Academic literature on the topic 'Couche tampon'

Atualmente, nos sistemas de planejamento de tratamento (SPT), são oferecidos alguns modelos de estruturas que podem não condizer com a realidade, isso porque as diferentes regiões e estruturas que as compõem, possuem diferentes densidades eletrônicas. Sendo assim, sua utilização pode inserir erros sistemáticos no cálculo de dose. Desta forma, o objetivo do estudo foi modelar a base da orfit e o tampo de mesa Exact couch no SPT Eclipse. Para isso, foi realizada uma tomografia computadorizada da base dos acessórios Orfit e do tampo de mesa Exact Couch. Suas estruturas foram delineadas com base em suas densidades. Realizou-se medidas de atenuação de cada estrutura em um fantoma de água com câmara de ionização. A unidade de Hounsfield foi variada no STP de modo a aproximar o valor de dose calculado com o valor medido. Inicialmente a maior discrepância foi de até 6,7%. Após a modelagem das estruturas a maior discrepância encontrada foi de 1,3%. Após a validação desse conjunto de estruturas, elas passaram a ser inseridas no SPT para consideração no cálculo da dose.

Depuis une dizaine d’années, des efforts considérables ont été accomplis dans le domaine de nouveaux matériaux synthétisés à bas coût pour être intégrer dans les cellules solaires à base de couches absorbantes CIS: CuIn (S,Se)2, et GICS: Cu(In, Ga)(Se,S)2. On peut citer à titre d’exemple les couches tampons telles que: CdS, ZnS, CuxS et Ag2S. Ces matériaux ont attiré notre attention vu leurs facilité à être déposé par la technique SILAR, ‘Successive Ionic Layer Absorption Reaction’ sur du verre, une technique réalisée et automatisé pour la première fois à l’université des Sciences et de la technologie d’Oran. Les matériaux sont synthétisés au laboratoire de microscopie électronique et sciences des matériaux et caractérisés à l’Université de Bourgogne par la coopération de l’équipe. Les couches minces et nanostructures sont le sulfure de cuivre CuxS, le sulfure d’argent Ag2S, le sulfure de zinc ZnS, le disulfure de cuivre et d’aluminium CuAlS2 et le disulfure de cuivre et d’indium CuInS2 ont un gap optique fondamental de l’ordre de 1,5 - 2,5 eV pour CuxS, de 1,0 - 2,0 eV pour Ag2S, de 2,5 eV pour ZnS, de 3,5 eV pour CuAlS2 et de 1,5 eV pour CIS. Ces matériaux sont préparés par plusieurs techniques, telles que spray, Sol gel, SILAR et bain chimique. A notre connaissance, il y a deux chercheurs indiens qui oeuvrent dans ce domaine, Lokhande et Pathan [1, 4, 5] qui ont développé cette technique au sens propre du brevet de déposition. Ces matériaux peuvent être utilisés en optoélectronique comme couche tampon et couche absorbante pour cellule solaire, photoconducteur et photodiode, dans les applications de l’environnement comme capteur de gaz.

Introduction : Le diclofénac est un Anti Inflammatoire Non Stéroïdien utilisé comme traitement symptomatique de la douleur et de l’inflammation. Le princeps du diclofénac est dans la classe 2 du Système de Classification Biopharmaceutique (BCS), il ne devrait donc pas être exonéré d’études complètes de biodisponibilité. La forme à libération prolongée présente l’avantage d’espacer les prises en assurant une libération continue dans l’organisme pendant une période donnée. Toutefois, face à la multitude des génériques du Diclofénac sodium LP présents sur le marché camerounais, nous nous interrogeons sur leur conformité aux exigences de cette forme galénique. Ainsi, l’objectif de ce travail était d’étudier la biodisponibilité in-vitro des génériques du diclofénac comprimés et gélules à libération prolongée disponibles sur le marché de la ville de Yaoundé comparativement à celle du princeps. Méthodologie : Une étude descriptive et analytique a été menée sur sept mois. L’enquête auprès des grossistes-répartiteurs pharmaceutiques a permis de recenser les spécialités de diclofénac de sodium LP disponibles sur le marché de la ville de Yaoundé. Sur les spécialités les plus vendues, ont été effectués : l’inspection de l’étiquetage, le contrôle visuel, l’identification par Chromatographie sur Couche Mince et l’essai de dissolution. Pour cet essai de dissolution, le tampon phosphate pH 7,4 a servi de milieu de dissolution ; les prélèvements ont été faits après 2h, 4h, 6h et 8h de dissolution. Les échantillons prélevés ont été filtrés sur papier filtre Whatman N°4 et lus au spectrophotomètre à 275nm. Enfin, la comparaison des profils de dissolution des lots génériques à ceux des lots princeps a été faite à l’aide des courbes de cinétiques de dissolution et du test de Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney. Résultats : L’enquête chez les grossistes a révélé huit spécialités de diclofénac LP comprimés dont les cinq plus populaires ont été sélectionnées. À l’inspection de l’étiquetage, nous avons détecté 20 % de non-conformité. L’identification a été conforme pour tous les lots. Par contre, 50 % des lots génériques n’ont pas été conformes à l’essai de dissolution. Conclusion : Cette étude prouve la présence des génériques de diclofénac de sodium comprimés LP non conformes dans le secteur formel des médicaments de Yaoundé.

