Academic literature on the topic 'Crimes par ordinateurs'

Abstract. The purpose of this article is to explore the issue of alignment in Canadian foreign policy. The main research question is whether Canada's responses to foreign crises aligned with those of its allies, and if so, which allies and why. The study proceeds in two steps. First, it tests four major theoretical perspectives that could explain Canada's behaviour: continentalism, transatlantism, the Anglosphere argument and unilateralism. By performing a computer-generated content analysis, the article assesses these propositions by focusing on and comparing Canada's official declarations to those of the United States, France and Britain to six foreign crises that occurred between 2004 and 2011. Second, the analysis identifies whether there is a difference between the Harper and Martin governments' responses to foreign crises. The research provides quantitative and qualitative evidence suggesting that Canada's foreign policy alignment primarily tends toward a transatlantic orientation. It also shows that the Harper government was less in line with Washington than was the previous Liberal government of Paul Martin, which challenges the conventional wisdom of Canadian foreign policy.Résumé. Cet article explore l'enjeu de l'alignement en politique étrangère canadienne et pose la question de recherche suivante : est-ce qu'à l'égard des crises étrangère le Canada s'aligne sur les positions de ses alliés et, si oui, lesquels et pourquoi? Tout d'abord, l'article présente quatre perspectives théoriques susceptibles d'expliquer le comportement du Canada : le continentalisme, le transatlantisme, la thèse de l'anglosphère et celle de l'unilatéralisme. En ayant recours à une analyse de contenu assistée par ordinateur, cet article teste la validité de ces propositions en comparant les déclarations officielles du Canada à celles des États-Unis, de la France et de l'Angleterre à l'égard de six crises survenues entre 2004 et 2011. Ensuite, l'analyse cherche à identifier s'il y a une différence entre les réponses des gouvernements Harper et Martin à l'égard de ces crises. L'étude fournit des données empiriques de type qualitatif et quantitatif qui suggèrent que le Canada a eu une orientation transatlantique lors de la gestion de ces crises internationales. Elle montre également que le gouvernement Harper est moins aligné sur les positions de Washington que ne le fut le précédent gouvernement libéral, ce qui ébranle certaines idées communément admises en politique étrangère canadienne.

Michael Haneke’s film Caché tells the story of a bourgeois family in peril. The comfortable lives of the Laurents—husband Georges (Daniel Auteuil), wife Anne (Juliette Binoche), and teenage son Pierrot (Lester Makedonsky)—are disrupted when surveillance tapes of their home and private conversations are delivered to them anonymously. Ostensibly Caché sits in a familiar generic framework: the thriller narrative of a family under threat is reminiscent of films such as The Desperate Hours (1955), Cape Fear (1962), and Straw Dogs (1971). The weight of outside forces causes tension within the family dynamic and Georges spends much of the film playing detective (unravelling clues from the tapes and from his past). This framing draws us in; it is presumed that the mystery of the family’s harassment will finally be solved, and yet Haneke’s treatment of this material undermines viewer expectations. This paper examines the process of suspicious reading when applied to a film that encourages such a method, only to thwart the viewer’s attempts to come to a definitive meaning. I argue that Caché plays with generic expectations in order to critique the interpretive process, and consider what implications this has for suspicious readers. Caché positions us as detective. Throughout the film we follow Georges’s investigation to unravel the film’s central enigma: Who is sending the tapes? The answer to this, however, is never revealed. Instead viewers are left with more questions than answers; it seems that for every explanation there is a circumventing intricacy. This lack of narrative closure within the surface framework of a psychological thriller has proven fertile ground for critics, scholars, and home viewers alike as they painstakingly try to ascertain the elusive culprit. Character motives are scrutinised, performances are analysed, specific shots are dissected, and various theories have been canvassed. The viewer becomes ensnared in the hermeneutics of suspicion, a critical reading strategy that literary theorist Rita Felski has compared to the hard-boiled crime story, a scenario in which critic becomes detective, and text becomes criminal suspect to be “scrutinized, interrogated, and made to yield its hidden secrets” (224). Like Georges, the viewer becomes investigator, sifting through the available evidence in the vain hope that with scrupulous attention the film will surrender its mystery.Of course, Haneke is not unique in his withholding of a film’s enigma. David Lynch’s surreal neo-noir Lost Highway (1997) and Mulholland Drive (2001) have garnered a similar response and continue to be debated. Film scholar Mark Cousins compares Caché’s reception at Cannes to other landmark film and television examples:Where Dallas made people ask ‘who?’, Twin Peaks ‘what?’, the genre-bending films of the last decade ‘how?’ and The Crying Game was about the implications of the answer, Caché’s conversational buzz was more circular. Yes, we asked ‘who?’ Then, when it was clear this question was not answered by the film, we considered why it was not answered. (225–6)Felski’s meditation on the hermeneutics of suspicion touches on this issue, considering literary texts as preemptive of our mistrust. Extending Felski’s reasoning here as applicable to other forms of cultural expression, I would like to argue that Caché is a film that “matches and exceeds the critic’s own vigilance” for it is already involved in “subverting the self-evident, challenging the commonplace, [and] relentlessly questioning idées fixes and idées recus” (Felski 217). Caché challenges fixed and received ideas pertaining to audience expectations of the thriller film, subverting generic conventions that traditionally see the enigma resolved, the culprit apprehended, and order restored. More than simply refusing closure, Caché casts doubt on the very clues it offers up as evidence. Such a text performs “a meta-commentary on the traps of interpretation, a knowing anticipation and exposure of all possible hermeneutic blunders” (Felski 217). Throughout her essay, Felski highlights the lures and pitfalls of suspicious reading practices. Felski warns that attempts to gain mastery over texts by drawing to light purportedly obscured meanings are often as concerned with self-congratulatory demonstrations of skill in drawing hitherto unmade connections as they are with the texts themselves (230). While I do not wish to endorse suspicious reading as an unproblematic approach, the present paper considers what happens when readers encounter a text that seemingly cannot be approached in any other way. Unlike the realist literary narratives and mystery stories drawn on by Felski, Caché resists a manifest meaning in both form and content, making it nearly impossible for viewers not to search for latent meaning.So where are suspicious readers left when the texts interrogated refuse to bend to the demands placed on them? This is the question I will be examining in the remainder of this paper through the questions Caché poses and the care it takes in ensuring its enigmatic quality. I will proceed by breaking down what I believe to be the three possible avenues of response—Caché as impossible puzzle, inconclusive puzzle, or wrong puzzle—and their implications.I The Impossible Puzzle Caché opens with a static frame long take of a Parisian residential street. This could be mistaken for a still image until a pedestrian bustles past. A woman leaves her house centre frame. A cyclist turns the corner. “Well?” a male voice intones. “Nothing,” a female replies. The voices come from off-screen, and soon after the image is interrupted by fast forward lines, revealing that what we have been watching is not an image of the present moment but a video cassette of time already elapsed; the voices belong to our protagonists, Georges and Anne, commenting on its content and manipulating its playback. From the opening moments it becomes clear that we cannot be certain of what we are seeing or when we are seeing it.This presents an intriguing tension between form and content that complicates our attempts to gather evidence. Haneke pares back style in a manner reminiscent of the films of Robert Bresson or the work of the Italian neo-realists. Caché’s long takes, naturalistic lighting, and emphasis on the everyday suggest a realist aesthetic; the viewer can invest faith in these images because they ascribe to a familiar paradigm, one in which artifice is apparently minimal. This notion that a realist aesthetic equates to straightforward images is at odds, however, with both the thriller narrative (in which solutions must be concealed before they can be uncovered) and Haneke’s constant undermining of the ontology of the image; throughout the film, viewers will be disoriented by Haneke’s manipulation of time and space with unclear or retroactive distinctions between past, present, video, dream, memory, and reality.An additional contention might be the seemingly impossible placement of the hidden camera. In the same tape, Georges leaves the house and walks towards the camera, unaware of it. The shot indicates the camera must be elevated in the street, and at one point it appears that Georges is looking right at it. A later recording takes place in the apartment of Georges’s suspect, Majid. Viewers are given ample opportunity to scour the mise en scène to find what apparently is not there. Perhaps the camera is just too well hidden. But if this is not the case and we can neither locate nor conceive