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1
Matthews, G. A. "Cotton Insect Pest Control." Outlook on Agriculture 18, no. 4 (December 1989): 169–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/003072708901800406.
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Despite competition from other natural and man-made fibres cotton remains the world's most important textile, of great economic importance in many of the countries in which it is grown. It is prone to a number of pests which reduce yield and the control of these presents many problems. While integrated pest management can solve many of these, some use of insecticides cannot be avoided.
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Baker, M. A., A. H. Makhdum, M. Nasir, A. Imran, A. Ahmad, and F. Tufail. "COMPARATIVE EFFICACY OF SYNTHETIC AND BOTANICAL INSECTICIDES AGAINST SUCKING INSECT PEST AND THEIR NATURAL ENEMIES ON COTTON CROP." Journal of Mountain Area Research 1 (August 27, 2016): 1. http://dx.doi.org/10.53874/jmar.v1i0.6.
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The Synthetic and botanical insecticides are relatively safer for environment and beneficial insects. The study was conducted in Rahim Yar Khan during the cotton cropping season 2014 to evaluate the comparative efficacy of two Synthetic insecticides i.e. Nitenpyram (Jasper 10% SL) and Pyriproxyfen (Bruce 10.8% EC) and two botanical extracts of Calotropic procera and Azadirachta indica, against sucking insect pest complex of cotton and their natural enemies. Upon reaching economic thresholds, the recommended field doses of all the insecticides were applied on cotton cultivar MNH-886. Data against sucking pests and their natural enemies was recorded 24 hours prior to insecticidal application and then 24, 48, 72 and 96 hours after insecticidal application. Results revealed that Nitenpyram was much toxic against sucking pests followed by Pyriproxyfen as compared to two botanical extracts. On the other hand, the synthetic insecticides did not prove safer for natural enemies as compared to botanical extracts. It was concluded that as an Integrated Pest Management (IPM) strategy, botanical extracts can be used at low infestation levels so that ecosystem service of biological control may be sustained.
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Mink, J. S., and R. G. Luttrell. "MORTALITY OF FALL ARMYWORM, SPODOPTERA FRUGIPERDA (LEPIDOPTERA: NOCTUIDAE) EGGS, LARVAE AND ADULTS EXPOSED TO SEVERAL INSECTICIDES ON COTTON." Journal of Entomological Science 24, no. 4 (October 1, 1989): 563–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.18474/0749-8004-24.4.563.
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Mortality of eggs, first, third, and fifth instars and adults of fall army worm (FAW), Spodoptera frugiperda (J. E. Smith), after exposure to several insecticides on cotton indicated that the FAW is susceptible to most insecticides currently used to control Heliothis spp. Most insecticides tested exhibited ovicidal activity. High mortality of first instar larvae was observed for most treatments, including the biological insecticide, Bacillus thuringiensis (Berliner). More variation in mortality among treatments was observed in third and fifth instars than in first instars. Pyrethroid, carbamate, and organophosphorous insecticides resulted in higher mortality than did B. thuringiensis. Diflubenzuron, an insect growth regulator, was as effective as commonly used insecticides against third and fifth instar larvae when mortality was observed at pupation. Third instar FAW placed on plant tissue from the upper section of cotton plants sprayed in field situations suffered higher mortality than those placed on plant tissue from lower sections in the plant canopy. Inadequate deposition of insecticide in the lower portions of the cotton plant appears to be a limiting factor in control of FAW larvae on cotton.
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Nurindah, Nurindah, and Dwi Adi Sunarto. "Developing Cotton IPM by Conserving Parasitoids and Predators of The Main Pest." Jurnal Entomologi Indonesia 8, no. 2 (September 27, 2015): 110–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.5994/jei.8.2.110-120.
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On early development of intensive cotton program, insect pests were considered as an important aspect in cotton cultivation, so that it needed to be scheduled sprays. The frequency of sprays was 7 times used 12L of chemical insecticides per hectare per season. Development of cotton IPM was emphasized on non-chemical control methods through optimally utilize natural enemies of the cotton main pests (Amrasca biguttulla (Ishida)Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner)). Conservation of parasitoids and predators by providing the environment that support their population development is an act of supporting the natural enemies as an effective biotic mortality factor of the insect pests. The conservation could be done by improving the plant matter and cultivation techniques that include the use of resistant variety to leafhopper, intercropping cotton with secondary food plants, mulch utilization, using action threshold that considered the presence of natural enemies, and application of botanical insecticides, if needed. Conservation of parasitoids and predators in cotton IPM could control the insect pests without any insecticide spray in obtaining the production of cotton seed. As such, the use of IPM method would increase farmers’ income.
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Chamberlain, D. J., Z. Ahmad, M. R. Attique, and M. A. Chaudhry. "The influence of slow release PVC resin pheromone formulations on the mating behaviour and control of the cotton bollworm complex (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae and Noctuidae) in Pakistan." Bulletin of Entomological Research 83, no. 3 (September 1993): 335–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0007485300029229.
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AbstractComparisons of infestation and damage levels by the cotton bollworms, Pectinophora gossypiella (Saunders) (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae), Earias vittella (Fabricius) and E. insulana (Boisduval) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) were made in cotton fields treated with pheromones + insecticide, insecticides only, and untreated control plots, in Pakistan during the 1991 cotton season. Early to mid season control of these three pests by mating disruption in the pheromone + insecticide treated plots meant that an average reduction of 3.5 applications of insecticides was achieved when compared with the insecticide only treated plots to control the cotton pest complex. Night observations showed that there were far fewer adult moths visible in the pheromone + insecticide treated plots than in insecticide only treated plots. Adults of both sexes were much less active and did not mate as frequently as adults in the insecticide only plots.
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Grundy, P. R. "Utilizing the assassin bug, Pristhesancus plagipennis (Hemiptera: Reduviidae), as a biological control agent within an integrated pest management programme for Helicoverpa spp. (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) and Creontiades spp. (Hemiptera: Miridae) in cotton." Bulletin of Entomological Research 97, no. 3 (May 24, 2007): 281–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0007485307004993.
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AbstractHelicoverpa spp. and mirids, Creontiades spp., have been difficult to control biologically in cotton due to their unpredictable temporal abundance combined with a cropping environment often made hostile by frequent usage of broad spectrum insecticides. To address this problem, a range of new generation insecticides registered for use in cotton were tested for compatibility with the assassin bug, Pristhesancus plagipennis (Walker), a potential biological control agent for Helicoverpa spp. and Creontiades spp. Indoxacarb, pyriproxifen, buprofezin, spinosad and fipronil were found to be of low to moderate toxicity on P. plagipennis whilst emamectin benzoate, abamectin, diafenthiuron, imidacloprid and omethaote were moderate to highly toxic. Inundative releases of P. plagipennis integrated with insecticides identified as being of low toxicity were then tested and compared with treatments of P. plagipennis and the compatible insecticides used alone, conventionally sprayed usage practice and an untreated control during two field experiments in cotton. The biological control provided by P. plagipennis nymphs when combined with compatible insecticides provided significant (P<0.001) reductions in Helicoverpa and Creontiades spp. on cotton and provided equivalent yields to conventionally sprayed cotton with half of the synthetic insecticide input. Despite this, the utilization of P. plagipennis in cotton as part of an integrated pest management programme remains unlikely due to high inundative release costs relative to other control technologies such as insecticides and transgenic (Bt) cotton varieties.
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Pankey, Joseph H., James L. Griffin, B. Rogers Leonard, Donnie K. Miller, Robert G. Downer, and Richard W. Costello. "Glyphosate–Insecticide Combination Effects on Weed and Insect Control in Cotton." Weed Technology 18, no. 3 (September 2004): 698–703. http://dx.doi.org/10.1614/wt-03-153.
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Field studies were conducted to evaluate weed control with combinations of glyphosate at 750 g ae/ha and the insecticides acephate (370 g ai/ha), dicrotophos (370 g ai/ha), dimethoate (220 g ai/ha), fipronil (56 g ai/ha), imidacloprid (53 g ai/ha), lambda-cyhalothrin (37 g ai/ha), oxamyl (280 g ai/ha), or endosulfan (420 g ai/ha) and insect control with coapplication of the herbicide with insecticides acephate, dicrotophos, dimethoate, and imidacloprid. Applying lambda-cyhalothrin or fipronil with glyphosate reduced control of hemp sesbania by 19 and 9 percentage points, respectively, compared with glyphosate alone. Acephate, dicrotophos, dimethoate, imidacloprid, lambda-cyhalothrin, oxamyl, and endosulfan did not affect hemp sesbania, pitted morningglory, prickly sida, and redweed control by glyphosate. Lambda-cyhalothrin and fipronil did not affect glyphosate control of weeds other than hemp sesbania. Addition of glyphosate to dicrotophos improved cotton aphid control 4 d after treatment compared with dicrotophos alone. Thrips control was improved with addition of glyphosate to imidacloprid. Insect control was not reduced by glyphosate regardless of insecticide.
8
Critchley, B. R., D. J. Chamberlain, D. G. Campion, M. R. Attique, M. Ali, and A. Ghaffar. "Integrated use of pink bollworm pheromone formulations and selected conventional insecticides for the control of the cotton pest complex in Pakistan." Bulletin of Entomological Research 81, no. 4 (December 1991): 371–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0007485300031928.