Saturday, 24 July 1971, Tower Mill Hotel The man jiggles the brick, gauges its weight. His stout hand, a flash of his watch dial, the sleeve rolled back, muscles on the upper arm bundled tight. His face half-erased by the dark. There’s something going on beneath the surface that Murray can’t grasp. He thinks of the three witches in Polanski’s Macbeth, huddled together on the beach, digging a circle in the sand with bare hands, unwrapping their filthy bundle. A ritual. The brick’s in the air and it’s funny but Murray expected it to spin but it doesn’t, it holds its position, arcs forward, as though someone’s taken the sky and pulled it sideways to give the impression of movement, like those chase scenes in the Punch and Judy shows you don’t see anymore. The brick hits the cement and fractures. Red dust on cops’ shined shoes. Murray feels the same sense of shock he’d felt, sitting in the sagging canvas seat at one of his film nights, recognising the witches’ bundle, a severed human arm, hacked off just before the elbow; both times looking so intently, he had no distance or defence when the realisation came. ‘What is it?’ says Lan. Murray points to the man who threw the brick but she is looking the other way, at a cop in a white riot helmet, head like a globe, swollen up as though bitten. Lan stands on Murray’s feet to see. The pig yells through a megaphone: ‘You’re occupying too much of the road. It’s illegal. Step back. Step back.’ Lan’s back is pressed against Murray’s stomach; her bum fits snugly to his groin. He resists the urge to plant his cold hands on her warm stomach, to watch her squirm. She turns her head so her mouth is next to his ear, says, ‘Don’t move.’ She sounds winded, her voice without force. He’s pinned to the ground by her feet. Again, ‘Step back. Step back.’ Next to him, Roger begins a chant. ‘Springboks,’ he yells, the rest of the crowd picking up the chant, ‘out now!’ ‘Springboks!’ ‘Out now!’ Murray looks up, sees a hand pressed against the glass in one of the hotel’s windows, quickly withdrawn. The hand belongs to a white man, for sure. It must be one of the footballers, although the gesture is out of keeping with his image of them. Too timid. He feels tired all of a sudden. But Jacobus Johannes Fouché’s voice is in his head, these men—the Springboks—represent the South African way of life, and the thought of the bastard Bjelke inviting them here. He, Roger and Lan were there the day before when the footballers pulled up outside the Tower Mill Hotel in a black and white bus. ‘Can you believe the cheek of those bastards?’ said Roger when they saw them bounding off the bus, legs the span of Murray’s two hands. A group of five Nazis had been lined up in front of the glass doors reflecting the city, all in uniform: five sets of white shirts and thin black ties, five sets of khaki pants and storm-trooper boots, each with a red sash printed with a black and white swastika tied around their left arms, just above the elbow. The Springboks strode inside, ignoring the Nazi’s salute. The protestors were shouting. An apple splattered wetly on the sidewalk. Friday, 7 April 1972, St Lucia Lan left in broad daylight. Murray didn’t know why this upset him, except that he had a vague sense that she should’ve gone in the night time, under the cover of dark. The guilty should sneak away, with bowed heads and faces averted, not boldly, as though going for an afternoon walk. Lan had pulled down half his jumpers getting the suitcase from the top of the cupboard. She left his clothes scattered across the bedroom, victims of an explosion, an excess of emotion. In the two days after Lan left, Murray scours the house looking for some clue to where she was, maybe a note to him, blown off the table in the wind, or put down and forgotten in the rush. Perhaps there was a letter from her parents, bankrupt, demanding she return to Vietnam. Or a relative had died. A cousin in the Viet Cong napalmed. He finds a packet of her tampons in the bathroom cupboard, tries to flush them down the toilet, but they keep floating back up. They bloat; the knotted strings make them look like some strange water-dwelling creature, paddling in the bowl. He pees in the shower for a while, but in the end he scoops the tampons back out again with the holder for the toilet brush. The house doesn’t yield anything, so he takes to the garden, circles the place, investigates its underbelly. The previous tenant had laid squares of green carpet underneath, off-cuts that met in jagged lines, patches of dirt visible. Murray had set up two sofas, mouldy with age, on the carpeted part, would invite his friends to sit with him there, booze, discuss the state of the world and the problem with America. Roger rings in the afternoon, says, ‘What gives? We were supposed to have lunch.’ Murray says, ‘Lan’s left me.’ He knows he will cry soon. ‘Oh Christ. I’m so sorry,’ says Roger. Murray inhales, snuffs up snot. Roger coughs into the receiver. ‘It was just out of the blue,’ says Murray. ‘Where’s she gone?’ ‘I don’t know.’ ‘She didn’t say anything?’ ‘No,’ says Murray. ‘She could be anywhere. Maybe you should call the police, put in a missing report,’ says Roger. ‘I’m not too friendly with the cops,’ says Murray, and coughs. ‘You sound a bit crook. I’ll come over,’ says Roger. ‘That’d be good,’ says Murray. Roger turns up at the house an hour later, wearing wide pants and a tight collared shirt with thick white and red stripes. He’s growing a moustache, only cuts his hair when he visits his parents. Murray says, ‘I’ll make us a cuppa.’ Roger nods, sits down at the vinyl table with his hands resting on his knees. He says, ‘Are you coming to 291 on Sunday?’ 291 St Paul’s Terrace is the Brisbane Communist Party’s headquarters. Murray says, ‘What’s on?’ ‘Billy needs someone to look after the bookshop.’ Murray gives Roger a mug of tea, sits down with his own mug between his elbows, and cradles his head in his hands so his hair falls over his wrists. After a minute, Roger says, ‘Does her family know?’ Murray makes a strange noise through his hands. ‘I don’t even know how to contact them,’ he says. ‘She wrote them letters—couldn’t afford to phone—but she’s taken everything with her. The address book. Everything.’ Murray knows nothing of the specifics of Lan’s life before she met him. She was the first Asian he’d ever spoken to. She wore wrap-around skirts that changed colour in the sun; grew her hair below the waist; sat in the front row in class and never spoke. He liked the shape of her calf as it emerged from her skirt. He saw her on the great lawn filming her reflection in a window with a Sony Portapak and knew that he wanted her more than anything. Murray seduced her by saying almost nothing and touching her as often as he could. He was worried about offending her. What reading he had done made him aware of his own ignorance, and his friend in Psych told him that when you touch a girl enough — especially around the aureole — a hormone is released that bonds them to you, makes them sad when you leave them or they leave you. In conversation, Murray would put his hand on Lan’s elbow, once on the top of her head. Lan was ready to be seduced. Murray invited her to a winter party in his backyard. They kissed next to the fire and he didn’t notice until the next morning that the rubber on the bottom of his shoe melted in the flames. She moved into his house quickly, her clothes bundled in three plastic bags. He wanted her to stay in bed with him all day, imagined he was John Lennon and she Yoko Ono. Their mattress became a soup of discarded clothes, bread crumbs, wine stains, come stains, ash and flakes of pot. He resented her when she told him that she was bored, and left him, sheets pulled aside to reveal his erection, to go to class. Lan tutored high-schoolers for a while, but they complained to their mothers that they couldn’t understand her accent. She told him her parents wanted her to come home. The next night he tidied the house, and cooked her dinner. Over the green peas and potato—Lan grated ginger over hers, mixed it with chili and soy sauce, which she travelled all the way to Chinatown on a bus to buy—Murray proposed. They were married in the botanic gardens, surrounded by Murray’s friends. The night before his father called him up and said, ‘It’s not too late to get out of it. You won’t be betraying the cause.’ Murray said, ‘You have no idea what this means to me,’ and hung up on him. Sunday, 9 April 1972, 291 St Paul’s Terrace Murray perches on the backless stool behind the counter in The People’s Bookshop. He has the sense he is on the brink of something. His body is ready for movement. When a man walks into the shop, Murray panics because Billy hadn’t shown him how to use the cash register. He says, ‘Can I help?’ anyway. ‘No,’ says the man. The man walks the length of the shelves too fast to read the titles. He stops at a display of Australiana on a tiered shelf, slides his hand down the covers on display. He pauses at Crocodile Hunt. The cover shows a drawing of a bulky crocodile, scaled body bent in an S, its jaws under the man’s thumb. He picks it up, examines it. Murray thinks it odd that he doesn’t flip it over to read the blurb. He walks around the whole room once, scanning the shelves, reaches Murray at the counter and puts the book down between them. Murray picks it up, turns it over, looking for a price. It’s stuck on the back in faded ink. He opens his mouth to tell the man how much, and finds him staring intently at the ceiling. Murray looks up too. A hairline crack runs along the surface and there are bulges in the plaster where the wooden framework’s swollen. It’s lower than Murray remembers. He thinks that if he stood on his toes he could reach it with the tips of his fingers. Murray looks down again to find the man staring at him. Caught out, Murray mutters the price, says, ‘You don’t have it in exact change, do you?’ The man nods, fumbles around in his pocket for a bit and brings out a note, which he lays at an angle along the bench top. He counts the coins in the palm of his hand. He makes a fist around the coins, brings his hand over the note and lets go. The coins fall, clinking, over the bench. One spins wildly, rolls past Murray’s arm and across the bench. Murray lets it fall. He recognises the man now; it is the act of release that triggers the memory, the fingers spread wide, the wrist bent, the black watch band. This is the man who threw the brick in the Springbok protest. Dead set. He looks up again, expecting to see the same sense of recognition in the man, but he is walking out of the shop. Murray follows him outside, leaving the door open and the money still on the counter. The man is walking right along St Paul’s Terrace. He tucks the book under his arm to cross Barry Parade, as though he might need both hands free to wave off the oncoming traffic. Murray stands on the other side of the road, unsure of what to do. When Murray came outside, he’d planned to hail the man, tell him he recognised him from the strike and was a fellow comrade. They give discounts to Communist Party members. Outside the shop, it strikes him that perhaps the man is not one of them at all. Just because he was at the march doesn’t make him a communist. Despite the unpopularity of the cause —‘It’s just fucking football,’ one of Murray’s friends had said. ‘What’s it got to do with anything?’— there had been many types there, a mixture of labour party members; unionists; people in the Radical Club and the Eureka Youth League; those not particularly attached to anyone. He remembers again the brick shattered on the ground. It hadn’t hit anyone, but was an incitement to violence. This man is dangerous. Murray is filled again with nervous energy, which leaves him both dull-witted and super-charged, as though he is a wind-up toy twisted tight and then released, unable to do anything but move in the direction he’s facing. He crosses the road about five metres behind the man, sticks to the outer edge of the pavement, head down. If he moves his eyes upwards, while still keeping his neck lowered, he can see the shoes of the man, his white socks flashing with each step. The man turns the corner into Brunswick Street. He stops at a car parked in front of the old Masonic Temple. Murray walks past fast, unsure of what to do next. The Temple’s entry is set back in the building, four steps leading up to a red door. Murray ducks inside the alcove, looks up to see the man sitting in the driver’s seat pulling out the pages of Crocodile Hunt and feeding them through the half wound-down window where they land, fanned out, on the road. When he’s finished dismembering the book, the man spreads the page-less cover across the back of the car. The crocodile, snout on the side, one eye turned outwards, stares out into the street. The man flicks the ignition and drives, the pages flying out and onto the road in his wake. Murray sits down on the steps of the guild and smokes. He isn’t exactly sure what just happened. The man must have bought the book just because he liked the picture on the front of the cover. But it’s odd though that he had bothered to spend so much just for one picture. Murray remembers how he had paced the shop and studiously examined the ceiling. He’d given the impression of someone picking out furniture for the room, working out the dimensions so some chair or table would fit. A cough. Murray looks up. The man’s standing above him, his forearm resting on the wall, elbow bent. His other arm hangs at his side, hand bunched up around a bundle of keys. ‘I wouldn’t of bothered following me, if I was you,’ the man says. ‘The police are on my side. Special branch are on my side.’ He pushes himself off the wall, stands up straight, and says, ‘Heil Hitler.’ Tuesday April 19, 1972, 291 St Paul’s Terrace Murray brings his curled fist down on the door. It opens with the force of his knock and he feels like an idiot for even bothering. The hallway’s dark. Murray runs into a filing cabinet, swears, and stands in the centre of the corridor, with his hand still on the cabinet, calling, ‘Roger! Roger!’ Murray told Roger he’d come here when he called him. Murray was walking back from uni, and on the other side of the road to his house, ready to cross, he saw there was someone standing underneath the house, looking out into the street. Murray didn’t stop. He didn’t need to. He knew it was the man from the bookshop, the Nazi. Murray kept walking until he reached the end of the street, turned the corner and then ran. Back on campus, he shut himself in a phone box and dialed Roger’s number. ‘I can’t get to my house,’ Murray said when Roger picked up. ‘Lock yourself out, did you?’ said Roger. ‘You know that Nazi? He’s back again.’ ‘I don’t get it,’ said Roger. ‘It doesn’t matter. I need to stay with you,’ said Murray. ‘You can’t. I’m going to a party meeting.’ ‘I’ll meet you there.’ ‘Ok. If you want.’ Roger hung up. Now, Roger stands framed in the doorway of the meeting room. ‘Hey Murray, shut up. I can hear you. Get in here.’ Roger switches on the hallway light and Murray walks into the meeting room. There are about seven people, sitting on hard metal chairs around a long table. Murray sits next to Roger, nods to Patsy, who has nice breasts but is married. Vince says, ‘Hi, Murray, we’re talking about the moratorium on Friday.’ ‘You should bring your pretty little Vietnamese girl,’ says Billy. ‘She’s not around anymore,’ says Roger. ‘That’s a shame,’ says Patsy. ‘Yeah,’ says Murray. ‘Helen Dashwood told me her school has banned them from wearing moratorium badges,’ says Billy. ‘Far out,’ says Patsy. ‘We should get her to speak at the rally,’ says Stella, taking notes, and then, looking up, says, ‘Can anyone smell burning?’ Murray sniffs, says ‘I’ll go look.’ They all follow him down the hall. Patsy says, behind him, ‘Is it coming from the kitchen?’ Roger says, ‘No,’ and then the windows around them shatter. Next to Murray, a filing cabinet buckles and twists like wet cardboard in the rain. A door is blown off its hinges. Murray feels a moment of great confusion, a sense that things are sliding away from him spectacularly. He’s felt this once before. He wanted Lan to sit down with him, but she said she didn’t want to be touched. He’d pulled her to him, playfully, a joke, but he was too hard and she went limp in his hands. Like she’d been expecting it. Her head hit the table in front of him with a sharp, quick crack. He didn’t understand what happened; he had never experienced violence this close. He imagined her brain as a line drawing with the different sections coloured in, like his Psych friend had once showed him, except squashed in at the bottom. She had recovered, of course, opened her eyes a second later to him gasping. He remembered saying, ‘I just want to hold you. Why do you always do this to me?’ and even to him it hadn’t made sense because he was the one doing it to her. Afterwards, Murray had felt hungry, but couldn’t think of anything that he’d wanted to eat. He sliced an apple in half, traced the star of seeds with his finger, then decided he didn’t want it. He left it, already turning brown, on the kitchen bench. Author’s Note No one was killed in the April 19 explosion, nor did the roof fall in. The bookstore, kitchen and press on the first floor of 291 took the force of the blast (Evans and Ferrier). The same night, a man called The Courier Mail (1) saying he was a member of a right wing group and had just bombed the Brisbane Communist Party Headquarters. He threatened to bomb more on Friday if members attended the anti-Vietnam war moratorium that day. He ended his conversation with ‘Heil Hitler.’ Gary Mangan, a known Nazi party member, later confessed to the bombing. He was taken to court, but the Judge ruled that the body of evidence was inadmissible, citing a legal technicality. Mangan was not charged.Ian Curr, in his article, Radical Books in Brisbane, publishes an image of the Communist party quarters in Brisbane. The image, entitled ‘After the Bomb, April 19 1972,’ shows detectives interviewing those who were in the building at the time. One man, with his back to the camera, is unidentified. I imagined this unknown man, in thongs with the long hair, to be Murray. It is in these gaps in historical knowledge that the writer of fiction is free to imagine. References “Bomb in the Valley, Then City Shots.” The Courier Mail 20 Apr. 1972: 1. Curr, Ian. Radical Books in Brisbane. 2008. 24 Jun. 2011 < http://workersbushtelegraph.com.au/2008/07/18/radical-books-in-brisbane/ >. Evans, Raymond, and Carole Ferrier. Radical Brisbane: An Unruly History. Brisbane: Vulgar Press, 2004.

