Journal articles on the topic 'Crocodle attacks'

Crocodile attacks are not uncommon in this region. There have been 92 cases reported since 2015 and 50 cases alone reported in Sarawak. Every year death has been attributed to a crocodile attack. An estimate of 71% of the total cases of crocodile attack ended up dead. However, there are instances where a crocodile attack happened after the death of a person. This is a case of an adult male who was reported missing. His body was found by two local anglers, being mauled by crocodiles. Only partial trunk and lower limbs were found, and the major organs were absent. The postmortem features of the crocodile attacks have been described.

Saltwater crocodiles (Crocodylus porosus) are potentially dangerous to humans, yet they have major cultural value to many people in Timor-Leste. Recent increases in attack risk are influencing traditional attitudes, threatening culls of remaining wild crocodile populations. To understand patterns that may assist mitigation, we compiled attack records for the period of April 2007 to April 2014, using the CrocBITE online database. Recorded attacks (n=45) showed a high fatality rate (82.2%), the majority (77.8%) being recorded since 2010. The highest proportion of attacks (46.7%) occurred in southern coastal wetlands suited to crocodiles, areas representing major sources of food, livelihoods and ecosystem services (i.e. fisheries, timber, coastal protection) for locals. Subsistence fishing posed the highest attack risk, particularly from September to February when food security is low. Attacks matched gender roles (most victims were males, the primary fishers) and demographic patterns (teenagers, the fastest growth group, comprised the highest proportion). Predicted increases in food insecurity, fishing activities, coastal impacts and rising human and crocodile populations pose worrying implications for human–crocodile conflict. We recommend essential baseline surveys enabling meaningful management decisions, and suggest that tailored management and educational awareness based on proven existing models could substantially mitigate attack risk while remaining compatible with traditional Timorese attitudes towards crocodiles.

AbstractHuman–wildlife conflicts are common across Africa. In Mozambique, official records show that wildlife killed 265 people during 27 months (July 2006 to September 2008). Crocodile Crocodylus niloticus, lion Panthera leo, elephant Loxodonta africana and hippopotamus Hippopotamus amphibius caused most deaths but crocodiles were responsible for 66%. Crocodile attacks occurred across Mozambique but 53% of deaths occurred in districts bordering Lake Cabora Bassa and the Zambezi River. Hippopotamus attacks were also concentrated here. Lion attacks occurred mainly in northern Mozambique and, while people were attacked by elephants across the country, 67% of deaths occurred in northern Mozambique. Attacks by lions, elephants or hippopotamuses were relatively rare but additional data will probably show that attacks by these species are more widespread than the preliminary records suggest. Buffalo Syncerus caffer, hyaena Crocuta crocuta and leopard Panthera pardus were minor conflict species. Good land-use planning, a long-term solution to many conflicts, is particularly relevant in Mozambique, where the crocodile and hippopotamus populations of protected areas are often in rivers that border these areas, and cause conflicts outside them, and where people commonly live within protected areas. Poverty may prompt fishermen to risk crocodile attack by entering rivers or lakes. The high incidence of conflicts near Limpopo and South Africa’s Kruger National Parks (both within the Great Limpopo Transfrontier Conservation Area) highlights the problems created for people by facilitating the unrestricted movement of wildlife between protected areas across their land.

Krishna is one of the main rivers of the Deccan Plateau. It begins its course in the Western Ghats. A large human population relies on the river Krishna for agricultural irrigation, watering livestock (cattle), fishing and other activities. The presence of and attacks by the Mugger Crocodile Crocodylus palustris on humans and livestock are reported in the Krishna resulted in the formulation of the present research. Data collection comprised on-site observations and field interviews using a structured questionnaire. Attacks were found to occur mostly during winter and summer seasons. During winter, crocodiles bask in the sunlight on river banks and attack in self-defense. The summer season corresponds with their breeding period and attacks occur as the crocodiles protect their nests.

Context In Queensland, the management of estuarine crocodiles (Crocodylus porosus) by the government is important for ensuring public safety, especially along the populated east coast, where there is a large human population. Aims The present study aimed to determine historical, temporal and spatial patterns of human–crocodile conflict in Queensland. Methods The study used Queensland Government records of estuarine crocodile attacks (1971–2015), sightings by the general public (2003–2015), and removals and relocations for management purposes (1985–2015) to develop General Linear Models describing historical, temporal and spatial patterns. Key results The highest number of attacks, sightings, removals and relocations occurred along the populated east coast between Townsville and the Daintree during wet season months (November–February). There have been 35 crocodile attacks in Queensland since 1971 (total 0.8 per year; fatal 0.3 per year), mostly involving local people or regular visitors (77.1%), specifically adult males (71.4%; mean age 44). There has been an increase in the rate of crocodile attacks over time, with an average of 1.3 per year since 1996, most of which were non-fatal (84%). The number of crocodile sightings has been increasing annually (with a mean of 348 per year since 2011), while the number of crocodiles removed or relocated for management purposes (n = 608) has fluctuating widely each year (range 1–57). Conclusions The level of human–crocodile conflict in Queensland is increasing, and this is likely to be a consequence of increasing human and crocodile populations. While conflict is highest during the wet season, estuarine crocodiles pose a threat to public safety year round. Implications With the increase in conflict, the ongoing management of estuarine crocodiles, through targeted removals in and around areas of higher human habitation and through education, is essential for ensuring public safety into the future.