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AbstractHollow-fibre, microencapsulated and twist-tie formulations of the pheromone of the pink bollworm Pectinophora gossypiella (Saunders) (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) were used in trials conducted in Pakistan from 1985–1988. Early season control of this pest by mating disruption, permitted an average reduction of two applications, of conventional insecticides otherwise required to control the cotton pest complex, particularly at the time of flower and fruit setting when beneficial insects are most numerous. The pheromone formulations, together with a mixture of selective and broad-spectrum insecticides in plots of 5 or 10 ha of cotton were compared with plots of cotton, of similar size in the same locality treated with a conventional insecticide spray programme and in plots where no insecticide applications were made for the control of bollworms. Comparisons of numbers of infested bolls and estimated yields showed that levels of control achieved using the pheromone/insecticide combinations were equal in effect to conventional programmes of insecticide sprays, whereas in plots where no bollworm control measures were taken, significantly higher bollworm infestations and reduced yield estimates were recorded.
9
Li, Fen, Herbert Venthur, Shang Wang, Rafael A. Homem, and Jing-Jiang Zhou. "Evidence for the Involvement of the Chemosensory Protein AgosCSP5 in Resistance to Insecticides in the Cotton Aphid, Aphis gossypii." Insects 12, no. 4 (April 9, 2021): 335. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/insects12040335.
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It has been speculated that insect chemosensory proteins (CSPs) may have additional roles beyond olfaction. In this study, the phylogenetic and genomic analyses of the CSPs of the cotton aphid, Aphis gossypii, revealed the presence of gene gain-and-loss among different aphid field populations. Differential expressions of eight CSP genes were demonstrated after treatments with insecticides of different modes of action. The expression of AgosCSP5 was significantly upregulated by the insecticide treatments in a dose-dependent manner. The Drosophila flies overexpressing AgosCSP5 were significantly less susceptible to the insecticides, omethoate, imidacloprid and cypermethrin but not to deltamethrin and tau-fluvalinate, compared with control flies. The transgenic Drosophila flies exhibited an LC50 resistance ratio of 2.6 to omethoate, compared with control flies. Likewise, the mortality of the transgenic flies to imidacloprid and cypermethrin was significantly lower than that of the control flies (p < 0.01). Homology modelling, molecular docking and dynamic simulation supported the interactions and revealed a higher stability of AgosCSP5/insecticide complexes than AgosCSP5/semiochemical complexes. Our study demonstrates for first time the in vivo evidence for the involvement of CSP genes in insecticide resistance of crop insect pests and provides new insights of the newly discovered CSP-mediated insect resistance mechanism to insecticides.
10
Sunarto, Dwi Adi, and Nurindah Nurindah. "Peran insektisida botani ekstrak biji mimba untuk konservasi musuh alami dalam pengelolaan serangga hama kapas." Jurnal Entomologi Indonesia 6, no. 1 (December 15, 2016): 42. http://dx.doi.org/10.5994/jei.6.1.42.
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Natural Enemies Conservation: The Role of Neem-seed Extracts for Natural Enemies Conservation Used of Cotton Insect Pest Control. Insects associated with cotton plant are numerous, as the plant bears extrafloral nectar. More than 90 species of natural enemies are reported and identified. They could manage the cotton pest, keeping the pest population is under action threshold level when their presence is considered in scouting and action threshold concept. However, most of cotton farmers are insecticide-spray-minded people who think that insecticide sprays is a must in cotton cultivation. This behavior is unfavorable for the natural enemies in building their population so they can act as an effective mortality factor for the pest. Neem seed extract (NSE) is toxic to herbivores but relatively safe for natural enemies, so that it could be used as a substitute for synthetic chemical insecticides. Therefore, NSE is recommended to be used for conserving natural enemies in cotton agro ecosystem.
11
Rosenheim, Jay A. "Control Failures Following Insecticide Applications in Commercial Agriculture: How Often Do They Occur? A Case Study of Lygus hesperus (Hemiptera: Miridae) Control in Cotton." Journal of Economic Entomology 114, no. 3 (April 16, 2021): 1415–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jee/toab067.
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Abstract Although surveys of pest populations documenting evolved insecticide resistance often suggest abundant potential for insecticide control failures, studies documenting the actual occurrence of such failures in commercial agriculture are rare. If farmers currently practice adaptive management, abandoning the use of insecticides once resistance emerges, actual control failures could be rare. Here I use data gathered by independent pest management consultants to describe a case study of the realized efficacy of commercial field applications of insecticides, examining the control of Lygus hesperus Knight on cotton. On average, insecticides reduced target pest populations to 19% of their preapplication densities. Short-term efficacy of insecticides was variable, but only one severe control failure was observed (1 of 50, 2%). The rarity of severe control failures observed in this study is in agreement with the few other studies conducted in commercial settings, but additional research is needed to assess the generality of this result. Although pesticides can cause longer-term problems, including target pest resurgences and secondary pest outbreaks, risk-averse attitudes among farmers coupled with relatively consistent short-term insecticide efficacy may be potent forces propelling farmers toward the use of insecticides.
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Oliveira-Marra, Sharrine Omari Domingues, Raul Narciso Carvalho Guedes, Cristina Schetino Bastos, Pedro Henrique Alves Marra, Lucia Madalena Vivan, and Anderson de Moura Zanine. "Insecticide resistance and control failure likelihood among populations of the boll weevil (Anthonomus grandis) from Mato Grosso (Brazil)." Acta Scientiarum. Agronomy 41 (September 5, 2019): e42714. http://dx.doi.org/10.4025/actasciagron.v41i1.42714.
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The cotton producers from southern Mato Grosso are currently experiencing control failure with the use of the use of insecticides against the cotton boll weevil Anthonomus grandis Boheman, the main pest species of this commodity. Therefore, the present study was designed to survey insecticide resistance and the associated likelihood of control failure among boll weevil populations in the region. Ten insect populations were sampled during the 2016/2017 season and subjected to time-mortality (contact) bioassays in glass vials impregnated with dried insecticide residues at their respective label rates. The three insecticides most frequently used in the region were surveyed: the organophosphate malathion and the pyrethroids beta-cyfluthrin and zeta-cypermethrin. The survival curves showed estimates of the respective median survival time (LT50) for each combination of insecticide and insect copulation. However, there were no significant differences in susceptibility among populations. The estimates of control failure likelihood for each compound at their respective label rates also indicated negligible risk of control failure with their use. These findings are consistent with time-mortality results indicating the lack of insecticide resistant populations at the surveyed sampling sites, suggesting that the reported field control failures result from other causes such as problems with insecticide application.
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Masud, Sharif M., Ronald D. Lacewell, John R. Stoll, J. Knox Walker, James F. Leser, and Christine Sellar. "Impact of a More Intensive Insect Pest Infestation Level on Cotton Production: Texas High Plains." Journal of Agricultural and Applied Economics 17, no. 2 (December 1985): 117–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0081305200025115.
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AbstractThis study evaluated implications of increased bollworm problems in a 20-county area of the Texas High Plains relative to cotton yields and economic impact. Results did not indicate a serious effect of bollworms upon lint yield when insecticides were used for control. However, estimated annual reduction in farmer profit due to the bollworm for 1979-81 was over $30 million. Yields were estimated to decline about 300,000 bales without insecticide use and about 30,000 bales with insecticide use. This decline suggests potentially serious implications for the comparative economic position of cotton in this region if insecticide resistance were to develop among insect pests.
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Rolim, Guilherme G., Lucas S. Arruda, Jorge B. Torres, Eduardo M. Barros, and Marcos G. Fernandes. "Susceptibility of Cotton Boll Weevil (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) to Spinosyns." Journal of Economic Entomology 112, no. 4 (March 30, 2019): 1688–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jee/toz066.
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AbstractThe control of boll weevil, Anthonomus grandis grandis Boh., relies primarily on synthetic insecticides. Although insecticides are registered to spray cotton fields against boll weevils, only a few offer satisfactory control and most have broad-spectrum action. Alternatively, spinosyns have been recommended against lepidopteran pest species in cotton and are considered comparatively of reduced risk to nontargets. The susceptibility of nine populations of boll weevil to spinosad and spinetoram was determined through dried residue on squares and cotton leaves. Furthermore, control efficacy of spinosad and spinetoram compared with the standard organophosphate malathion was determined for caged adults at two different positions within the plant canopy or treated cotton leaves after different spray intervals. Boll weevil susceptibility varied across the nine populations and tested spinosyns. The lethal concentrations (LC50s and LC90s) varied from 8.62 to 32.25 and 49.86 to 281.70 mg a.i./l for spinosad and from 2.17 to 15.36 and 8.58 to 69.36 mg a.i./l for spinetoram. The location of boll weevil within the plant canopy affected the insecticide efficacy with higher mortality when caged on upper parts rather than on lower parts of cotton plants (>85% vs <45% of control) across all three insecticides. In addition, dried residues of spinosyns resulted in adult mortality >80% until the end of the evaluation period (8 d), while the standard malathion caused only 10% at this last evaluation time. Thus, we can conclude that both spinosyns promoted prolonged adult mortality using recommended field rates compared with the standard malathion.
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Juvik, John A. "IMPROVED HOST PLANT RESISTANCE BY MODIFICATION OF PLANT CHEMICAL CUES ASSOCIATED WITH HELIOTHIS ZEA HOST PLANT SELECTION FOR OVIPOSITION." HortScience 25, no. 9 (September 1990): 1178a—1178. http://dx.doi.org/10.21273/hortsci.25.9.1178a.