De nos jours, et après plus de quatre décennies de recherche et développement de la technologie CIS, une concurrence directe avec la technologie silicium est toujours loin d'être gagnée; néanmoins, il existe certains marchés de niche où la technologie silicium ne peut pas être utilisée ou est moins appropriée. Les procédés de fabrication actuels présentent certains inconvénients: (i) certain(e)s matériaux et/ou techniques utilisé(e)s ont une forte empreinte environnementale, (ii) certains matériaux alternatifs développés sont coûteux, (iii) certaines techniques utilisées ne sont pas facilement industrialisables ou basées sur l'utilisation d'atmosphères toxiques. Ce travail de thèse présente une stratégie de transition vers un processus basé exclusivement sur l’utilisation à la fois de la pulvérisation cathodique et de matériaux respectueux de l'environnement. Dans ce cadre, nous avons utilisé la pulvérisation cathodique pour déposer le contact arrière en molybdène. Nous avons développé un nouveau procédé de dépôt de la couche absorbante basé sur l’utilisation de la pulvérisation, à température ambiante et à partir d'une seule cible quaternaire sans apport supplémentaire de sélénium. Nous avons également développé des procédés de pulvérisation à température ambiante pour déposer la couche tampon (ZnSxO1-x) et la couche fenêtre (i-ZnO/AZO). Plusieurs techniques de caractérisation (XRD, SEM, FIB-SEM, EDX, Raman, SIMS, Effet Hall, GDOES, UV-Vis, et IV) ont été utilisées pour étudier l'effet des conditions de dépôt sur les propriétés des couches minces ainsi que pour caractériser les cellules solaires finales dont le meilleur résultat obtenu sur l'efficacité est proche de 12%
Nowadays, and after more than four decades of research and development of the CIS based technology, a direct competition with silicon technology is still far from being won; however there exists some niche markets where the silicon technology cannot be used (flexible photovoltaic) or less favourable (BIPV). The current fabrication processes are still suffering from some drawbacks: (i) some of the used materials and/or techniques have a large environmental footprint (CBD-CdS/CBD-ZnSxO1-x), (ii) some developed alternatives are expensive (evaporated InxSy), (iii) the used techniques are not easily up scalable (evaporation) or based on the use of toxic atmospheres (Se based). This PhD work presents our strategy in moving towards a full sputtering process and in using only environmentally friendly materials. In this framework, we kept using standard material and process for the deposition of the back contact layer. We developed a new process for the deposition of the absorber layer which is based on pulsed DC-magnetron sputtering at room temperature from a single quaternary target without any additional selenium supply, followed by an annealing under inert atmosphere. We developed a room temperature sputtering process for the deposition of the ZnSxO1-x buffer layer. We also developed our appropriate pulsed DC and RF sputtering processes for the deposition of the window layer. Several characterisation techniques (XRD, SEM, FIB-SEM, EDX, Raman, SIMS, Hall Effect, GDOES, UV-Vis, and I-V) have been used to investigate the effect of deposition conditions on thin films properties as well as to characterize the final solar cells which best efficiency result is slightly under 12%