of the camera’s placement because it simply cannot be there, this would seem to break the rules of the game. If we are to formulate theories as to the culprit at large, what good is our evidence if it is unreliable? Viewers could stop here and conclude that a puzzle without a solution amounts to a film without a point. “Well?” Georges asks in the film’s opening. “Nothing,” Anne replies. Case closed. Short of giving up on a solution, one might conclude (as Antoine Doinel has) that those looking within the film for a perpetrator are looking in the wrong place. When the motives or opportunities of on-screen characters do not add up, perhaps it is Haneke one should turn to. Those familiar with Haneke’s earlier film Funny Games (1997) will know he is not afraid to break the tacit rules by which we suspend our disbelief if there is a point to be made. Film scholar David Sorfa concludes it is in fact the audience who send the tapes; Caché’s narrative is fuelled by the desire of viewers who want to see a film (102). Tempting though these solutions might be (Georges does not see the camera because he is a fictional character in a film unaware of its creator), as critic Roger Ebert has pointed out, such theories render both the film’s content, and any analysis of it, without purpose: It introduces a wild card. It essentially means that no analysis of the film is relevant, because nothing need make sense and no character actions need be significant. Therefore, the film would have the appearance of a whodunit but with no who and no dunnit. (“Caché: A Riddle”)The Caché as impossible puzzle avenue leaves the suspicious reader without reason to engage. If there can be no reward for our efforts, we are left without incentive. Alternately, if we conclude that Haneke is but the puppet master sadistically toying with his characters, we are left at a similar juncture; our critical enquiry has all the consequence of the trite “but it was all a dream…” scenario. “Well?” “Nothing.” I suspect there is more to Caché than that. A film so explicit in its stimulation of suspicious reading seems to merit our engagement. However, this is not to say that our attention will be satisfied with the neatly tied up solution we might expect. II The Inconclusive Puzzle When, one evening, Pierrot does not come home as expected, Georges and Anne conclude the boy has been kidnapped. They interpret their son’s absence as an escalation in the “campaign of terror” that had hitherto consisted of surveillance videos, odd phone calls, and childlike but portent drawings. With police assistance, Georges goes to confront his suspect, Majid. An Algerian boy from his childhood, now middle aged and disadvantaged because of lies Georges told as a child, Majid has already (quite convincingly) denied any knowledge of the tapes. At the door they meet Majid’s son who is equally perplexed at the accusation of kidnapping. The pair are arrested and an exhausted Georges returns home to explain the situation to his wife:Georges: So now they’re both in the cage for the night.Anne: And then?Georges: Then they’ll let them go. If there’s no proof, they have to. There’s suspicion, nothing more.The next day a sullen Pierrot returns home, having stayed the night at a friend’s without notifying his parents. His clear disdain for his mother is revealed as he rejects her affection and accuses her of having an affair. Pierrot likewise treats his father with disinterest, raising viewer suspicion that he might have a motive for tormenting his parents with the videotapes. Pierrot is just one cog in the family’s internal mechanism of suspicion, however. Whether or not Anne is actually having an affair can only be speculated; she denies it, but other scenes open the way to our suspicion. Anne is rightly suspicious of Georges’s reluctance to be open about his past as his proclivity to lie is gradually revealed. In short, Haneke deliberately layers the film with complexity and ambiguity; numerous characters could be implicated, and many questions are raised but few are answered.This suggests that suspicious readers might have recourse to Haneke as author of the text. Haneke, however, celebrates Caché’s ambiguity and his decision to leave the film open: “The truth is always hidden…that’s how it is in the real world. We never, ever know what the truth is. There are a thousand versions of the truth. It depends on your point of view” (Haneke). In interview, Haneke’s language also raises suspicion. At times he speaks knowingly (refusing to reveal important dialogue that occurs in the film’s final shot—an extreme long shot, the characters too distant to be heard), and at other times he seems as uncertain as his viewers (commenting on Anne’s denial of an affair, Haneke remarks “I believe her because she plays it very seriously. But you never know”) (Haneke).Despite this reluctance to offer explanations, Haneke’s status as an auteur with recurring concerns and an ever-developing vision prompts suspicious readers to evaluate Caché in light of his