfunksies te lewer, was ook onsuksesvol. Die reaksie tussen ‘n Pd(II) sout en ‘n ditioeter-gederivatiseerde resorsinareen het ‘n koordinasie verbinding met twee metaalkerne gelewer. Hierdie kompleks is deur middel van ‘n Heck-koppelingsreaksie vir katalitiese aktiwiteit getoets, maar het lae opbrengste gelewer in die koppeling van stireen en bromobenseen.