Ce travail a trait à l’étude de cellules solaires de structure verre/Mo/Cu(In,Ga)Se2/In2S3/i-ZnO/ZnO:Al. Il y est en particulier exploré l’influence de la nature des hétéro-interfaces (CIGSe/In2S3 et In2S3/i-ZnO) sur les performances photovoltaïques des dispositifs. L’étude deseffets de la température du substrat lors de la co-évaporation de la couche tampon de sulfure d’indium etde l’épaisseur de cette dernière ont mis en évidence l’influence primordiale de la présence de composés sodés à l’interface In2S3/i-ZnO sur le comportement optoélectronique des photopiles. Un modèle de fonctionnement des cellules solaires à base de Cu(In,Ga)Se2 avec couche tampon In2S3 co-évaporée a été proposé pour expliquer les résultats obtenus. Il suggère que le faible dopage de la couche tampon amène à une structure p-i-n, défavorable pour les performances optoélectroniques des dispositifs, dans le cas traité dans ce travail. Des simulations ont été réalisées et viennent renforcer cette hypothèse. Cette nouvelle interprétation du fonctionnement de la jonction électronique permet de proposer des voies d’amélioration, notamment l’augmentation du caractère n des couches tampons à base d’In2S3, par l’intermédiaire d’un dopage à l’aide d’étain par exemple
This work deals with solar cells having a glass/Mo/Cu(In,Ga)Se2/In2S3/i-ZnO/ZnO:Al structure. In particular the influence of the hetero-interfaces (CIGSe/In2S3 and In2S3/i-ZnO) has been investigated. The impact of the substrate temperature during indium sulfide buffer layer co-evaporation and its thickness has shown the crucial influence the presence of sodium compounds at the In2S3/i-ZnO interface on the optoelectronic behaviour of the solar cells. An operating model of the solar cells based on Cu(In,Ga)Se2 with co-evaporated In2S3 buffer layer has been submitted to explain the obtained results. It suggests that, in the case of this work, the low doping of the buffer layer leads to a p-i-n structure, detrimental for the optoelectronic properties of the solar cell. Simulations have been performed and support this hypothesis. This new interpretation for the behaviour of the electronic junction suggests paths for improvement, specifically by increasing the n-type character of In2S3 based buffer layers, for example, by doping them with tin

Cette thèse s’insère dans un projet d’élaboration et de caractérisation des cellules photovoltaïques organiques classiques et inverses, plus précisément il s’agit d’améliorer les performances des cellules via des couches tampons anodiques et cathodiques originales. Nous avons commencé d’améliorer les couches tampons cathodiques avec différents donneurs d’électrons: phtalocyanine de cuivre CuPc, subphtalocyanine SubPc et dérivés de thiophène organiques. Dans le premier cas de donneur d’électrons (CuPc), nous avons mis en évidence l’effet d’une fine couche d’un composé de césium, utilisée comme couche tampon cathodique dans des cellules inverses, sur la collecte des électrons après un traitement thermique. Nous avons montré aussi que la couche tampon cathodique hybride, Alq3 (9nm) / Ca (3nm) améliore les performances des cellules quelque soit le donneur d’électrons et sans nécessité de recuit. Dans le cas de drivés de thiophène, nous avons montré comment la morphologie de surface des couches organiques peut influencer les performances des cellules photovoltaïques organiques. Et dans le cas de SubPc utilisé dans des cellules inverses, nous avons étudié l’effet de la vitesse de dépôt de la couche SubPc sur sa morphologie. Concernant l’amélioration de la couche tampon anodique, nous avons étudié des cellules classiques à base SubPc et du pentathiophene (5T). Après l’optimisation de l’épaisseur des donneurs d’électrons, nous avons montré que la bicouche MoO3 (3 nm) / Cul (1,5 nm) utilisée comme couche tampon anodique, permet d'améliorer les performances des cellules, quelque soit le donneur d’électrons. Dans le cas du SubPc, nous avons obtenu un rendement qui approche de 5%
This thesis concerns elaboration and characterization of classical and inverse organic photovoltaic cells, specifically improving the anodic and cathodic buffer layers. We started by improving the cathode buffer layers with different electron donors: copper phthalocyanine CuPc, subphtalocyanine SubPc and thiophene derivatives (BSTV and BOTV). In the first case of electron donor (CuPc), we highlighted the effect of the thin layer of cesium compound, used as a cathodic buffer layer in inverse cells, on the collection of electrons after heat treatment.We have also shown that the hybrid cathodic buffer layer, Alq3 (9 nm) / Ca (3nm) improves the cell performance whatever the electron donor without annealing. In the case of thiophene derivatives, we have shown how the morphology of the organic layers surface can influence the performance of organic photovoltaic cells. In the case of SubPc used in inverse cells, we studied the effect of the deposition rate of the layer on the morphology of SubPc surface.Regarding the improvement of the anodic buffer layers, we investigated those based on the SubPc and pentathiophene (5T) in classical cells. After optimization of the electron donors thickness, we have shown that the bilayer MoO3 (3 nm) / CuI (1.5 nm) used as an anodic buffer layer, improves cell performances, whatever the electron donor. In the case of SubPc, we obtained a efficiency approaching 5%