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Heliothis zea (Boddle) is one of agriculture's worst insect pests. Reduction in crop productivity and costs for insecticidal control of this cosmopolitan pest cost U.S. agriculture many millions of dollars annually. The sesquiterpenes (+)-E-å-santalen-12-oic and (+)-E- endo- β–bergamoten-12-oic acids isolated from hexane leaf extracts of the wild tomato species, Lycopersicon hirsutum, have been shown to attract and stimulate oviposition by female H. zea. Extracts from other host plants (tobacco, corn, and cotton) also possess attractant/oviposition stimulant activity to female H. zea. Studies are underway to assess the potential use of these and other phytochemicals for the control or monitoring of population levels of H. zea in tomato, corn and cotton fields.The isolation and structural identification of insect pest oviposition stimulants in horticultural crop species can provide valuable information to plant breeders involved in developing cultivars with improved insect host plant resistance. This information could be used to develop cultivars lacking the chemical cues used by insects for host plant location and recognition. Risks of public exposure to toxic insecticides through consumption of agricultural produce and polluted ground water emphasize the critical need for the development of crop genotypes with improved best plant resistance as a supplementary method of insect pest management in agricultural ecosystems.
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Funderburk, Joseph E., Nicole Casuso, Norman C. Leppla, and Michael Donahoe. "Insect and Mite Integrated Pest Management in Florida Cotton." EDIS 2017, no. 1 (January 25, 2017): 14. http://dx.doi.org/10.32473/edis-in1111-2017.
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Insect and mite pests of cotton feed on cotton roots, leaves, stems, and fruit and reduce plant health and productivity, and, subsequently, cotton crop yields. These pests hide in different places on or within the plant or field, which makes them difficult to find and identify and costly to manage. The purpose of this 14-page guide written by Joseph Funderburk, Nicole Casuso, Norman Leppla, and Michael Donahoe and published by the Department of Entomology and Nematology is to provide Florida cotton growers a selected set of options for integrated pest management of insects and mites in cotton fields. It serves as a reference for cultural, mechanical, biological, and chemical control of arthropods. The guide includes links to additional UF/IFAS EDIS articles, as well as external sources of information on arthropod management. The guide also contains a searchable table of registered insecticides, herbicides, and fungicides for Florida cotton.edis.ifas.ufl.edu/in1111
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Critchley, B. R., D. G. Campion, L. J. McVeigh, E. M. McVeigh, G. G. Cavanagh, M. M. Hosny, EL-Sayed A. Nasr, A. A. Khidr, and M. Naguib. "Control of pink bollworm, Pectinophora gossypiella (Saunders) (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae), in Egypt by mating disruption using hollow-fibre, laminate-flake and microencapsulated formulations of synthetic pheromone." Bulletin of Entomological Research 75, no. 2 (June 1985): 329–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0007485300014425.
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AbstractHollow-fibre, laminate-flake and microencapsulated formulations of the synthetic sex pheromone (a 1:1 mixture of (Z, Z)- and (Z, E)-7, 11-hexadecadienyl acetate) of Pectinophora gossypiella (Saunders) were compared in large-scale mating disruption trials in Egypt in 1982. Fifty-hectare blocks of cotton were treated at regular intervals throughout the season with the formulated pheromone as the sole means of controlling the pest. The pheromone treatments were compared with conventional insecticide spray treatments in other 50-ha blocks of cotton sited in the same localities. Comparisons of numbers of infested flowers and green boils, open boll counts, crop development, yield of seed cotton, lint quality and seed damage in pheromone-and insecticide-treated blocks, showed that adequate levels of control were achieved using the pheromone formulations, which were equal in effect to the insecticide sprays. Beneficial insects were found in greater numbers in the pheromone-treated areas than in areas treated with insecticides.
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Tillman, P. Glynn. "Susceptibility of Microplitis croceipes and Cardiochiles nigriceps (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) to Field Rates of Selected Cotton Insecticides1." Journal of Entomological Science 30, no. 3 (July 1, 1995): 390–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.18474/0749-8004-30.3.390.
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Microplitis croceipes (Cresson) and Cardiochiles nigriceps Vierick, parasitoids of Heliothis virescens (F.), were treated topically with field rates of 14 formulated insecticides commonly used in cotton insect control. The 14 insecticides were oxamyl, thiodicarb, endosulfan, acephate, azinphosmethyl, chlorpyrifos, dicrotophos, dimethoate, methyl parathion, profenofos, bifenthrin, cyhalothrin, cyfluthrin, and cypermethrin. With the exception of thiodicarb, all insecticides were extremely toxic to M. croceipes, causing 100% mortality of adult wasps. Treatment with thiodicarb resulted in high survival of adults for each parasitoid species. Acephate was extremely toxic to M. croceipes, but relatively non-toxic to C. nigriceps. Mortality also was lower for C. nigriceps females than for C. nigriceps males and M. croceipes for both sexes when wasps were treated with oxamyl. Nine of the 14 insecticides tested were extremely toxic to C. nigriceps, causing 100% mortality of adult wasps. Treatment with 5 insecticides - thiodicarb, acephate, oxamyl, azinphosmethyl, and cypermethrin - resulted in higher survival for C. nigriceps adults than was obtained for the other nine insecticide treatments. For both male and female C. nigriceps, thiodicarb and acephate were less toxic than the other three insecticides. Generally, these five insecticides were less toxic to females than males. An exception was the lower mortality of male C. nigriceps versus females of this species for treatment with acephate. Of the three insecticides commonly used for boll weevil control (oxamyl, azinphosmethyl, and methyl parathion), oxamyl was the least toxic to C. nigriceps females. Cypermethrin was less toxic to C. nigriceps females than the other three pyrethroids tested. Selective use of insecticides which permit higher parasitoid survival could facilitate conservation of these native biological control agents.
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Scott, W. P., G. L. Snodgrass, R. Shaw, and D. A. Adams. "Impact of Insecticides Applied With/Without Bromoxynil Herbicide on Various Cotton Pests in Laboratory Bioassays." Journal of Entomological Science 31, no. 4 (October 1, 1996): 365–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.18474/0749-8004-31.4.365.
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Spray chamber tests with BXN cotton, Gossypium hirsutum (L.), plant terminals demonstrated that mixing bromoxynil herbicide with different classes of insecticides had no negative effects on the efficacy of the insecticides for boll weevils, Anthonomus grandis grandis (Boheman), tarnished plant bugs, Lygus lineolaris (Palisot de Beauvois), or tobacco budworms, Heliothis virescens (F.). Efficacy of azinphos-methyl for control of tarnished plant bugs was significantly increased at 48 h when mixed with bromoxynil. A significant decrease in survival of the tobacco budworm occurred at 24 h when cyfluthrin was mixed with bromoxynil. Bromoxynil can be applied for weed control in cotton as early as the seedling stage. The ability to mix a herbicide with an insecticide can save on application costs.
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Tabashnik, Bruce E., Leighton R. Liesner, Peter C. Ellsworth, Gopalan C. Unnithan, Jeffrey A. Fabrick, Steven E. Naranjo, Xianchun Li, et al. "Transgenic cotton and sterile insect releases synergize eradication of pink bollworm a century after it invaded the United States." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 118, no. 1 (December 21, 2020): e2019115118. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2019115118.
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Invasive organisms pose a global threat and are exceptionally difficult to eradicate after they become abundant in their new habitats. We report a successful multitactic strategy for combating the pink bollworm (Pectinophora gossypiella), one of the world’s most invasive pests. A coordinated program in the southwestern United States and northern Mexico included releases of billions of sterile pink bollworm moths from airplanes and planting of cotton engineered to produce insecticidal proteins from the bacteriumBacillus thuringiensis(Bt). An analysis of computer simulations and 21 y of field data from Arizona demonstrate that the transgenic Bt cotton and sterile insect releases interacted synergistically to reduce the pest’s population size. In Arizona, the program started in 2006 and decreased the pest’s estimated statewide population size from over 2 billion in 2005 to zero in 2013. Complementary regional efforts eradicated this pest throughout the cotton-growing areas of the continental United States and northern Mexico a century after it had invaded both countries. The removal of this pest saved farmers in the United States $192 million from 2014 to 2019. It also eliminated the environmental and safety hazards associated with insecticide sprays that had previously targeted the pink bollworm and facilitated an 82% reduction in insecticides used against all cotton pests in Arizona. The economic and social benefits achieved demonstrate the advantages of using agricultural biotechnology in concert with classical pest control tactics.
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Brévault, T., J. Carletto, J. Tribot, and F. Vanlerberghe-Masutti. "Insecticide use and competition shape the genetic diversity of the aphid Aphis gossypii in a cotton-growing landscape." Bulletin of Entomological Research 101, no. 4 (February 15, 2011): 407–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0007485310000635.