greater oeuvre. Those suspecting Pierrot of wanting to punish his parents might find their theory bolstered by Benny’s Video (1992), Haneke’s film about a teenage boy who murders a friend and then turns in his parents to the police for helping him cover it up. Furthermore, Das Weiße Band (The White Ribbon, 2009) is set in a small German village on the eve of World War One and the narrative strongly suggests the town’s children are responsible for a series of malicious crimes. Whilst malign children in Haneke’s other works cannot explain Caché’s mystery, his oeuvre provides a greater context in which to consider the film, and regenerates discussion as viewers look for patterns in the subject matter Haneke chooses to explore. Regarding Caché as an inconclusive puzzle shifts the emphasis from a neatly packaged solution to a renewable process of discovery. To suggest that there is an answer to be found in the text, a culprit who escapes apprehension but is at least present to be caught, gives suspicious readers cause to engage and re-engage. It is to assume that the film is not without a point. Close attention may reward us with meaningful nuances that colour our interpretation. Haneke’s obsessive attention to detail also seems to suggest that nothing on screen is accidental or arbitrary, that our concentration is warranted, and that active viewing is a necessity even if our expectations and desires for closure may not be granted.Caché ends without revealing its secret. Georges’s suspect Majid has committed suicide (perhaps due to the trauma dredged up by Georges’s accusations), Majid’s son has confronted Georges at his work place (“I wondered how it feels, a man’s life on your conscience?”), and Georges has refused any responsibility for his actions in the distant and recent past. Of the film’s conclusion, cinema theorist Martine Beugnet writes:In the end […] we watch him draw the curtains, take a sleeping pill and go to bed: an emphatic way of signifying the closure of an episode, the return to normality—the conclusion of the film. Yet the images ‘refuse’ to comply: behind the closing credits, the questioning gaze not only persists but affirms its capacity to reinvent itself. (230)The images Beugnet is referring to are the two final shots, which are both static long takes. The first is an extreme long shot, taken from the darkness of a barn into the bright courtyard of the family estate of Georges’s childhood. A child (Majid) is forcibly removed from the home and taken away in a car (presumably to an orphanage due to the lies told by a jealous Georges). This shot is followed by the film’s closing shot, another extreme long shot, this time of the front steps of Pierrot’s school. The frame is cluttered with children and parents, and our eyes are not directed anywhere in particular. Some viewers will notice Pierrot chatting with Majid’s son (a potentially revealing conversation that cannot be heard), others will not see the two young men hidden in the crowd. Eventually the credits roll over this image.Georges’s attempts to shut out the world seem undermined by these images, as Beugnet writes they “‘refuse’ to comply” to this notion of conclusion. Instead of bringing closure to the narrative, they raise more questions. What and when are they? One cannot be sure. The first shot may be a dream or a memory; its placement after a shot of Georges going to bed might encourage us to connect the two. The second shot at the school could be more surveillance footage, or possibly another dream. It might imply the boys have conspired together. It might imply Majid’s son is confronting Pierrot with information about his father. It could be interpreted as the end of the narrative, but it could also be the beginning. Some read it as threatening, others as hopeful. It might imply so many things. However, this “questioning gaze” that persists and reinvents itself is not just the gaze of the film. It is also the gaze of the suspicious reader. From the initial hype upon the film’s Cannes release in 2005, to the various theories circulating in online forums, to Ebert’s scrupulous re-evaluation of the film’s enigma in 2010, to the ever developing body of scholarly work on Haneke’s films, it seems Caché’s mileage for suspicious readers is still running strong, not least because “whodunit?” may be the wrong question.III The Wrong PuzzleOliver C. Speck has remarked that Caché is “Haneke’s most accessible film, but also the most densely layered,” leading the viewer “on a search for clues that always ends in frustration” (97). For Ebert, the film’s lack of resolution leaves the viewer “feeling as the characters feel, uneasy, violated, spied upon, surrounded by faceless observers” (“Caché”). Cousins likewise comments on the process Caché instigates: The film structures our experience in a generically gripping way but then the structure melts away at the moment when it should most cohere, requiring us to look back along its length (the structure’s length and the film’s) to work out where we went