Context Human–wildlife conflict is a global problem and increasing worldwide as people and wildlife compete for limited resources. Conflict between people and crocodiles, especially in Africa, is recognised as a serious problem. The people of the Chiawa Game Management Area are heavily dependent on the Zambezi River for several resources from potable water and irrigating fields to a source of food (subsistence and small-scale commercial fishing). Aims To assess the spatial and temporal scale of human–crocodile conflict (HCC) and identify associated factors, with a view to recommending mitigation measures. Methods A questionnaire survey and Zambia Wildlife Authority data were utilised to estimate the scale of HCC. Key results Between 2000 and 2009, there were 98 crocodile attacks on people, 62.2% were fatal. Most of the attacks occurred while canoe fishing (57.1%) and collecting water (29.6%). Crocodiles were disliked and seen as a ‘problem’ by the majority of the populace. Even though crocodiles are a charismatic mega-fauna species, being employed within the tourism industry had only a minor positive effect on people’s attitudes. The area is an important location for crocodile egg and adult harvesting, although the local population gains no financial benefit. An increase in the number of boreholes in the villages was suggested by the local people as the primary mitigation measure, as well as the removal of crocodiles by various means. Conclusions Although people displayed an understanding of the risks of crocodile attack, very few actually employed mitigation techniques or utilised protective barriers when at the river. Increased water-access points (and their maintenance) in the villages would reduce people’s dependency on the river. The negative attitude towards crocodiles is an issue that has to be addressed to allow successful implementation of long-term conservation strategies. Implications Understanding local people’s attitudes towards wildlife is an important aspect within any conservation management plan.Competition for limited resources by people and wildlife is guaranteed to cause confrontations. The existing mitigation for human crocodile conflict in Zambia is ineffective. The negative attitude towards wildlife needs to be addressed and a suitable response formulated. The most favoured type of mitigation suggested by local people was more boreholes and the removal of crocodiles. Photograph by Kevin Wallace.

AbstractConflicts with wildlife are a major challenge for conservation across Africa, and Nile crocodiles Crocodylus niloticus are allegedly responsible for more attacks on people than any other species; however, there is a lack of data regarding such attacks. We analysed reported attacks on people by Nile crocodiles in South Africa and eSwatini (Swaziland) during 1949–2016, identifying spatial and temporal patterns in attack incidence, as well as victim demographics. Through a literature review and archival searches we identified records of 214 attacks. Most attacks occurred in natural water bodies, with attacks in dams increasing since 2000. Most victims were attacked while swimming or bathing, others while fishing, doing domestic chores, and crossing waterways. There was a significant relationship between gender and activity when attacked. Children (< 16 years old) accounted for 51% of all attacks, with a higher fatality rate compared to adults. Most victims were male (65%), with teenage boys being the largest individual category. We make recommendations for conservation policy and management to mitigate attacks by Nile crocodiles.

Human-crocodile conflicts (HCC) are problems affecting crocodile conservation. Scientific publications on crocodile attack cases in Indonesia are few with low validation which hinder optimal conflict mitigation efforts. The estuarine river of Kutai National Park is a natural habitat for saltwater crocodiles and mostly nearby dense settlements. This study aims to map the distribution of saltwater crocodiles and potential conflicts in the Kutai National Park area. To predict the distribution of saltwater crocodiles, we used Maximum Entropy MAXENT with its environmental predictors i.e. slope, altitude, distance from shore, distance from river, temperature, and habitat types (mangrove forest, freshwater swamp, and shrubs). MAXENT prediction showed that elevation was the most influential variable with AUC (Average Under Curve) value of 0.952. Settlements with activities occurring within one kilometer from the river and those adjacent to coastal areas proved to be the highest in human conflicts with crocodiles. Key words: conflict, crocodile, human, MAXENT