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AbstractField populations of the cotton aphid, Aphis gossypii Glover, are structured into geographically widespread host races. In the cotton-producing regions of West and Central Africa (WCA), two genotypes have been repeatedly detected within the cotton host race, one of which (Burk1) is prevalent (>90%) and resistant to several insecticides, as opposed to the second one (Ivo). Here, we conducted whole plant and field cage experiments to test hypotheses for such low genetic diversity, including selection from insecticide treatments, interclonal competition and adaptation to host plant, or climatic conditions. To assess the genetic diversity of immigrant aphids, alatae were trapped and collected on cotton and relay host plants (okra and roselle) in the early cropping season. Individuals were genotyped at eight specific microsatellite loci and characterized by a multilocus genotype (MLG). When independently transferred from cotton (Gossypium hirustum L.) leaf discs to whole plants (G. hirsutum and G. arboreum, roselle and okra), Ivo and Burk1 performed equally well. When concurrently transferred from cotton leaf discs to the same plant species, Ivo performed better than Burk1, indicating that competition favoured Ivo. This was also the case on G. hirsutum growing outdoors. Conversely, Burk1 prevailed when cotton plants were sprayed with insecticides. In experiments where aphids were allowed to move to neighbouring plants, Burk1 was better represented than Ivo on low-populated plants, suggesting that dispersal may be a way to avoid competition on crowded plants. Most cotton aphids collected on cotton or relay host plants in the early cropping season were Burk1 (>90%), indicating high dispersal ability and, probably reflecting high frequency on host plants from which they dispersed. In the agricultural landscape of WCA, the use of broad-range insecticides on both cotton and relay host plants has led to the prevalence of one genotype of A. gossypii resistant to different classes of insecticides. Deployment of widespread and integrated pest management strategies are needed to restore cotton aphid control.
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Corbin, J. C., T. B. Towles, W. D. Crow, A. L. Catchot, D. R. Cook, D. M. Dodds, and J. Gore. "Evaluation of Current Tarnished Plant Bug (Hemiptera: Miridae) Thresholds in Transgenic MON 88702 Cotton Expressing the Bt Cry51Aa2.834_16 Trait." Journal of Economic Entomology 113, no. 4 (April 25, 2020): 1816–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jee/toaa075.
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Abstract The tarnished plant bug, Lygus lineolaris (Palisot de Beauvois), is an important pest of cotton in many areas of the southern United States. An experiment was conducted at two locations in Mississippi during 2016 and 2017 to evaluate action thresholds for tarnished plant bug on a novel Bacillus thuringiensis cotton that expresses the Cry51Aa2.834_16 toxin. Treatments included the current action threshold, a 2× threshold, and treatments where insecticides were only applied during the early season (preflower) or only during late season (during flowering) based on the current action thresholds. These were compared to an untreated control and a weekly insecticide use regime that received weekly insecticide sprays. All treatments were imposed on both Bt Cry1Aa2.834_16 cotton and a nontraited cotton. The Bt Cry1Aa2.834_16 trait reduced the number of tarnished plant bugs and injury, and improved yields compared to nontraited cotton. For all spray treatments except the weekly insecticide use regime, yields were greater for the Bt Cry51Aa2.834_16 cotton than the nontraited cotton. In terms of thresholds, Bt Cry1Aa2.834_16 cotton sprayed based on current action thresholds resulted in similar yields to the weekly insecticide use regime of both cotton types. In contrast, the 2× threshold resulted in lower yields than the current threshold for both cotton types. Though thresholds intermediate to the currently recommended action threshold and the 2× threshold were not tested, these data suggest that currently recommended action thresholds appear appropriate for Bt Cry51Aa2.834_16 cotton. These results suggest that this trait will be an important component of current IPM programs in cotton where tarnished plant bug is an important pest.
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MA, Xiao-yan, Han-wen WU, Wei-li JIANG, Ya-jie MA, and Yan MA. "Weed and insect control affected by mixing insecticides with glyphosate in cotton." Journal of Integrative Agriculture 15, no. 2 (February 2016): 373–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s2095-3119(15)61188-1.
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Rowland, Mark, Barry Pye, Mary Stribley, Barbara Hackett, Ian Denholm, and Roman M. Sawicki. "Laboratory apparatus and techniques for the rearing and insecticidal treatment of whitefly Bemisia tabaci (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae) under simulated field conditions." Bulletin of Entomological Research 80, no. 2 (June 1990): 209–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0007485300013444.
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AbstractLaboratory apparatus and techniques are described for the rearing and insecticidal treatment of whitefly, Bemisia tabaci Gennadius, under simulated field conditions. Insects were reared on cotton plants inside large population cages and treated from an overhead sprayer. The effects of these treatments were assessed accurately, without interfering with insects or plants, by monitoring adult numbers with an endoscope over one or more generations. Examples of single-generation and multiple-generation tests with cypermethrin are described. The apparatus is suitable for testing strategies for delaying the selection of resistance (e.g. using insecticides applied singly, alternately, or in mixture, at various application rates and frequencies), for controlling populations already resistant to insecticides, and for integrated pest management using chemical and biological control agents together.
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Graham, Scott H., Fred M. Musser, Alana L. Jacobson, Anitha Chitturi, Beverly Catchot, and Scott D. Stewart. "Behavioral Responses of Thrips (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) and Tarnished Plant Bug (Hemiptera: Miridae) to a New Bt Toxin, Cry51Aa2.834_16 in Cotton." Journal of Economic Entomology 112, no. 4 (March 28, 2019): 1695–704. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jee/toz058.
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Abstract Thrips (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) and tarnished plant bug, Lygus lineolaris (Hemiptera: Miridae), are among the most important insect pests of cotton, Gosssypium hirsutum, in the mid-southern United States. These pests are currently managed primarily by insecticides; however, a new Bt toxin, Cry51Aa2.834_16 is under evaluation for control of thrips and tarnished plant bug. Experiments were conducted to evaluate the behavioral response of thrips and tarnished plant bug to Bt Cry51Aa2.834_16. Adult thrips avoided Bt Cry51Aa2.834_16 cotton in field choice tests and in separate field tests of Bt and non-Bt cotton not treated with insecticides. In a greenhouse choice test, approximately twice as many adult thrips and eggs were found on non-Bt compared with Bt Cry51Aa2.834_16 cotton. Similarly, in a field test of nontreated Bt Cry51Aa2.834_16 and non-Bt cotton, 68% of adult thrips collected were found on non-Bt cotton. In cotton that was not sprayed with insecticides, Bt Cry51Aa2.834_16 did not affect the distribution of tarnished plant bug within the canopy, although more square and flower injury was caused by tarnished plant bug in non-Bt cotton. Adult tarnished plant bug exhibited a nonpreference for diet containing lyophilized Bt Cry51Aa2.834_16 leaves and for excised Bt Cry51Aa2.834_16 squares in choice tests with non-Bt squares. The behavioral responses of these pests when exposed to this new Bt toxin will play a key role in the efficacy and potential resistance management strategies if this new technology is incorporated in an overall cotton insect pest management system.
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Tillman, P. Glynn, and William Scott. "Susceptibility of Cotesia marginiventris (Cresson) (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) to Field Rates of Selected Cotton Insecticides2." Journal of Entomological Science 32, no. 3 (July 1, 1997): 303–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.18474/0749-8004-32.3.303.
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The parasitoid Cotesia marginiventris (Cresson) was treated topically with minimum recommended field rates of formulated insecticides commonly used in cotton insect control. The 14 insecticides were acephate, azinphosmethyl, bifenthrin, cyhalothrin, cypermethrin, endosulfan, esfenvalerate, fipronil, methomyl, methyl parathion, oxamyl, profenofos, thiodicarb, and AC 303,630. Eleven of the 14 insecticides were extremely toxic to C. marginiventris, causing 80 to 100% mortality of adult wasps, whereas treatment with thiodicarb, oxamyl, and acephate resulted in lower mortality of C. marginiventris males and females. For both male and female C. marginiventris, thiodicarb and oxamyl were less toxic than acephate. Esfenvalerate was the least toxic pyrethroid for C. marginiventris females. Of the three insecticides used in boll weevil control (oxamyl, azinphosmethyl, and methyl parathion), oxamyl was the least toxic to C. marginiventris. Selective use of the insecticides which result in higher survival could facilitate conservation of C. marginiventris.
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Wilson, L. J., L. R. Bauer, and D. A. Lally. "Effect of early season insecticide use on predators and outbreaks of spider mites (Acari: Tetranychidae) in cotton." Bulletin of Entomological Research 88, no. 4 (August 1998): 477–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s000748530004222x.
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AbstractThe Australian cotton industry relies almost exclusively on synthetic insecticides for control of early season pests. These insecticides often disrupt predatory insect activity in the field. Potential predators of the twospotted spider mite, Tetranychus urticae Koch, in cotton, identified in field and confirmed in laboratory experiments, included a theridiid spider, a phytoseiid mite, a lacewing larva, predatory thrips, several Coccinellidae and several Hemiptera. These predators were mostly generalists, having previously been reported as predators of aphids or caterpillars of Helicoverpa spp. The effect of insecticides on T. urticae and its predators was evaluated in three field experiments. Cotton was artificially infested with T. urticae then sprayed five times at seven to ten day intervals with either dimethoate (140 g ai/ha), thiodicarb (750 g ai/ha and 187.5 g ai/ha), endosulfan (735 g ai/ha and 367.5 g ai/ha), methomyl (169 g ai/ha) or amitraz (400 g ai/ha). Tetranychus urticae populations reached higher densities in dimethoate, thiodicarb and methomyl treated cotton than in untreated cotton. Population densities of T. urticae in cotton treated with low rates of endosulfan or thiodicarb were similar to controls, while those in cotton treated with amitraz were lower. All insecticides caused significant reductions in at least one predator group. Significant negative relationships were found between early season abundance of predators and the mid-season abundance of T. urticae and positive relationships between predators and the lag-period for T. urticae outbreaks to develop. Predation is implicated as a key factor influencing the early season survival of T. urticae. The implications for developing integrated pest management strategies in cotton are discussed.
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Zhang, Wei, Yanhui Lu, Wopke van der Werf, Jikun Huang, Feng Wu, Ke Zhou, Xiangzheng Deng, Yuying Jiang, Kongming Wu, and Mark W. Rosegrant. "Multidecadal, county-level analysis of the effects of land use, Bt cotton, and weather on cotton pests in China." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 115, no. 33 (July 16, 2018): E7700—E7709. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1721436115.