Ces travaux concernent l’utilisation d'un oxyde comme couche tampon à l'interface électrode/semi-conducteur organique dans une cellule photovoltaïque afin d’en augmenter le rendement et la durée de vie. A l’heure actuelle les performances des cellules photovoltaïques organiques sont limitées par la barrière de potentiel à l'interface électrode/semi-conducteur et le drainage médiocre des charges vers les électrodes. Notre étude porte sur l’optimisation de couches minces de NiO déposées par pulvérisation cathodique réactive DCMS et HiPIMS. Nous avons montré que les conditions de décharge telles que la pression, puissance et pourcentage de gaz réactif jouent un rôle déterminant sur la qualité des films de NiO. Les films obtenus étaient bien cristallisés avec une orientation préférentielle (111) ou (200) selon qu’ils étaient sur-stœchiométriques en nickel ou oxygène. L’écart à la stœchiométrie permettant d’augmenter la conductivité mais diminuant la transmittance. Les recuits réalisés sur ces films ont montré qu’ils devenaient transparents quelle que soit leur composition initiale tout en gardant une orientation préférentielle représentative de leur teneur en oxygène initiale. Pour les films de NiO déposés par HiPIMS nous avons montré qu’il était possible de contrôler finement la quantité d’oxygène dans nos films en faisant varier la largeur des pulses et par la même d’ajuster le gap optique depuis 3,28 eV jusque 4,18 eV en fonction de la largeur de pulse. Ensuite nous avons montré qu’en introduisant une couche mince de NiO à l’interface ITO/Organique on pouvait améliorer le rendementd'un facteur 3 et multiplier la durée de vie des cellules photovoltaïques organiquespar plus de 17. Enfin, nous avons optimisé les propriétés électriques et optiques des structures multicouches MoO3/Ag/MoO3et montré qu’on pourrait, à terme, remplacer l’ITO par une structure MoO3(20 nm)/Ag(10nm)/MoO3(35nm)
This work involved the use of an oxide as the buffer layer at the electrode / organic semiconductor interface in a photovoltaic cell in order to increase the efficiency and lifetime. Currently the efficiency of organic solar cells is restricted by the high potential barrier at the electrode / semiconductor contact and inefficiencies in the transport of electric charges to the electrodes. Our study focuses on the optimization of NiO thin films deposited by reactive sputtering DCMS and HIPIMS. We have shown that the discharge conditions such as pressure, power and percentage of reactive gas play an important role on the properties of NiO thin films. The films were well crystallized with a preferential orientation (111) or (200) related to the sub-stoichiometric in oxygen or nickel. The deviation from stoichiometry leads to an increase of the conductivity but also to a decrease of the transmittance. After annealing processing, these films became transparent whatever their initial composition while maintaining a preferred orientation which is representative of their initial oxygen content. For NiO thin films deposited by HIPIMS we have proved that it was possible to precisely control the amount of oxygen in our films by varying the pulse width but also possible to adjust the optical gap from 3. 28 eV up 4. 18 eV. Then we have shown that by introducing a thin layer of NiO at the ITO / Organic semi-conductor interface, the performance and the lifetime of organic solar cells could be improve by 3 and more than 17 times respectively. Finally, we optimized electrical and optical properties of multilayer structures MoO3/Ag/MoO3 that could eventually replace the ITO by a structure MoO3 (20 nm) / Ag (10 nm) / MoO3 (35 nm)

Le remplacement du CdS dans les cellules solaires à base de Cu(In,Ga)Se2 est un des défis majeurs de la communauté. À ce jour un des matériaux les plus prometteurs est le Zn(S,O,OH) déposée par voie chimique en solution. En raison de la faible vitesse de dépôt du matériau et des phénomènes de métastabilités présents dans les dispositifs formés, il apparaît nécessaire d’optimiser les conditions expérimentales et les interfaces. La 1ère partie de ces travaux a été consacré à l’optimisation des conditions de dépôt des couches minces de Zn(S,O,OH) grâce à l’introduction d’additifs. Il a été possible de souligner l’effet des additifs sur la composition des couches déposées et sur les vitesses de réaction. La 2ème partie de ces travaux a été consacrée à l’optimisation des conditions de dépôt par pulvérisation cathodique de la fenêtre avant (Zn,Mg)O/ZnO :Al permettant une diminution des phénomènes de métastabilité et une limitation de la migration de sodium jusqu’au Zn(S,O,OH). Ces conditions combinées à une variation de la composition de la surface du CIGSe a permis d’obtenir des rendements de photo-conversion supérieurs à ceux des références à base de CdS
The replacement of CdS-based buffer layer in Cu(In,Ga)Se2 solar cells has been one of the main challenges of the research community for the last decade. Today, one of the most promising alternative material is the chemically bath deposited Zn(S,O,OH). Because of its low deposition rate and of metastable behavior, it becomes necessary to proceed to an optimization of experimental conditions and of the various interfaces. The first part of this work has been dedicated to the optimization of the deposition bath thanks to the introduction of new additives. It has been possible to underline the additive effects on both the deposition rate and on the chemical composition of the deposited layers. The second part of this work has been dedicated to the optimization of the (Zn,Mg)O/ZnO:Al window layer. Thanks to an improvement of the sputtering conditions, it has been possible to reduce metastability of the solar cells, and to limit sodium migration up to the Zn(S,O,OH) layer. These optimized conditions combined to the variation of the CIGSe surface composition have allowed us to outperform CdS-based references solar cells