AbstractThe incidence of human–crocodile conflict is increasing, and fear of injury and loss of life is affecting public and political support for crocodile conservation. We studied conflicts between people and estuarine crocodiles Crocodylus porosus across socio-economic dimensions, using a spatio-temporal database. We collected data on 127 crocodile attacks that occurred during 2000–2013, through questionnaires including open- and close-ended questions, administered in 30 villages of five blocks of the Indian Sundarban. Most of the attacks (42%) occurred during winter (December–February), followed by the early monsoon (May–July; 27%). Almost 80% of victims were prawn seed collectors and were 11–50 years old, and 61.16% of victims died as a result of the attacks. Female victims accounted for a higher percentage of deaths (55.12%) than male victims (44.88%). Crocodile attacks were more common in the daytime than at night, with 76.35% of the killings occurring during 08.00–17.00. Most of the cases were recorded from Gosaba (34%), followed by Patharpratima (25.24%) and Namkhana (18.45%) blocks. The mean number of incidents per year was 9.07, with vulnerability and mortality rates of 0.07 and 0.04, respectively, per 10,000 persons. Existing management practices are insufficient to eliminate the risk of crocodile attacks and ensure the conservation of the Sundarban ecosystem. A comprehensive management plan for reducing dependency on forest resources is needed to minimize human–crocodile conflict.

One of the largest populations of crocodiles in Costa Rica is located at the Tempisque River. The species is threatened by habitat loss and poaching; but its populations have grown due to the protection given by law. The research was conducted in Guanacaste, Costa Rica. We made a characterization of popular knowledge, activities and perceptions of 374 residents of the study area. It was found that 55% believe that the crocodiles are abundant, 70% believe that populations have increased. The most dangerous activities done are recreation, swimming and fishing. There are significant differences between the proportions of response (X2: 71, n = 10, p <0.0001 X2). These activities are done daily (25%), weekly (30%), monthly (18%) and annually (10%). The risk of attack and the crocodile’s density in the river are not recognized. Also, a lack of knowledge about the natural history and ecology of the species is shown. The reasons for attacks are: the aggressiveness of the animals and their density. There are differences in the responses on the reasons of the attacks (X2: 35, n 8 p <0.0001). Generally, the crocodile perception is unfavorable.

Human-crocodile conflicts in Mexico often have a political dimension due to public safety. The aim of this work was to update analyses of the incidence of crocodile attacks on humans in Oaxaca and to identify patterns or trends that could have relevance to future conflict mitigation. We compiled attack records from 2004 to 2017. The highest proportion of attacks (64%) and deaths (12%) occurred on the northwest coast in two periods of the year related with the nesting and rainy seasons. No differences existed between the seasons in the number of crocodile attacks and the mean number of attacks between years. The attacks were related with fishing activity (40%); male victims (92%) were more common than female, and a higher proportion of fatal cases of victims were children (< 10 years). We recommended essential baseline surveys and suggested public education about crocodile awareness and risks.

ABSTRACT The potent defensive chemicals of cane toads (Rhinella marina) protect them against predators that lack coevolved physiological tolerance to those toxins. That relative invulnerability may explain why major injuries (such as limb loss) appear to be rare in cane toads from most of their global range; however, we noted frequent predator-induced injuries (&gt;4% of adults) in samples from within the toad’s native range (in French Guiana) and from a site (Lake Argyle) in north-western Australia. Toads at Lake Argyle enter the edge of the lake at night to rehydrate, exposing them to foraging freshwater crocodiles (Crocodylus johnstoni). Crocodiles rarely consume toads, but the attacks often result in loss of a limb. Because limbs contain relatively little toxin, attacks to the limbs expose a crocodile to nauseating but non-lethal amounts of toxin; and hence, facilitate taste aversion learning by the predator. The context of the encounters, such as differences in geography, may help to explain why the invasion of cane toads has not significantly impacted on crocodile populations at this site, in contrast to heavy impacts reported from nearby riverine systems.

AbstractAs human populations grow and transform undeveloped terrestrial and aquatic habitats, human–wildlife conflict inevitably increases. This is particularly problematic for large predators and the humans who live alongside them. Relatively little research has been conducted on alleviating adverse human encounters with one of the most significant predator species in Africa, the Nile crocodile Crocodylus niloticus. This short communication raises questions about some of the general statements made to explain the incidence of attacks by crocodiles. Some of the limitations of the data on such attacks are considered, with recommendations on what kinds of data are required. Data collection and analysis, and how they can inform more effective mitigation efforts, are discussed.

Human-Crocodile conflict (HCC) occurs to varying degrees around the World, and with a number of crocodilian species (CrocBITE 2013). The Mugger or Marsh Crocodile Crocodylus palustris found in Gujarat State is the crocodilian species responsible for conflict with local people. This paper is a compilation of HCC occurring in various parts of Gujarat from 1960 to 2013. A total of 64 crocodile attacks were recorded: 44 (24 fatal & 20 non-fatal) on males, and 20 (9 fatal & 11 non-fatal) on females. By region 52 HCC were recorded in central Gujarat; five in Saurashtra, four in the northern region and three in Kutch; no crocodile attacks were recorded in southern Gujarat. Of the two major river systems in central Gujarat, 41 attacks occurred within the Vishwamitri-Dhadhar River System and 11 in the Narmada system. Most crocodile attacks happened between the months of April and September, peaking in May with 14 attacks. These months are the peak breeding season for the species in Gujarat. The most obvious contributors to HCC are lack of basic facilities in rural areas, poverty, illiteracy and the presence of adult animals close to human settlements and activities. Other contributing factors are lack of preventive measures by the forest department, absence of protocols for mugger crocodile rescue, and haphazard release of problematic animals.