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Long-term changes in land use, climate, and agricultural technologies may affect pest severity and management. The influences of these major drivers can only be identified by analyzing long-term data. This study examines panel data on land use, adoption of genetically modified Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) insect-resistant cotton, weather, pest severity, and insecticide use on three major cotton pests for 51 counties in China during 1991–2015. Bt cotton had pervasive effects on the whole pest complex in cotton and its management. Adoption resulted in major reductions in insecticide use for bollworm control. The resulting restoration of aphid biological control decreased aphid severity. However, mirid bugs, which have few effective natural enemies in cotton, increased in severity with warming May and reduced insecticide spraying against bollworm. The effects of landscape on pest severity were pest specific. The severity of cotton aphid and mirid bugs decreased with higher land use diversity, but the severity of highly polyphagous cotton bollworm was unrelated to land use diversity. Shares of forest, water body, and unused land area were negatively associated with the severity of mirid bugs, whereas cotton bollworm responded positively to the shares of water body and unused land area. Farmers sprayed insecticides at mild infestation levels and responded aggressively to severe bollworm outbreaks. Findings support the usefulness of Bt-based plant resistance as a component of integrated pest management (IPM) but highlight the potential for unexpected outcomes resulting from agro-ecosystem feedback loops as well as the importance of climate.
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Meyers, H. B., D. R. Johnson, and C. D. Klein. "Evaluation of Selected Insecticides for Control of Bollworm and Budworm, 1995." Arthropod Management Tests 21, no. 1 (January 1, 1996): 258–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/amt/21.1.258a.
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Abstract Cotton was planted on 17 May at the Robert Fratesi farm in Jefferson County. Plots consisted of 8 rows (40 inch centers) X 50 ft. Treatments were arranged in a RCBD with 4 replications. Insecticide treatments were applied on 19 Jun, 2 Jul, and 15 Jul with a CO2 sprayer mounted on a John Deere 6000 hi-cycle. Total volume was 9.91 gpa at 25 psi using Teejet TXVS-6 nozzles on 20 inch spacings. Insect counts on the first 2 evaluation dates (19 Jul, 2 Aug) were made by whole plant examination of 14 row ft in the center of each plot. Insect counts on the last evaluation date (15 Aug) were made by randomly examining 50 squares and terminals throughout the plot.
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Corbin, David R., Frederick J. Perlak, David A. Fischhoff, John T. Greenplate, Zhen Shen, and John P. Purcell. "New Proteins for the Control of Insects in Transgenic Crops." HortScience 31, no. 4 (August 1996): 699b—699. http://dx.doi.org/10.21273/hortsci.31.4.699b.
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Genetically modified potato and cotton crops that express insecticidal proteins from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) have recently been commercialized. These crops display autonomous resistance to specific insect pests, and thus offer major agricultural and environmental benefits. We have implemented a microbial screening program to discover new types of insecticidal proteins for use in transgenic crops. New proteins with diverse modes of action offer opportunities to control insect pests that are not susceptible to Bt insecticidal proteins and to delay or prevent the potential occurrence of resistance of insects to crops genetically modified with Bt genes. Cholesterol oxidase emerged from our screen as a new insecticidal protein with potent activity against the cotton boll weevil. Cholesterol oxidase was acutely toxic to boll weevil larvae, with an LC50 of 2–6 parts per million when ingested in artificial diet feeding assays, and caused marked reductions in fecundity when ingested by adult boll weevils. Cholesterol oxidase also exerted significant, though less severe, toxicity against several lepidopteran pests. The insecticidal action of cholesterol oxidase appears to be due to oxidation of midgut epithelial membrane cholesterol followed by membrane disruption. A cholesterol oxidase gene was cloned and expressed in transgenic tobacco plants to yield plant tissue that exerted potent activity against boll weevil. Expression of this cholesterol oxidase gene in cotton plants may offer significant protection against the cotton boll weevil and may also aid in the mitigation of resistance of cotton lepidopteran pests to Bt proteins.
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Chamberlain, D. J., B. R. Critchley, D. G. Campion, M. R. Attique, M. Rafique, and M. I. Arif. "Use of a multi-component pheromone formulation for control of cotton bollworms (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae and Noctuidae) in Pakistan." Bulletin of Entomological Research 82, no. 4 (December 1992): 449–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0007485300042504.
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AbstractA hand-applied ‘twist-ti’ pheromone formulation containing the combined pheromones of Pectinophora gossypiella (Saunders) (Gelechiidae), Earias vittella (Fabricius) and E. insulana (Boisduval) (Noctuidae) was used in trials conducted in Pakistan from 1986 to 1988. In plots of cotton ranging in area from 2.8 to 6.0 ha, season-long control of the bollworm complex was achieved using the pheromone formulation applied alone or together with one conventional insecticide treatment, with the conventional insecticide spray programme requring up to five applications of insecticide to achieve a similar level of control. No significant differences were found in yield estimates from plots treated with pheromones compared with plots receiving conventional insecticide treatments. Significantly higher levels of boll infestation and lower yield estimates occurred in control plots where neither pheromones nor insecticides were applied.
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Nakache, J., E. Dunkelblum, M. Kehat, L. Anshelevich, and Miriam Harel. "Mating disruption of the spiny bollworm, Earias insulana (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), with Shin Etsu twist-tie ropes in Israel." Bulletin of Entomological Research 82, no. 3 (September 1992): 369–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s000748530004116x.
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AbstractShin Etsu twist-tie ropes containing the spiny bollworm (Earias insulana(Boisduval)) pheromone were tested for mating disruption in a cotton field in Israel during 1991. Two applications of the Shin Etsu rope formulation (1000 ropes/ha), containing 50 mg pheromone per rope, effectively disrupted mating of E. insulana, reduced damage to cotton bolls, and minimized the number of chemical treatments needed. The success of the mating disruption, which lasted for more than 3.5 months, was indicated by the following: 1. Reduction of trap catches in the pheromone-treated plot as compared with the control plot (commercially treated with insecticides). 2. Lower infestation of cotton bolls in the pheromone-treated as compared with the control plot. 3. Over 90% reduction in mating success in the pheromone-treated plot, as indicated by the number of mating pairs collected at night in the two plots. 4. Reduced number of insecticidal treatments applied in the pheromone-treated plot. The release rate of the pheromones was monitored by periodical gas chromatography analyses of the remaining pheromone in ropes. The half lives of the E. insulana and Pectinophora gossypiella (Saunders) (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) formulations were similar, with t1/2=45-60 days. In Israel, E. insulana and P. gossypiella infest cotton fields almost simultaneously and are controlled by the same insecticides. Therefore, the control of E. insulana with pheromones is essential in order to give reasonable meaning to the commercial application of pheromones for the control of P. gossypiella, as is practised today in many cotton fields. The present study indicates that control of E. insulana by the mating disruption technique is viable.
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Varón, Edgar Herney, Márcio Dionizio Moreira, and Jenny Paola Corredor. "Efecto de Corythucha gossypii sobre las hojas de higuerilla: criterios para su muestreo y control con insecticidas." Corpoica Ciencia y Tecnología Agropecuaria 11, no. 1 (June 30, 2010): 41. http://dx.doi.org/10.21930/rcta.vol11_num1_art:193.
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<p>El chinche de encaje, Corythucha gossypii (Fabricius) (Hemiptera: Tingidae), es un insecto plaga del algodón, pero ha sido reportado en más de veinticuatro hospederos, incluyendo higuerilla (Ricinus communis L). El objetivo de este trabajo fue evaluar si esta plaga disminuye el periodo de vida útil de las hojas, establecer la superficie de muestreo de la hoja que mejor representa las poblaciones de esta plaga y la eficacia de seis insecticidas para su control en higuerilla. La vida útil de las hojas fue negativamente influenciada por la presencia del insecto plaga; a mayor número inicial de insectos, menor fue el tiempo para la pérdida de hojas. La superficie del envés fue la que mejor representó la población de C. gossypii con un promedio ± Error Standard (ES) de 55,10 ± 4,76 de individuos y una correlación con la población total de 99,60%, R2 =0,99 y p < 0,0001; comparado con 3,44 ± 0,57 individuos y una correlación de 66,32%; R2=0,44 y p < 0,0001 para la superficie del haz. El orden de eficacia de control para 3 días después de la aplicación de los tratamientos fue tiametoxam + lambdacihalotrina (0,00%), spinetoram, (0,00%), malation (20,35%), tiametoxam (38,62%), dimetoato (86,94%) e imidacloprid (87,33%); para 7 días fue tiametoxam + lambdacihalotrina (0,00%), spinetoram (21,46%), malation (38,77), tiametoxam (50,84%), dimetoato (86,14%) e imidacloprid (90,37%). Los datos de muestreo, a partir de 16 días, presentaron una gran pérdida de unidades experimentales, lo que imposibilitó el análisis de los resultados, después de ese tiempo.</p><p> </p><p><strong>Effect of Corythucha gossypii on Castor Oil Plant Leaves: Sampling Criteria and Control by Insecticides</strong></p><p>The lace bug, also called the “cotton or bean lace bug”, Corythucha gossypii (Fabricius) (Hemiptera: Tingidae) is a common pest from cotton. However it has been reported in another twenty four plant hosts including castor bean (Ricinus communis L.). This work aimed to establish if this insect pest can reduce the life-period of leaves, to assess which is the leaf surface that best represents the total pest population for sampling and to test the efficacy of six insecticides for C. gossypii control in a castor bean crop. The life-period of leaves was negatively affected by the presence of the insect, the larger the number of C. gossypii, the shorter their leaf life. The lower surface best represented the entire population of lace bug with a mean ± standard error of 55.10 ± 4.76, with a 99.60% of correlation, a R2=0.99 and a p < 0.0001; compared to 3.44 ± 0.57, with a 66.32% of correlation, a R2=0.44 and a p < 0.0001 for the upper surface. Efficacy of control after three days of insecticide application was: thiamethoxam + lambdacyhalothrin (0.00%), spinetoram, (0.00%), malathion (20.35%), thiamethoxam (38.62%), dimethoate (86.94%) and imidacloprid (87.33%). After seven days of insecticide application the efficacy was thiamethoxam + lambdacyhalothrin (0.00%), spinetoram (21.46%), malathion (38.77), thiamethoxam (50.84%), dimethoate (86.14%) and imidacloprid (90.37%). Results obtained after 16 days lacked many sampling unit leaves, which made their analysis meaningless, after that period of time. </p>
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Kerns, Cody D., Jeremy K. Greene, Francis P. F. Reay-Jones, and William C. Bridges. "Effects of Planting Date on Thrips (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) in Cotton." Journal of Economic Entomology 112, no. 2 (December 29, 2018): 699–707. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jee/toy398.