wrong. But we did not go wrong. We went where we were told to go, we took the hand of the narrative that, in the final stages, slipped away, leaving us without co-ordinates. (226)The "whodunit” of Caché cannot be definitively proven. Ultimately, viewers can have suspicion, nothing more. So where are we left as suspicious readers when texts such as Caché surpass our own critical vigilance? We can throw in the towel and claim that an impossible puzzle does not deserve our efforts. We can accept that the text has out-played us; it is an inconclusive but compelling puzzle that does not provide enough links in the hermeneutic chain for us to find the closure we seek. Alternately, when the answer is not forthcoming, we can hypothesise that perhaps we have been asking the wrong question; whodunit is beside the point, simply a Hitchcockian MacGuffin (the object or objective that the protagonists seek) introduced to bait us into confronting much more important questions. Perhaps instead we should be asking what Caché can tell us about colonial histories, guilt, vision, or the ontology of cinema itself.This is the avenue many scholars have taken, and the avenue Haneke (rather than his film necessarily) would have us take. The “who did what, when, why, and how” might be regarded as beside the point. In an interview with Andrew O’Hehir, Haneke is quoted:These superficial questions are the glue that holds the spectator in place, and they allow me to raise underlying questions that they have to grapple with. It’s relatively unimportant who sent the tapes, but by engaging with that the viewer must engage questions that are far less banal.Catherine Wheatley agrees, arguing Caché’s open ending renders the epistemological questions of the guilty party and their motives irrelevant, giving preference to questions raised by how this chain of events affect Georges, and by extension the viewer (163–4). By refusing to divulge its secrets, Caché both incites and critiques the interpretive process, encouraging us to take up the role of detective only to anticipate and exceed our investigative efforts. Caché’s subversion of the self-evident is as much a means to launch its thriller narrative as it is a way of calling into question our very understanding of what “self-evident” means. Where Felski describes suspicious interpretations of realist texts (those that attempt to unmask the ideologies concealed behind an illusion of transparency and totality), from its opening moments, Caché is already and constantly unmasking itself. The film’s resistance of a superficial reading seems to make suspicious interpretation inevitable. Wherever viewer suspicion is directed, however, it relies on engagement. Without reason to engage, viewers are left with an impossible puzzle where critical involvement and attention is of no consequence. “Who is sending the tapes?” may be an unimportant or unanswerable question, but it must always be a valid one. It is this query that incites and fuels the interpretive process. As there can only ever be suspicion, nothing more, perhaps it is the question rather than “the answer” that is of utmost significance.Works CitedBeugnet, Martine. “Blind Spot.” Screen 48.2 (2007): 227–31.Benny’s Video. Dir. Michael Haneke. Madman, 1992.Caché (Hidden). Dir. Michael Haneke. Sony Pictures Classics, 2005. Cape Fear. Dir. J. Lee Thompson. Universal, 1962.Cousins, Mark. “After the End: Word of Mouth and Caché.” Screen 48.2 (2007): 223–6.Desperate Hours, The. Dir. William Wyler. Paramount, 1955.Doinel, Antoine. “(Un)hidden Camera: The ‘Real’ Sender of the Tapes.” Mubi.com. Mubi. n.d. 10 Apr. 2011. ‹http://mubi.com/topics/461›. Ebert, Roger. “Caché.” Roger Ebert.com. Chicago Sun-Times. 13 Jan. 2006. 25 Feb. 2011. ‹http://rogerebert.suntimes.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20060112/REVIEWS/51220007›.---. “Caché: A Riddle, Wrapped in a Mystery, Inside an Enigma [Response to Readers].” Roger Ebert’s Journal. Chicago Sun-Times. 18 Jan. 2010. 2 Apr. 2011. ‹http://blogs.suntimes.com/ebert/2010/01/a_riddle_wrapped_in_a_mystery.html›.Felski, Rita. “Suspicious Minds.” Poetics Today 32.2 (2011): 215–34.Funny Games. Dir. Michael Haneke. Madman, 1997.Haneke, Michael. “Hidden: Interview with Michael Haneke by Serge Toubiana.” DVD Special Features. Hidden (Caché). Dir. Michael Haneke. Madman, 2005.Lost Highway. Dir. David Lynch. Universal, 1997.Mulholland Drive. Dir. David Lynch. Reel, 2001.O’Hehir, Andrew. “Michael Haneke’s ‘White Ribbon.’” Salon.com. Salon. 2 Jan. 2010. 2 Apr. 2011. ‹http://www.salon.com/entertainment/movies/andrew_ohehir/2010/01/02/haneke›.Sorfa, David. “Uneasy Domesticity in the Films of Michael Haneke.” Studies in European Cinema 3.2 (2006): 93–104.Speck, Oliver C. Funny Frames: The Filmic Concepts of Michael Haneke. New York: Continuum, 2010.Straw Dogs. Dir. Sam Peckinpah. MRA, 1971.Wheatley, Catherine. Michael Haneke’s Cinema: The Ethic of the Image. New York: Berghahn Books, 2009.White Ribbon, The (Das Weiße Band). Dir. Michael Haneke. Artificial Eye, 2009.