"Les travaux de cette thèse ont porté sur l'étude, la réalisation et la caractérisation de transistors HEMTs de la filière AlInAs/GaInAs sur substrat d'InP, pouvant répondre aux différentes applications dans le domaine millimétrique, voire sub-millimétrique. Nous avons pour cela, envisagé deux axes principaux. La première voie qui a été suivie, est passée par une réduction des dimensions des transistors, en particulier la longueur de grille en "T" à quelques dizaines de nanomètres. Cette réduction, nécessaire afin d'augmenter les performances, passe par une amélioration de certaines étapes technologiques indispensables telles que la lithographie de la grille, l'étape de gravure du cap layer ou "recess", mais aussi la prise en compte des règles d'échelle pour la structure de couche. Une première étude technologique sur des grilles sub-100nm a montré qu'une approche différente de l'étape lithographique utilisée habituellement (dite "bicouche de résine") doit être utilisée afin de diminuer les longueurs de grilles. Nous avons alors mis au point deux procédés de lithographie de grille permettant d'obtenir des dimensions inférieures à 50nm. La première technologie qui utilise un " bicouche mixte", a permis l'obtention de grilles de 35nm. La seconde technologie, appelée le "procédé nitrure", permet de réaliser des grilles en T robustes, de 20nm de longueur de grille. Ce deuxième procédé a donc été appliqué à la réalisation de transistors sur différentes structures de couches: une structure à barrière fine, une structure à barrière fine et mixte (utilisant une fine couche d'InP dans la barrière) et enfin une structure à barrière épaisse. L'influence des effets de canal court a donc pu être étudiée et on voit bien que la réalisation de transistors de 25nm sur une barrière épaisse, pour laquelle le rapport d'aspect (distance grille-milieu du canal) est inférieur à l, diminue considérablement les performances fréquentielles. "
Ainsi, en augmentant ce rapport à 1,5 (cas des transistors sur barrière fine), on obtient une fréquence ft de 253GHz et une fréquence fmax de 380GHz. La dernière structure, à barrière fine et mixte, nous a permis d'obtenir des fréquences ft de l'ordre de 270GHz rien qu'en augmentant légèrement l'épaisseur de la barrière (puisque la grille a été déposée sur la Couche d'InP). Ces premiers résultats indiquent les potentialités offertes par l'utilisation d'une barrière Schottky mixte. Ces résultats pourraient être améliorés par l'utilisation d'un "double recess", ce qui permettrait de diminuer les zones trop importantes d'extensions de recess, à l'origine de la dégradation des performances fréquentielles de ces composants ultimes. L'amélioration de certains paramètres électriques liée à l'utilisation d'un recess mieux adapté permettrait d'aboutir à une fréquence ft de 520GHz, proche de l'état de l'art. Néanmoins, la réduction des dimensions atteint des limites, c'est pourquoi nous avons envisagé d'étudier des composants en rupture technologique avec les précédents transistors appelés "transistors sans couche tampon". L'idée est de venir supprimer la couche tampon qui est à l'origine d'une augmentation de la conductance de sortie par l'injection de porteurs dans cette couche. La réalisation technologique de ces composants est basée sur la technique de report de substrat, qui a été mise au point et adaptée à la réalisation d'un HEMT sans couche tampon. Les premiers résultats électriques indiquent que la technique de report de substrat affecte peu les caractéristiques de la couche active. Bien que nous ayons réalisé les premiers transistors sans couche tampon de longueur de grille 100nm, les caractéristiques électriques observées ne sont pas celles escomptées. Toutefois l'origine de ces faibles performances a été identifïée, et des solutions d'amélioration sont proposées

Les cellules solaires standards à base de Cu(In,Ga) Se2 possèdent une fine couche tampon de sulfure de cadmium déposée par bain chimique. Son remplacement par une couche tampon exempte de cadmium et déposée par procédé physique sous vide est un des challenges de la communauté depuis quelques années. Dans ce travail, une double approche a été suivie, en étudiant les propriétés de la nouvelle couche tampon alternative mais en s'intéressant aussi à son interface avec la couche CIGSe et en travaillant spécifiquement à l'optimisation du CIGSe à la nouvelle couche tampon. Un premier aspect a donc été l'étude de couches tampons à base de sulfure d'indium. L'introduction d'aluminium dans les couches a permis de réduire les discontinuités de bande à l'interface avec le CIGSe et de diminuer les recombinaisons. En parrallèle un travail sur le contrôle des propriétés de couches de CIGSe déposées par coevaporation a été mené. L'optimisation de caractéristiques comme la rugosité et la texturation des couches a permis l'obtention de dispositifs à couche tampon CdS à des rendements proches de 18 %. L'effet des propriétés de la couche du CIGSe sur l'interface avec la couche tampon de (In,A1)2S3 a enfin été etudié. L'optimisation des paramètres de l'absorbeur et notamment de la rugosité a permis d'atteindre des rendements de cellules de l'ordre de 13 % avec la couche tampon PVD
Standard Cu(In,Ga)Se2(CGISe) based solar cells have a thin, chemical bath deposited, cadmium sulfide buffer layer. Its replacement by a cadmium-free material deposited by a physical process (PVD) is among the challenges of the research community. In the present work, a dual approach has been followed working on both the properties of a new alternative buffer layer and the optimisation of the CIGSe layer. The new buffer layer investigated belongs to the indium sulfide family : In2-2xA12xS3. It is observed that the partial substitution of indium by aluminium yields a band gap increase of the material mainly affecting the conduction band states. Meanwhile, an accurate tuning of the CIGSe growth parameters allowed the control the films, grains orientation and roughness. This optimisation of the CIGSe led to the reach of national record 18 % efficiency cell. Furthermore, the combination of these progress with the understanding of the In2-2x-A12xS3, films properties makes it possible the realisation of 13 % efficiency devices with a PVD deposited (In,A1)2-S3 buffer layer

Ce memoire de these consiste en l'etude de l'elaboration et de la caracterisation de materiaux ternaires a structure chalcopyrite de large bande interdite cualx 2 (x = se, te) en couches minces polycrystallines. Une premiere partie est consacree a l'etude exhaustive des connaissances actuelles sur ces differents composes. Des couches minces de cualse 2 et cualte 2 ont alors ete realisees par differentes techniques (evaporation thermique suivie de recuit sous atmosphere de chalcogene ou sous gaz neutre) et caracterisees par diffraction de rx, microanalyse, meb, xps, conductivite, absorption optique et infrarouge lointain. Nous avons obtenu des couches de bonnes qualites cristallines, homogenes, presentant des proprietes optiques et electriques proches de celles des cristaux (observation des excitons et des phonons caracteristiques). Nous avons au cours de ce travail optimise la composition de cualse 2 a moins de 5% d'oxygene et celle de cualte 2 a moins de 10%, resultat interessant compte tenu de la grande reactivite de l'aluminium avec l'oxygene. Ces composes pouvant avoir pour applications les couches tampons dans la filiere des photopiles (cis) ou des materiaux emetteurs pour les led, nous avons realise avec succes une diode cualse 2/sno 2, element de base de ces composants. Les dopages sur cualse 2 montrent qu'il peut etre obtenu de type n et photoluminescent dans la partie vert-bleu du spectre visible. Nous avons aussi opere une premiere tentative d'elaboration de couches minces dans le systeme quaternaire cual(se xte 1 x) 2 qui s'avere tres prometteur.