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Abstract At-plant applications of insecticides are the most common method to manage thrips in upland cotton, Gossypium hirstutum L. Because the primary pest species, tobacco thrips, Frankliniella fusca (Hinds), has developed resistance to commonly used neonicotinoid insecticides used in producing cotton, alternative control options are needed for sustainable thrips management programs. A 3-year study (2015–2017) showed that densities of thrips, feeding injury from thrips, cotton growth, and yield varied among 10 planting dates. Densities of thrips were lowest in seedling cotton planted after mid-May in all years. Thrips injury ratings in all years were highest in cotton planted in April, lowest in cotton planted in June, and below intermediate injury (intermediate corresponded to a 3 on the 0–5 scale) levels in cotton planted after mid-May. Cotton planted during May, rather than in April or June, had the highest yield potential, regardless of variety. Results of the study indicated that altering planting date could potentially be useful in mitigating injury and losses from thrips in upland cotton.
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Gatehouse, Angharad M. R., Vaughan A. Hilder, and John A. Gatehouse. "Control of insect pests by plant genetic engineering." Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Section B. Biological Sciences 99, no. 3-4 (1992): 51–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0269727000005492.
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Crop protection against pests and diseases is of prime importance and plays a major role in agricultural production both in the Developed and Developing parts of the world.Although chemical pesticides have been in use for a long time it is only since the Second World War that a very heavy and almost exclusive reliance has been placed upon their use. This, in many cases, has resulted in the rapid build-up of resistance by insect pests to such compounds, as is illustrated by the rapidly developed resistance to the organochloride insecticides by the cotton bollworm, Heliothis virescens. Indeed, there are many examples of resistance in a major pest being observed within the first year of field use (Metcalf 1986). In some cases the indiscriminate application of pesticides has exacerbated the problem of insect herbivory where elimination of a wide range of predatory species along with the primary pests has resulted in secondary pests becoming primary pests themselves with even more devastating effects (Heinrichs & Mochida 1983).
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Bordini, Isadora, Peter C. Ellsworth, Steven E. Naranjo, and Alfred Fournier. "Novel insecticides and generalist predators support conservation biological control in cotton." Biological Control 154 (March 2021): 104502. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biocontrol.2020.104502.
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Young, S. Y., T. J. Kring, D. R. Johnson, and C. D. Klein. "Bacillus thuringiensis Alone and in Mixtures with Chemical Insecticides against Heliothines and Effects on Predator Densities in Cotton." Journal of Entomological Science 32, no. 2 (April 1, 1997): 183–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.18474/0749-8004-32.2.183.
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Tests were conducted in a cotton field in 1994 and 1995 to evaluate the efficacy of Bacillus thuringiensis var. kurstaki Berliner alone and in mixtures with thiodicarb and cyhalothrin against heliothines and to evaluate the survival of predators on cotton. The heliothine population treated in both years was almost entirely Helicoverpa zea (Boddie) (>97%). In both years, B. thuringiensis alone failed to reduce larval populations over the control plots (P > 0.05). Larval densities were similarly reduced in thiodicarb and thiodicarb-B. thuringiensis treatments. Treatments that contained cyhalothrin and/or profenofos provided the best control. Bacillus thuringiensis treatment of plots did not have any delayed effects on H. zea such as reductions in developmental rates or delayed mortality beyond 3 days after application. In addition, heliothine egg mortality in the 1994 collection 3 days after application did not differ significantly among treatments. Predator density in the B. thuringiensis alone treatment was similar to the untreated control. All treatments that contained conventional chemical insecticides, including thiodicarb at the ovicidal rate, reduced predator densities to low numbers. These data indicate that B. thuringiensis did not provide control of H. zea in cotton fields and did not improve control of H. zea when used in mixtures with an ovicide or larvacide. Therefore, caution should be urged in recommending B. thuringiensis when the heliothine species composition is skewed toward H. zea. Furthermore, when B. thuringiensis was used in mixtures with chemical insecticides, there was no conservation of arthropod predators relative to use of traditional chemical insecticide treatments.
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S, Madhusudhan, S. K. Jalali, and Sibi G. "Molecular identification of insecticide degradation by gut bacteria isolated from Helicoverpa armigera of Cotton plants." Journal of Applied and Natural Science 13, no. 2 (June 2, 2021): 641–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.31018/jans.v13i2.2678.
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The cotton bollworm Helicoverpa armigera occurs as a major pest in many economically important crops, including cotton, pigeon pea, chickpea, pea, cowpea, sunflower, tomato, sorghum, pearl millet and other crops. Intestinal microorganisms play important role in the degradation of diet components of insects. In order to know the role of gut bacteria in insecticide resistance five insecticides Chlorpyriphos (20% EC), Cypermethrin (25% EC), Malathion (50% EC), Quinalphos (25% EC), Triazophos (40% EC), were selected for the insecticide degradation studies. All the bacterial isolates from the gut of lab and field populations of H. armigera were identified using 16S rRNA gene-based identification and tested for their growth on minimal salt medium (MSM) along with the selected insecticides. A total of 11 bacterial isolates were tested and among them, isolate CL4 (Rhodococcus sp.) was found to grow on minimal salt medium (MSM) and with chlorpyriphos and isolate CL2 (Enterococcus casseliflavus) was able to grow in MSM with chloropyriphos (C22H19Cl2NO3) and malathion (C10H19O6PS2) and no growth was seen in MSM without insecticide (control). Gas Chromatography analysis of the positive bacterial isolate cultures in MSM showed that the isolate CL4 (Rhodococcus sp.) was able to utilize 43.9% of chlorpyriphos and isolate CL2 (E.casseliflavus) was able to utilize 26% of chlorpyriphos and 57.1% of malathion in MSM broth cultures with comparison with the respective control cultures. Findings of the current work suggested that gut bacteria in the field populations of H. armigera plays a role in insecticide resistance
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Hilliou, Frédérique, Thomas Chertemps, Martine Maïbèche, and Gaëlle Le Goff. "Resistance in the Genus Spodoptera: Key Insect Detoxification Genes." Insects 12, no. 6 (June 11, 2021): 544. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/insects12060544.
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The genus Spodoptera (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) includes species that are among the most important crop pests in the world. These polyphagous species are able to feed on many plants, including corn, rice and cotton. In addition to their ability to adapt to toxic compounds produced by plants, they have developed resistance to the chemical insecticides used for their control. One of the main mechanisms developed by insects to become resistant involves detoxification enzymes. In this review, we illustrate some examples of the role of major families of detoxification enzymes such as cytochromes P450, carboxyl/cholinesterases, glutathione S-transferases (GST) and transporters such as ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters in insecticide resistance. We compare available data for four species, Spodoptera exigua, S. frugiperda, S. littoralis and S. litura. Molecular mechanisms underlying the involvement of these genes in resistance will be described, including the duplication of the CYP9A cluster, over-expression of GST epsilon or point mutations in acetylcholinesterase and ABCC2. This review is not intended to be exhaustive but to highlight the key roles of certain genes.
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Tabashnik, Bruce E., Timothy J. Dennehy, Maria A. Sims, Karen Larkin, Graham P. Head, William J. Moar, and Yves Carrière. "Control of Resistant Pink Bollworm (Pectinophora gossypiella) by Transgenic Cotton That Produces Bacillus thuringiensis Toxin Cry2Ab." Applied and Environmental Microbiology 68, no. 8 (August 2002): 3790–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/aem.68.8.3790-3794.2002.