Les travaux menés dans le cadre de cette thèse consistent à développer un modèle permettant d'évaluer et d'améliorer la résilience d'un système de transport ferroviaire de masse. L'état de l'art des approches de quantification de la résilience a montré leurs limites quant à leur adéquation au système de transport ferroviaire de masse. Le système modélisé dans le cadre de cette étude se compose des quatre sous-systèmes respectivement de transport, d'énergie, de télécommunication et d'organisation. La caractérisation et la modélisation des interdépendances intra et inter sous-systèmes conduisent à mieux comprendre et étudier ce type de système. Des indicateurs de performance adaptés à ce système (le nombre de passagers arrivés à destination, le retard cumulé et la charge des passagers) permettent de quantifier la performance puis la résilience du système. Une application de ce modèle est proposée sur le réseau de transport ferroviaire de Paris. Par la suite, la modélisation des perturbations et des plans de gestion de crise ont permis d'évaluer l'impact/l'efficacité de ces plans de gestion pour les améliorer. A partir de ce modèle, un simulateur a été développé, et une procédure de mise en place d’une démarche de résilience de bout en bout dans un système de transport ferroviaire de masse est proposée. Les conditions d'exploitation sont intégrées dans les indicateurs topologiques des systèmes de transport que l'on trouve dans la littérature via le modèle. Les indicateurs de résilience ainsi obtenus se montrent plus pertinents que ces indicateurs topologiques usuels
This thesis aims to develop a model that assesses and improves the resilience of mass railway transportation system. A state of the art on resilience quantification approaches in sociotechnical systems reveals some limitations relative to their adequacy to the mass railway transportation systems. The model developed in this work is helping to give some answers to these limitations. We identify and develop four interrelated subsystems: transportation, power, telecommunication and organization subsystems. We also characterized and modeled these subsystems' interdependencies. This allows us to get insight into the system holistically. We also propose and quantify some performance indicators of this system. These performance indicators are used afterwards to quantify the resilience of the system. The number of passengers that reach their destination station, passenger delay and passenger load are performance indicators used in this work. The model is applied to the Paris mass railway transportation system. After modeling perturbations, we also assess the extent to which some crisis management plans are taken into account in the model. Then, a simulator has been developed, and an approach that aims to implement an end-to-end resilient system is proposed. Operating conditions of railway transportation system are incorporated into topological indicators of transportation systems found in the literature through the model. This allows us to show the relevance of these operating-conditions dependent indicators relative to the usual topological indicators of the studied network

Gérer une crise ne s’improvise pas, d’autant plus lorsque les enjeux sont importants. Pour faire face aux conséquences souvent dramatiques de telles situations, il est recommandé aux membres des cellules de crise de se former. Pour cela, la simulation de crise semble être un outil idéal, car elle permet de former un groupe et de procurer une expérience de gestion de crise aux apprenants. Cependant, il semble que la crédibilité, la portée pédagogique et l’interactivité des scénarios déployés dans ces simulations soient remises en cause. Les travaux de thèse s’attachent à améliorer l’élaboration et la mise en œuvre des scénarios de crise lors de simulations à l’échelle communale. Pour atteindre cet objectif, quatre éléments sont étudiés : les processus de gestion de crise, les concepts pédagogiques, les scénarios utilisés en formation à la gestion de crise et les serious games. Cela permet de définir qu’il est nécessaire d’améliorer les dispositifs d’animation pour mettre en œuvre des scénarios plus crédibles, pédagogiques et interactifs. La méthode, basée sur une démarche empirique grâce à la mise en œuvre de 21 exercices pilotes impliquant 280 apprenants, est structurée en quatre étapes : (i)la définition des paramètres de l’animation, (ii) la caractérisation des données nécessaires aux animateurs, (iii) la modélisation de la circulation de l’information au sein de l’animation et (iv) la structuration d’un support partagé d’animation. Le cadre et le protocole expérimentaux permettent d’analyser les premiers résultats pour confirmer l’intérêt de la méthode dans un contexte de formation à la gestion de crise
Crisis management cannot be improvised, especially when the stakes are high. To cope with the consequences of crisis, it is recommended that members of crisis units be trained. In order to train them, the crisis simulation seems to be an ideal tool, because it enables to train a whole group and to provide a crisis management experience to the trainees. However, it seems that the credibility, the educational scope and the interactivity of the scenarios deployed in these simulations are called into question. The research work endeavor to improve the development and the implementation of crisis scenarios during simulation at town level. To achieve this objective, four elements are studied: crisis management processes, educational concepts, scenarios used in current crisis management training and serious games. This allows to define that it necessary to improve the execution devices to implement more credible, educational and interactive scenarios. The proposed method, based on an empirical approach through the implementation of 21 pilot exercises involving 280 trainees, is structured into four steps: (i) the definition of the execution parameters, (ii) the characterization of the data needed by the facilitators, (iii) the modelling of the circulation of information between the facilitators and (iv) the structuring of a shared medium for facilitators. The experimental framework and protocol allow to analyze the first results to confirm the interest of the method in a crisis management training context