Notre travail consiste en l’utilisation de couches tampons anodiques pour l’amélioration des perfor-mances des cellules photovoltaïques organiques à base de petites molécules telles que les phtalocya-nine, Oligothiophene et triphénylamine. L’utilisation d’une couche de 3 nm d’oxyde de molybdène à l’interface entre l’oxyde d’indium dopé étain ITO, utilisé comme anode, et les différents donneurs d’électrons, permet l’augmentation de l’efficacité de collection des charges, et par conséquent, l’amélioration des performances des cellules. Lorsqu’une couche de 3 nm de CuI est utilisée comme couche tampon, celle-ci permet l’augmentation de la conductivité des couches organiques, ce qui permet d’améliorer la densité de courant de court-circuit Jsc. Lorsqu’une double couche tampon MoO3/CuI est utilisée pour optimiser l’interface ITO/donneurs d’électrons, de meilleurs résultats sont obtenus quel que soit le donneur d’électrons utilisé, ce qui peut être expliqué par la double fonction de cette couche, le MoO3 assure une collection des charges efficace, et le CuI améliore la Jsc grâce à son effet sur le mode de croissance des couches organiques. Après avoir validé l’applicabilité de ces couches tampons avec l’ITO, d’autres électrodes conductrices et transparentes tel que l’oxyde de Zinc dopé aluminium, AZO, déposé par pulvérisation et l’oxyde d’indium dopé étain FTO commercial, ainsi que les anodes multicouches de structures MoO3/Ag/ MoO3 déposées sur le verre et le PET (polyéthy-lène téréphtalate) ont été utilisées comme anode des cellules photovoltaïques organiques. Nous avons montré que ces électrodes peuvent être une bonne alternative permettant de remplacer l’ITO, surtout, après optimisation de leurs interface avec le CuPc, utilisé comme donneur d’électron, par les couches tampons MoO3, CuI et MoO3/CuI
The aim of our work was the use of anode buffer layers to improve the performances of organic solar cells based on small molecules such as phtalocyanine, Oligothiophene and triphenylamine. However, the introduction of 3 nm of molybdenum oxide at the interface between the ITO (tin-doped indium ox-ide), used as anode, and the different donors of electron leads to an improvement of charge collection efficiency, therefore, the efficiency of the solar cells. Meanwhile, the replacement of MoO3 by 3 nm of CuI increases the carrier mobility of the conductivity of the organic layers, which consequently improves the density of the short circuit current Jsc. When the hybrid buffer layer MoO3 /CuI is used at the interface ITO/electron donors, best results were obtained irrespective of the electron donor, which can be explained by the double role: MoO3 provides a very good charge collection, and CuI which im-proves Jsc by affecting the growth mode of the organic layers. After validating the applicability of these buffer layers when the ITO was used as anode of the solar cells, other conductive and transparent electrodes such as sputtered aluminum-doped zinc oxide (AZO), tin doped indium oxide (FTO), as well as multi layer structures MoO3/Ag/MoO3 were used as anode. We have shown that these electrodes are considered as an alternative to replace ITO, especially after optimizing their interface with the CuPc used as electron donor using MoO3 , CuI and MoO3 /CuI buffer layers

Une expérience de PIV stéréoscopique, dans une couche limite turbulente et dans dix plans parallèles à la paroi à Reθ [thêta] = 7800, a été analysée en détail. Les objectifs du travail étaient d'étudier les caractéristiques de l'écoulement turbulent dans la région 14. 5 < y+ < 48. 0, d'observer et de mesurer les structures cohérentes (‘streaks’, ‘ejections’, ‘sweeps’ et tourbillons longitudinaux) et de trouver les relations spatiales entre elles afin de fournir un modèle d'organisation près de la paroi. Cette étude a commencé par le choix de la méthode la plus appropriée pour le traitement des données de SPIV, afin d'obtenir les champs de vitesse instantanés. Puis, les statistiques générales de la turbulence ont été analysées et comparées aux résultats d'autres études pour valider la base de données. Les corrélations ont été calculées pour démontrer l'existence des structures cohérentes. Ensuite, ces structures ont été détectées par une méthode que l’on a développée et qui est basée sur l'identification. Leurs caractéristiques statistiques ont été étudiées en détail. Enfin, les corrélations ont été réalisées entre les structures détectées. Les résultats et ces analyses statistiques fournissent des informations sur l'organisation de ces structures dans l'écoulement. Cette étude montre que les ‘ejections’ et ‘sweeps’ sont associés aux ‘streaks’ lent et rapide respectivement et qu’ils sont fortement liés aux tourbillons longitudinaux. Les caractéristiques de ces structures cohérentes sont mesurées. On montre qu'elles dépendent de la distance à la paroi. Par ailleurs, les résultats confirment le modèle d'appariement de tourbillons
A Stereoscopic PIV experiment, performed on a fully developed turbulent flow along a flat plate at Reθ [thêta] = 7800 and in 10 streamwise-spanwise planes parallel to the wall, has been analyzed in detail. The objectives of the work were to study the characteristics of the turbulent flow in the region 114. 5 ≤ y+ ≤ 48. 0, to observe and quantify the coherent structures (e. G. Steaks, ejections, sweeps and streamwise vortices) and to investigate the spatial relations between them so as to provide an organization model near the wall. The present study began with the selection of the most suitable method for the SPIV processing, which was used to obtain the 2D3C instantaneous velocity fields. Then the basic statistics of the turbulence were analyzed and compared to the results of other studies to validate the database. The two-point spatial correlations were computed to evidence the existence of coherent structures. Following that, these structures were detected by a newly developed method based on pattern recognition and their statistical characteristics were investigated in detail. Finally, the two-point correlations were performed on these structures. The results and this statistical analysis provide information on the flow organization. The present study shows that the wall attached streamwise vortices are centred in the region 20 to 30 wall units. Ejections and sweeps are associated with low and high speed streaks respectively and both are strongly linked to streamwise vortices. The characteristics of these coherent structures are quantified and they depend on wall distance. Moreover, the results support the idea of ‘merging of vortices’

Abstract The dynamic behavior of ballast particles during track tamping is studied by developing a computer simulation model using the Discrete Element Model (DEM) method. The simulation model is developed in a commercially available DEM software called PFC3D (Particle Flow Code 3D). The study primarily evaluates a complete tamping cycle as defined by insertion, squeeze, hold, and withdrawal. Using a Taguchi approach, the effect of Tine motion’s frequency and amplitude, insertion velocity, and squeeze velocity are evaluated on tamping effectiveness. The compactness of the ballast particles, as defined by the average number of contacts per particle (referred to “Coordination Number”) is used as a measure of the effectiveness of tamping. Setting up the DEM model and important elements such as selection and calibration of particle shapes, ballast mechanical properties, contact model, and parameters governing the contact force models are described in detail. The tamping process is evaluated using a half-track layout with a highly modular code that enables a high degree of adjustability to allow control of all parameters for improved simulation flexibility. A parametric study is performed to find the best values of tine motion parameters for improving tamping efficiency. A performance comparison is made between linear and elliptical tamping. The results indicate that smaller squeeze and release velocities of the tines yield better compaction. Of course, reducing the velocities would result in increased tamping time. Additionally, the results indicate that the linear motion of the tines potentially result in better compaction than elliptical motion, although the latter may require less insertion force (power) and cause less ballast damage.