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ABSTRACT Crops genetically engineered to produce Bacillus thuringiensis toxins for insect control can reduce use of conventional insecticides, but insect resistance could limit the success of this technology. The first generation of transgenic cotton with B. thuringiensis produces a single toxin, Cry1Ac, that is highly effective against susceptible larvae of pink bollworm (Pectinophora gossypiella), a major cotton pest. To counter potential problems with resistance, second-generation transgenic cotton that produces B. thuringiensis toxin Cry2Ab alone or in combination with Cry1Ac has been developed. In greenhouse bioassays, a pink bollworm strain selected in the laboratory for resistance to Cry1Ac survived equally well on transgenic cotton with Cry1Ac and on cotton without Cry1Ac. In contrast, Cry1Ac-resistant pink bollworm had little or no survival on second-generation transgenic cotton with Cry2Ab alone or with Cry1Ac plus Cry2Ab. Artificial diet bioassays showed that resistance to Cry1Ac did not confer strong cross-resistance to Cry2Aa. Strains with >90% larval survival on diet with 10 μg of Cry1Ac per ml showed 0% survival on diet with 3.2 or 10 μg of Cry2Aa per ml. However, the average survival of larvae fed a diet with 1 μg of Cry2Aa per ml was higher for Cry1Ac-resistant strains (2 to 10%) than for susceptible strains (0%). If plants with Cry1Ac plus Cry2Ab are deployed while genes that confer resistance to each of these toxins are rare, and if the inheritance of resistance to both toxins is recessive, the efficacy of transgenic cotton might be greatly extended.
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Wan, Peng, Dong Xu, Shengbo Cong, Yuying Jiang, Yunxin Huang, Jintao Wang, Huaiheng Wu, et al. "Hybridizing transgenic Bt cotton with non-Bt cotton counters resistance in pink bollworm." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 114, no. 21 (May 8, 2017): 5413–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1700396114.
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Extensive cultivation of crops genetically engineered to produce insecticidal proteins from the bacteriumBacillus thuringiensis(Bt) has suppressed some major pests, reduced insecticide sprays, enhanced pest control by natural enemies, and increased grower profits. However, these benefits are being eroded by evolution of resistance in pests. We report a strategy for combating resistance by crossing transgenic Bt plants with conventional non-Bt plants and then crossing the resulting first-generation (F1) hybrid progeny and sowing the second-generation (F2) seeds. This strategy yields a random mixture within fields of three-quarters of plants that produce Bt toxin and one-quarter that does not. We hypothesized that the non-Bt plants in this mixture promote survival of susceptible insects, thereby delaying evolution of resistance. To test this hypothesis, we compared predictions from computer modeling with data monitoring pink bollworm (Pectinophora gossypiella) resistance to Bt toxin Cry1Ac produced by transgenic cotton in an 11-y study at 17 field sites in six provinces of China. The frequency of resistant individuals in the field increased before this strategy was widely deployed and then declined after its widespread adoption boosted the percentage of non-Bt cotton plants in the region. The correspondence between the predicted and observed outcomes implies that this strategy countered evolution of resistance. Despite the increased percentage of non-Bt cotton, suppression of pink bollworm was sustained. Unlike other resistance management tactics that require regulatory intervention, growers adopted this strategy voluntarily, apparently because of advantages that may include better performance as well as lower costs for seeds and insecticides.
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Spíndola, A. F., C. S. A. Silva-Torres, A. R. S. Rodrigues, and J. B. Torres. "Survival and behavioural responses of the predatory ladybird beetle, Eriopis connexa populations susceptible and resistant to a pyrethroid insecticide." Bulletin of Entomological Research 103, no. 4 (March 22, 2013): 485–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0007485313000072.
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AbstractThe ladybird beetle, Eriopis connexa (Germar) (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae), is one of the commonest predators of aphids (Hemiptera: Aphididae) in the cotton agroecosystem and in many other row and fruit crops in Brazil, and has been introduced into other countries such as the USA for purposes of aphid control. In addition, the boll weevil, Anthonomus grandis Boheman (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) is the most serious cotton pest where it occurs, including Brazil. Controlling boll weevils and other pests such as cotton defoliators still tends to involve the intense application of insecticides to secure cotton production. The pyrethroid insecticide lambda-cyhalothrin (LCT) is commonly used, but this compound is not effective against aphids; hence, a desirable strategy would be to maintain E. connexa populations in cotton fields where LCT is applied. Using populations of E. connexa resistant (Res) and susceptible (Sus) to LCT, we compared behavioural responses on treated cotton plants and under confinement on partially and fully treated surfaces, and assessed the insects' survival on treated plants compared with that of the boll weevil. The E. connexa resistant population caged on treated plants with 15 and 75 g a.i. ha−1 exhibited ≫82% survival for both insecticide concentrations compared with ≪3% and ≪17% survival for susceptible E. connexa populations and boll weevils, respectively. The response of E. connexa Res and Sus populations when released, either on the soil or on the plant canopy, indicated avoidance towards treated plants, as measured by elapsed time to assess the plant. When compared with susceptible individuals, resistant ones took longer time to suffer insecticide knockdown, had a higher recovery rate after suffering knockdown, and spent more time in the plant canopy. Based on behavioural parameters evaluated in treated arenas, no ladybird beetles exhibited repellency. However, irritability was evident, with the susceptible population exhibiting greater irritability compared with the resistant population and a subgroup comprising resistant individuals that had recovered from knockdown. The outcomes for the E. connexa Res population indicate a promising strategy for its maintenance when using the insecticide LCT in integrated pest management schemes to control boll weevil or other non-target pest of ladybird beetles in cotton fields.
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Pacheco, João Pedro Furtado, Jeane Nogueira, Rodrigo Prado Rodrigues de Miranda, Rodrigo Coutinho Duprat, Francisco Paiva Machado, Luis Armando Candido Tietbohl, Samanta Cardozo Mourão, et al. "Effects of Zanthoxylum caribaeum essential oil against cotton bug Dysdercus peruvianus." Research, Society and Development 9, no. 9 (August 15, 2020): e197997152. http://dx.doi.org/10.33448/rsd-v9i9.7152.
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Agricultural crops need protection from a variety of different insects popularly known as pests. Some of these pests are becoming increasingly resistant to conventional pesticides, so new control alternatives are needed. In this work, the effects of the essential oil of the plant Zanthoxylum caribaeum on the development of cotton stink bug Dysdercus peruvianus were analyzed. After analysis by chromatography and mass spectrometry, the essential oil of Z. caribaeum presented 54 substances, the main constituents being Sylvestrene, Muurola-4 (14), 5-trans-diene, Isodaucene and α-Pinene. These compounds significantly increased insect mortality and interrupted metamorphosis and molting, often in a dose-dependent manner. In addition, nymphs with deformed legs, wings and antennae were observed. According to the data, the components present in the essential oil of Z. caribeum appear to be promising candidates for the development of green insecticides for use in future integrated pest management (MIP) programs.
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Benedict, J. H., D. R. Ring, J. C. Correa, R. E. Buehler, E. M. Johnson, L. D. Bradshaw, and W. R. Deaton. "Efficacy Of The Bollgard Gene In Transgenic Cotton Lines Against Bollworm And Tobacco Bud-Worm, 1994." Arthropod Management Tests 22, no. 1 (January 1, 1997): 432–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/amt/22.1.432.
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Abstract Efficacy Of The Bollgard Gene In Transgenic Cotton Lines Against Bollworm And Tobacco Bud-Worm, 1994 Transgenic cotton lines expressing an insecticidal protein produced by the cryIA(c) gene (i.e., Bollgard Gene), or cryllA gene (Monsanto Co.) from Bacillus thuringiensis kurstaki and the nontransgenic parent line Coker 312, were planted 25 Apr near Corpus Christi, Texas. Field plots were 4 row (38 inch centers) X 30 ft. Treatments (i.e., cotton lines) were arranged in a split plot RCBD and each plot replicated 6 times. The main plot was lep-idopteran control (i.e., unsprayed or sprayed with Karate (0.03 lb[AI]/acre to suppress tobacco budworm, bollworm and other lepidopteran pests) and sub-plots were 8 cotton lines. Plots for lepidopteran suppression (with a conventional foliar insecticide) were sprayed on 29 Jun, 6, 14, and 20 Jul with Karate using a backpackCO2 powered sprayer and a 2-row handheld spray boom. The entire test was planted with in-furrow insecticide and oversprayed as needed in-season control of insect pests such as thrips, aphids, boll weevil and cotton fleahopper. Efficacy of transgenic cottons against target lepidopteran pests was determined by examining 20 flower buds and 20 bolls per plot on 28 Jun, 5, 12, and 19 Jul for bollworm-tobacco budworm feeding injury, and taking lint yields per plot. Supplemental soil moisture was provided by sprinkler irrigation during the season but not within 48-h following a lepidopteran con-trol application. The plots were hand-harvested (20 ft from middle 2 rows) and seedcotton ginned on a laboratory 10-saw gin.
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Sunarto, Dwi Adi, Anastasia Siti Murdiyati, and Nurindah. "Penerapan Teknologi Pengendalian Hama Kapas Ramah Lingkungan." Buletin Tanaman Tembakau, Serat & Minyak Industri 3, no. 1 (October 10, 2016): 38. http://dx.doi.org/10.21082/bultas.v3n1.2011.38-47.