Nous abordons dans cette thèse le problème de la conception d’un système informatique de soutien évaluatif, pour soutenir et évaluer en temps réel l’activité collaborative dans le cas particulier "d'une activité régie par des process issus d'organisations différentes". Nous définissons un process comme un ensemble de règles, de politiques, de plans, de normes ayant pour vocation de guider et de servir de référence à la réalisation d’une activité collaborative. Nous positionnons notre recherche dans le cadre applicatif de l’entrainement à la gestion de crise, et dans le cadre technologique de l’interaction tangible.Pour mettre en place un soutien évaluatif flexible et intelligible, nous proposons un système socio-technique capable d’apporter aux acteurs une conscience organisationnelle partagée et distribuée.Dans ce cadre, trois verrous essentiels sont considérés : (1) représentation et gestion de contextes liés à l’activité soutenue et aux interactions entre acteurs, (2) représentation et gestion des différents process liés à l’activité soutenue et à l’interaction, et (3) articulation entre l'activité soutenue et l'interaction.Pour répondre à ces verrous, nous proposons le système OrA s’appuyant sur trois groupes de principes relatif à l'activité soutenue et à l’interaction : modularité et représentation des process et contextes, gestion autonome et faiblement couplée des process et des éléments de contexte, coordination flexible entre ces mécanismes de gestion de process et de contextes.Ces principes sont mis en oeuvre au sein d’un système informatique s’appuyant sur les modèles des collecticiels, et en particulier CLOVER, des modèles de traces, des systèmes multi-agents normatifs.Ce système est évalué en démontrant la possibilité de modéliser les process d’un cas pratique d’exercice de gestion de crise, puis en proposant une utilisation en situation d’un exercice réel d’entrainement à la gestion de crise
We discuss in this thesis about designing an computer system for an evaluative support , to support and evaluate in real-time the collaborative activity in the particular case of "an activity governed by processes from different organizations". We define a process as a set of rules, policies, plans, standards which aim to guide and be a reference for the realization of a collaborative activity. Our research is applied to training in crisis management, and situated in the technological context of tangible interaction.To implement a flexible and comprehensible evaluative support, we propose a socio-technical systemfor bringing the actors shared and distributed organizational consciousness.In this context, three key issues are considered: (1) representation and management of the contexts associated with the sustained activity and the interactions between the involved stakeholders, (2) representation and management of various processes associated with the sustained activity and the interaction and (3) the articulation between the sustained activity and the interaction.To answer these issues, we offer the OrA system based on three groups of principles, both about sutained activiy and interaction : modularity and representation of processes and contexts, autonomous management and loosely coupled processes and contextual elements, flexible coordination between these process and context management mechanisms.These principles are implemented in a computer system based on the model of groupware, especially CLOVER, a traces models, and normative multi-agent systems.This system is evaluated by demonstrating the ability to model the process of a practical case of crisis management exercise, and by providing a use situation of a real exercise training in crisis management

Les nouveau-nés, particulièrement les prématurés présentent d'importants risques de dommages cérébraux et d'incapacité cognitive à vie. Concernant les prématurés, les pathologies neurologiques sont souvent accompagnées des manifestations épileptiques. Ces nouveau-nés peuvent être affectés dans d'autres domaines dont la coordination, la cognition et le comportement. L'EEG est un outil non-invasif permettant de mesurer l'activité électrique du cerveau. Dans cette thèse, nous avons développé des outils pour identifier des événements normaux et pathologiques de l'EEG chez les nouveau-nés et les enfants. Nous nous sommes plus particulièrement intéressés à la détection (i) des crises, en employant les éléments spécifiques de l'EEG du nouveau-né, dépendants de l'âge, (ii) les états épileptiques de cerveau et (iii) les événements de courte durée comme la pointe et la pointe-onde pour chaque état. Nous avons caractérisé des événements EEG en extrayant un ensemble de caractéristiques contextuelles afin de les classifier. Puis la localisation des générateurs cérébraux a été trouvée et suivie en groupant spatialement des dipôles équivalents des événements EEG dans différents états du cerveau. Les résultats montrent de bonnes sensibilités et sélectivités avec de faibles taux de fausse détection chez les nouveaux-nés et les enfants