В статье прослеживается история Фанагории с середины 3 в., когда жизнь Боспорского царства, в состав которого входила Фанагория, была нарушена вторжением племенных союзов готов, до конца 7 столетия, когда Боспор захватили хазары, и в истории Фанагории начался новый период. Сопоставляются сведения, содержащиеся в письмен - ных источниках и эпиграфических памятниках, данные археологии и нумизматики. История Фанагории рассматривается на фоне политической и экономической ситуации в Северном Причерноморье. Уточнение хронологии ключевых групп материала и ряд новых находок позволили пересмотреть даты некоторых важных событий в истории города. В середине 3 в. относительно спокойная жизнь Боспорского царства была нарушена появлением племенных союзов готов и других восточногерманских народов, которые в 255 г. по суше достигли Боспора и, переправившись через Меотиду, разорили хору каких-то городов и разгромили Танаис. С берегов Меотиды готы в течение двадцати лет совершали практически ежегодные морские и сухопутные набеги на римские владения в Причерноморье и Восточном Средиземноморье. Поскольку европейская сторона, пострадавшая при готских вторжениях, не могла предоставить необходимый провиант и корабли, подготовка этих походов была возможна только при использовании ресурсов городов и хоры азиатской половины Боспорского государства. Именно в города Азиатского Боспора, в том числе Фанагорию, «скифы» свозили награбленное добро, ставшее источником подъема экономики Боспорского царства. После разгрома германцев в 276 г. на Боспоре наступает относительно спокойный период. Правители Боспора контролируют прежнюю территорию, в том числе Азиатский Боспор. В последней четверти 3–4 вв. оживляется сильно нарушенная германцами экономика Боспора, в которой, как свидетельствует нумизматический материал, преобладает его азиатская сторона, где развернулась активная строительная деятельность. В частности, в Фанагории ко времени не ранее конца 3–4 вв. н. э. относится строительство портовых сооружений; несколько меняется облик города: на месте богатых общественных сооружений появляются крупные винодельческие комплексы и жилые дома. Следы разрушений и пожаров, выявленные на различных поселениях Таманского полуострова, и клады, сокрытые не ранее 341–342 гг., говорят о внезапной атаке, возможно, каких-то северокавказских племен. Однако Фанагория, по-видимому, избежала разгрома: город сохраняет территорию в прежних границах и продолжает оставаться крупным ремесленным и торговым центром. В какой-то момент жизнь города была прервана неким событием, оставившим после себя следы разрушений и пожара, выявленные в нескольких районах города. Боль шинство исследователей связывает это разрушение с нашествием гуннов и относит ко времени правления императора Валента (364–378). Однако на основе анализа данных письменных источников и состава комплекса керамики из слоя пожара и комплексов, связанных с расчисткой города перед новым строительством, оно может быть датировано временем около середины 5 в., хотя виновника этих разрушений определить не удается. Приблизительно в это же время прекращают существование Кепы, Батарейка I и II, Красноармейское, Каменная батарейка. Остались лишь крупные города – Фанагория и Гермонасса и, может быть, какие-то производственные центры. В результате описанных событий территория города несколько сократилась: строительные остатки, которые можно было бы датировать временем после первой половины 5 в., не прослежены на юго-восточной и юго-западной окраине города. Однако в централь - ной части нижнего и верхнем плато города жизнь возобновляется довольно быстро. В конце 5 или начале 6 в. Боспорское царство входит в сферу влияния Византийской империи. Однако период относительной стабильности под крылом Византии в Фанагории по сведениям письменных источников и данным археологии внезапно обрывается в середине 6 в. С одной стороны, упоминание о разрушении Фанагории и Кеп Прокопием Кесарийским в книге VIII «Истории войн», законченной в 554 году, а с другой, – комплекс керамики, открытый в слое пожара на раскопах «Береговой стратиграфический» и «Нижний город», и особенно недавние находки на последнем двух солидов Юстиниана I 545–565 гг., позволяют датировать слой разрушения временем не ранее 545 года, но не позднее 554 года. Складывается впечатление, что после этих событий жизнь в Фанагории на какое-то время замирает: отмечается отсутствие материалов второй половины 6–7 вв. на некрополе Фанагории, а в коллекции краснолаковой керамики из раскопок города – поздних форм. Но вый период истории города начинается, по-видимому, около 665 г., когда Боспор захватили хазары. Именно с ними связано появление на месте сгоревших домов построек, возведенных в технике «елочка», характерной для хазарских памятников второй половины 7–10 вв. The article traces the history of Phanagoria from the middle of the 3rd century, when the life of the Bosporan kingdom, Phanagoria being its part, was disturbed by the invasion of Gothic tribes, till the late 7th century, when Bosporos was occupied by the Khazars, the event which opened a new period of its history. Here we compare information from written sources, epigraphic documents, numismatics and archaeology. The history of Phanagoria is considered against the background of the political and economic situation in the North Black Sea area. The verification of chronology of the principal groups of materials and a number of new discover ies allows to reconsider the dates of certain important events in the history of the city. In the middle of the 3rd century the relatively peaceful life of the Bosporan kingdom was disturbed by the appearance of Gothic tribes and other East Germanic peoples, who in 255 reached Bosporos and after crossing Lake Maeotis ravaged the suburban areas of several cities and destroyed Tanais. From the Maeotic banks in the course of twenty years the Goths raided Ro man territories in the North Black Sea area and the East Mediterranean by land and sea. As the European side much affected by Gothic invasions could not provide supplies and ships, the provision of these raids was possible only by the use of resources obtained from the Eastern half of the Bosporan state. The cities of the Asian Bosporos including Phanagoria became the stores where ‘the Scythians’ concentrated their loot, which ensured the economic development of the Bosporan kingdom. After the defeat of the Germans in 276 followed a relatively peaceful period. The Bosporan rulers controlled their initial territory, including the Asian Bosporos. In the last third of the 4th century the Bosporan economy affected by German invasions revives significantly. Numismatic data testifies to the development of its Asiatic part, where building activities were noticeable. In Phanagoria in particular, by the late 3rd – 4th centuries its sea-port was reconstructed and in the whole appearance of the city there were important changes: rich public buildings were replaced by large wineries and dwelling houses. Ruins and traces of fire revealed at different settlements of the Taman Peninsula, hoards hidden not earlier than 341–342 tell of some unexpected attack, possibly by certain North Caucasian tribes. Phanagoria evidently avoided destruction. The city retained its original borders and continued as a prominent center of trade and industry. At some point, the life of the city was interrupted by some event, leaving traces of destruction and fire visible in its several districts. Most scholars connect this event with the coming of the Huns in the reign of Emperor Valens (364–378). However, written sources and sets of pottery from burnt layers connected with the removal of ruins before the reconstruction of the city point Л. А. Голофаст 44 to the time around mid–fifth century, even though they do not define those guilty of the event. Approximately at the same time disappear such settlements as Kepoi, Batareika I and II, Krasnoarmeiskoe, Kamennaya Batareika. Only large cities survived – Phanagoria and Hermonassa and probably some industrial centres. The events described above reduced the territory of the city: there are no traces of building activity in the South-East and South-West districts. But in the central part of the lower plateau and upon the upper one the city-life revived quickly. In the late 5th or the early 6th century the Bosporan kingdom became involved into the Byzantine sphere of influence. However, the period of relative stability under the Byzantine protection was suddenly interrupted in the middle of the 6th century. Procopius mentions the destruction of Phanagoria and Kepoi in the eighth book of his “History of Wars” accomplished in 554. On the other hand the sets of pottery from the strata of ruins and fire from the “Shore stratigraphic” trench and the “Lower city” trench as well as recent finds in the last one of two solidi of Justinian I (545–565) allow to date the strata to the time not earlier than 545 but not later than 554. It looks like after these events any active life in Phanagoria stopped for a while: there are no materials of the second half of the 6th – 7th centuries from the city necropolis, no finds of later forms of red-ware pottery from the city. A new period in the history of the city began around 665, when Bosporos was occupied by the Khazars. That was the time when burnt structures were re placed by buildings constructed after the opus spicanti technique characteristic of the 7th – 10th century Khazar architecture.