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<p>Penerapan komponen teknologi pengendalian hama ramah lingkungan dilaksanakan di daerah pengembang-an kapas di Kecamatan Jati, Kabupaten Blora, Jawa Tengah di lahan petani seluas ± 5 hektar yang dimiliki oleh 20 petani pada bulan Maret sampai dengan Oktober 2009. Komponen teknologi pengendalian hama ra-mah lingkungan diharapkan menjadi solusi yang tepat untuk mengatasi masalah serangga hama pada tanam-an kapas dan dapat diterima oleh petani. Pengendalian serangga hama kapas yang diterapkan adalah pengen-dalian serangga hama ramah lingkungan dengan komponen pengendalian yang terdiri atas seed treatment dengan insektisida imidakloprit dan penyemprotan insektisida botani ekstrak biji mimba berdasarkan ambang kendali yang mempertimbangkan keberadaan musuh alami dibandingkan dengan pengendalian serangga ha-ma konvensional (pengendalian hama menggunakan insektisida kimiawi sintetis seperti yang biasa diterap-kan oleh petani). Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa penerapan komponen teknologi pengendalian hama ra-mah lingkungan yang terdiri atas seed treatment, insektisida botani ekstrak biji mimba, dan ambang kendali dengan mempertimbangkan keberadaan musuh alami, terbukti dapat menekan populasi serangga hama ka-pas selalu di bawah batas ambang kendali dan tidak berbeda dengan pengendalian hama secara konvensio-nal. Pengendalian hama ramah lingkungan lebih aman terhadap musuh alami dengan pendapatan usaha tani kapas Rp621.250,00 lebih tinggi dibanding pengendalian hama secara konvensional. Teknologi pengendalian hama ramah lingkungan dapat diterima oleh petani, kecuali teknologi ambang kendali yang secara konsep da-pat diterima, tetapi petani masih enggan untuk melaksanakannya.</p><p> </p><p>Application of environmentally friendly pest control technology is expected to be the best solution to over-come insect pest problem on cotton crops and can be accepted by farmers. The research was conducted in the area of cotton development in Jati District, Blora Regency, Central Java on farmers' land area of 5 hectares owned by 20 farmers from March to October 2009. The applied treatments were: application of environmen-tally friendly pest insect control components, ie: seed treatment and botanical neem seed extracts insecticide sprayed based on an action threshold that considers the presence of natural enemies took in to account, compared with conventional pest control (pest control using synthetic chemical insecticides commonly used by the cotton farmers). The results showed that the application of environmentally friendly pest control tech-nology suppressed cotton insect pest population with no negative effect on natural enemies, and retained seed cotton production, increased the income of cotton farming as much as Rp621.250,00. Components of en-vironmentally friendly pest control technology can be accepted by cotton farmers, including the action thres-hold concept. However, the farmers were mind to implement the action threshold as it is too complicated for them.</p>
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Taha-Salaime, Leena, Galina Lebedev, Jackline Abo-Nassar, Sally Marzouk, Moshe Inbar, Murad Ghanim, and Radi Aly. "Activity of Ajuga iva Extracts Against the African Cotton Leafworm Spodoptera littoralis." Insects 11, no. 11 (October 23, 2020): 726. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/insects11110726.
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Control of the crop pest African cotton leafworm, Spodoptera littoralis (Boisduval), by chemical insecticides has led to serious resistance problems. Ajuga plants contain phytoecdysteroids (arthropod steroid hormone analogs regulating metamorphosis) and clerodanes (diterpenoids exhibiting antifeedant activity). We analyzed these compounds in leaf extracts of the Israeli Ajuga iva L. by liquid chromatography time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC-TOF-MS) and thin-layer chromatography (TLC), and their efficiency at reducing S.littoralis fitness. First and third instars of S. littoralis were fed castor bean leaves (Ricinus communis) smeared with an aqueous suspension of dried methanolic crude extract of A. iva phytoecdysteroids and clerodanes. Mortality, larval weight gain, relative growth rate and survival were compared to feeding on control leaves. We used ‘4’,6-diamidino-2-phenylindole (DAPI, a fluorescent stain) and phalloidin staining to localize A. iva crude leaf extract activity in the insect gut. Ajuga iva crude leaf extract (50, 100 and 250 µg/µL) significantly increased mortality of first-instar S. littoralis (36%, 70%, and 87%, respectively) compared to controls (6%). Third-instar larval weight gain decreased significantly (by 52%, 44% and 30%, respectively), as did relative growth rate (−0.05 g/g per day compared to the relevant controls), ultimately resulting in few survivors. Crude leaf extract (250 µg/µL) reduced gut size, with relocation of nuclei and abnormal actin-filament organization. Ajug iva extract has potential for alternative, environmentally safe insect-pest control.
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Souza, Ellen P. de, Paulo E. Degrande, Rosalia Azambuja, Rafael A. da Silva, and Valter V. Alves Junior. "Toxicity of Insecticide-Contaminated Soil Used in the Treatment of Cotton Seeds to Bees." Journal of Agricultural Science 10, no. 10 (September 15, 2018): 189. http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/jas.v10n10p189.
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Insecticide-treated cotton seeds can pose risks to Apis mellifera Linnaeus, 1758 populations during crop establishment if chemical residues reach these insects near agricultural fields via dust drift produced during planting. However, the treatment of seeds with insecticides is essential to protect cotton plants from damage caused by pests, including thrips and aphids. Thus, the aim of this study was to evaluate the toxic effects (acute toxicity) of soil dust from cotton fields planted with insecticide-treated seeds on A. mellifera adults using a toxicity assay developed in the laboratory. Forager honeybees were maintained in 700-ml plastic cages with 7 g of surface soil where insecticide-treated cotton seeds were sown (270 g a.i. clothianidin, 270 g a.i. imidacloprid, 210 g a.i. thiamethoxam, and 75 g a.i. fipronil/100 kg of seeds, and an untreated group). Ten bees were placed in each cage. The experimental design was randomized, with five treatments and twelve replicates. The mortality rate was evaluated during the entire assay. Data were transformed to x + 0.5 and compared with a regression analysis and contrast test. The linear regression model revealed a significant relationship between bee mortality and exposure time. The mortality rate gradually increased as time progressed in all treatments and the control group. The contrast test did not reveal significant differences between the insecticide and control groups. Thus, residues of the products tested, thiamethoxam, clothianidin, imidacloprid, and fipronil, did not influence the mortality of A. mellifera adults as a result of exposure to soil contaminated with insecticide-treated seeds.
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Ahmad, Mushtaq, and Sanobar Gull. "Susceptibility of armywormSpodoptera litura(Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) to novel insecticides in Pakistan." Canadian Entomologist 149, no. 5 (August 7, 2017): 649–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.4039/tce.2017.29.
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AbstractThe armywormSpodoptera litura(Fabricius) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) is a serious pest of cotton (Gossypium hirsutumLinnaeus; Malvaceae), tobacco (Nicotiana tabacumLinnaeus; Solanaceae), and vegetables. Frequent application of various insecticides applied for its control has resulted in the development of a multiple resistance against commonly used insecticides. In the current study, field populations ofS. liturawere monitored in Pakistan for their susceptibility to diverse chemical classes, namely insect growth regulators (chlorfluazuron, lufenuron, flufenoxuron, triflumuron, methoxyfenozide), diamides (chlorantraniliprole, flubendiamide), spinosyns (spinosad, spinetoram), avermectins (abamectin, emamectin benzoate), indoxacarb, and thiocyclam by using a diet overlay bioassay during 2008–2013. Generally, no or a very low resistance was recorded to chlorfluazuron, lufenuron, triflumuron, methoxyfenozide, chlorantraniliprole, flubendiamide, spinosad, spinetoram, emamectin benzoate, indoxacarb, and thiocyclam. Resistance to flufenoxuron and abamectin was low to moderate in some populations ofS. litura. The insecticides, showing no, very low, or low resistance can be used in rotation, along with other integrated pest management practices, to mitigate resistance to conventional as well as new chemistry insecticides inS. litura.
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El-Zahi, El-Zahi S., and Hany K. Abd-Elhady. "Insect Predators and Control of Aphis gossypii Comparing to Certain Insecticides under Caged-cotton Plants Conditions." Pakistan Journal of Biological Sciences 16, no. 5 (February 15, 2013): 233–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.3923/pjbs.2013.233.238.
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Benedict, J. H., D. R. Ring, J. C. Correa, R. E. Buehler, E. M. Johnson, L. D. Bradshaw, and W. R. Deaton. "Efficacy of the Bollgard Gene in Transgenic Cotton Lines Against Bollworm and Tobacco Budworm, 1995." Arthropod Management Tests 22, no. 1 (January 1, 1997): 433–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/amt/22.1.433.
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Abstract Transgenic cotton lines expressing an insecticidal protein produced by the crylA(c) gene (i.e., BoUgard Gene), or cryllA gene (Monsanto Co.) from Bacillus thuringiensis kurstaki, and the nontransgenic parent line Coker 312 (COK 312), were planted 25 Apr 1995 near Corpus Christi, Texas. Field plots were 4 row (38 inch centers) X 30 ft. Treatments (i.e., cotton lines) were arranged in a split plot RCB and each plot replicated 6 times. The main plot was lepidopteran control (i.e., with or without lepidopteran sprays of Karate (0.03 lb[AI]/acre) to suppress tobacco budworm, bollworm and other lepidopteran pests) and subplots were 6 cotton lines. Plots for lepidopteran suppression were sprayed on 6, 14, 21, 28 Jul with Karate using a backpack, CO2 powered sprayer and a 2 row handheld spray boom. The entire test was planted with in-furrow insecticide and oversprayed as needed for inseason control of insect pests such as thrips, aphids, boll weevil and cotton fleahopper. Efficacy of transgenic cottons to control target lepidopteran pests was determined by examining 20 flower buds and 20 capsules per plot on 5, 12, 19, 26 Jul for bollworm-tobacco budworm feeding injury, and taking lint yields per plot. Supplemental soil moisture was provided by sprinkler and furrow irrigation during the season but not within 48 h following a lepidopteran control spray. The plots were hand-harvested (13 ft 9 inches from middle 2 rows) and seedcotton ginned on a laboratory 10-saw gin.