Neonates, especially the premature ones, are at high risk of brain damage and life-long cognitive disability. Concerning the full-term neonates, neurological pathologies are often accompanied by epileptic manifestations. These newborns may be impaired in other domains including coordination, cognition and behavior. EEG is a useful non-invasive tool to measure the electrical activity of the brain. In this thesis, we developed tools to identify normal and pathological EEG events in neonates and children. We paid a special attention to detect (i) seizures by using specific age-dependant features of the newborn EEG, (ii) brain epileptic states and (iii) short-term events like spikes and spike-and-waves for each state. We characterized EEG events by extracting a set of contextual features in order to classify them. Then, the location of cerebral generators was found and tracked by spatial clustering of the equivalent dipoles of the EEG events in different brain states. The results showed good sensitivities and selectivities with a low false detection rates in neonates and children

En France, dans un contexte d’accident technologique, les consignes de mise en sécurité de la population préconisent le confinement à défaut de l’évacuation, pour laquelle les retours d’expérience à l’échelle d’une ville sont rares. De plus, s’il existe de nombreux documents de gestion du risque et de crise, ces derniers n’intègrent que de manière très marginale la population automobile, pour laquelle l’évacuation demeure pourtant la solution la plus adaptée. Le (bon) déroulement d’un tel processus dépend à la fois de la stratégie mise en place par les autorités publiques (le cas échéant) et des dynamiques de déplacement, rythmées par les choix opérés par chaque automobiliste. En effet, certains comportements individuels peuvent générer des conflits en quelques points du réseau routier et contribuer ainsi à une augmentation du temps nécessaire pour évacuer les automobilistes présents sur l’ensemble du réseau exposé. Ce travail de recherche s’est attaché, par la simulation multi-agents, à développer une méthode capable de rendre compte, dans l’espace et dans le temps, des conséquences que pourraient engendrer telle ou telle stratégie d’évacuation, à Rouen (Normandie). À partir d’une modélisation des déplacements quotidiens, une série de scénarios d’évacuation a été testée, combinant la mise en place ou non d’itinéraires spécifiques, le maintien ou non de la signalétique et l’adoption d’un comportement impatient de conduite par un certain nombre d’automobilistes. L’efficacité de chaque stratégie, définie en termes de durée d’évacuation totale, est complétée par une analyse cartographique et dynamique des zones problématiques (saturées) du réseau rouennais
In France, when an industrial accident occurs, the population confinement mainly prevails over its evacuation. Moreover, the latter suffers a lack of experience feedbacks, especially at the city scale. In addition, while numerous risk management and crisis documents exist, they marginally integrate the car drivers, for which evacuation does remain the most appropriate solution. The (good) progress of such a process depends both on (1) the public authorities’ strategy and (2) the choices made by each car driver during his trip. Indeed, some individual behaviors can generate conflicts in some points of the road network, and thus increase the duration of the whole network discharge. Thanks to the multi-agents simulation, we developed a method able to report the spatio-temporal consequences generated by different evacuation strategies, in Rouen (Normandy). Based on a daily travel model, a series of evacuation scenarios is tested, combining whether or not specific routes are set up, whether or not signage are maintained, and the adoption of an impatient behavior by some car drivers. The effectiveness of each strategy is defined by the total evacuation duration, and completed by a cartographic and dynamic analysis of the jammed areas of the Rouen network

Les crises projettent la plupart du temps le décideur sur une durée plus ou moins longue dans l'urgence de la décision, avec l'obligation de minimiser les conséquences possibles sur les enjeux. Une équipe de gestion de crise est organisée en cellule et a pour objectif de construire des stratégies de réponse concertées et appropriées. Or, il s'avère que certaines des compétences nécessaires ne peuvent être acquises que par expérience. Ce travail s'attache ainsi à améliorer les processus de formation des décisionnaires en définissant, suivant quatre étapes, un environnement semi-virtuel de formation à la gestion stratégique de crise. Une phase de conception sert tout d'abord de point de départ au cahier des charges d'une implantation physique, d'une ingénierie système et d'une ingénierie pédagogique dédiées. Puis, une étape de modélisation d'un exercice de gestion de crise structure une méthodologie visant à définir les objectifs pédagogiques retenus, et propose une méthode appliquée de génération semi-automatique d'un scénario didactique. Une attention particulière est notamment portée sur l'élaboration d'une typologie d'évènements et d'éléments logiciels permettant la simulation multi-agents de crises virtualisées. Enfin, une méthodologie d'évaluation des participants est proposée dans le but d'enrichir la phase classique de débriefing. Seize indicateurs sont définis et permettent en particulier de construire des arbres de compétences. Une phase de validation porte sur trois de ces quatre axes méthodologiques, et il est montré que les premiers résultats obtenus tendent à valider les spécifications retenues pour l'environnement semi-virtuel de formation développé.