AbstractNegative interactions between people and crocodilians have increased worldwide, but in Mexico there have been few systematic reports and no rigorous evaluation of this problem. We compiled information on negative interactions between people and the spectacled caiman Caiman crocodilus and American crocodile Crocodylus acutus from the Worldwide Crocodilian Attack Database for 1993–2018, and we investigated interactions in greater depth, through interviews with people in La Encrucijada Biosphere Reserve. We examined the relationship between the occurrence of negative interactions between people and C. acutus and the species' nesting season and abundance, and presence records. In Mexico, the frequency of negative interactions increases when anthropogenic activities occur close to nesting sites (< 30 km) and during the nesting season (February–September). In La Encrucijada, following negative interactions with crocodiles, the local inhabitants killed 30 crocodiles measuring > 2.5 m long in 2011–2012. The frequency of negative human–crocodilian interactions was not correlated with the abundance of crocodilians but was correlated with the number of presence records of crocodiles. Strategies to minimize these interactions include warnings at nesting sites, increased monitoring of anthropogenic activities during the nesting season, and management of nests to prevent them being destroyed by people.

An understanding of the factors, patterns of activities and seasonality per region that shape the response to the human–crocodile (HC) conflict in Mexico by humans is essential for prevention and mitigation of negative interactions. We compiled the publicly available data on incidents of crocodile attacks on the Gulf of Mexico and Mexican Pacific coast from January 2000 to the first days of January 2018. Of the recorded unprovoked crocodile attacks (n=149) on humans in Mexico, 102 cases correspond to the Mexican Pacific coast and 47 to the Gulf of Mexico. The age of victims involved in the majority of the attacks ranged from 19 to 40 years old. Three municipalities of high risk (hotspots areas) were Puerto Vallarta, Lázaro Cárdenas and Pinotepa Nacional in the Mexican Pacific coast, whereas, in the Gulf of Mexico, only Bénito Juárez was of high risk. To mitigate this conflict, it is necessary that local authorities in the municipalities (mainly in those of high risk) establish public-safety programs with the goal of raising awareness of the risk of crocodile attacks on the basis of information status and distribution of the crocodile population, linked to the extent of HC conflicts, as a first step for better management and risk mitigation.

This report documents the Mugger Crocodile census conducted on 20–21 January 2015 at Vadodara City, Gujarat. This is a periodic procedure and part of an ongoing study designed to monitor this urban population with the help of public participation. The results show gradual increase in the Mugger populaion within the demarcated stretch of the River Vishwamitri. The night-count numbers indicated the presence of 250 individuals of various sizes (<1 m to > 4 m in total length). Mugger Crocodiles are wild, aquatic, carnivorous animals that have been flourishing in close proximity to humans, allowing for a noteworthy case study of the human-Mugger relationship. However, direct and indirect conflict data from the year 2014 are alarming – 24 documented Mugger attacks (12 of which were fatal) within the state, seven (three fatal) within the city limits, and 48 Muggers of various sizes rescued from the area. These numbers are indicative of a unique, complicated, and delicate relationship between humans and crocodiles as a balance is sought between Mugger conservation and a steadily rising urban population.

AbstractCrocodilians are distributed widely through the tropics and subtropics, and several species pose a substantial threat to human life. This has important implications for human safety and crocodilian conservation. Understanding the drivers of crocodilian attacks on people could help minimize future attacks and inform conflict management. Crocodilian attacks follow a seasonal pattern in many regions, but there has been limited analysis of the relationship between attack occurrence and fine-scale contemporaneous environmental conditions. We use methods from environmental niche modelling to explore the relationships between attacks on people and abiotic predictors at a daily temporal resolution for the Nile crocodile Crocodylus niloticus in South Africa and Eswatini (formerly Swaziland), and the American alligator Alligator mississippiensis in Florida, USA. Our results indicate that ambient daily temperature is the most important abiotic temporal predictor of attack occurrence for both species, with attack likelihood increasing markedly when mean daily temperatures exceed 18 °C and peaking at 28 °C. It is likely that this relationship is explained partially by human propensity to spend time in and around water in warmer weather but also by the effect of temperature on crocodilian hunting behaviour and physiology, especially the ability to digest food. We discuss the potential of our findings to contribute to the management of crocodilians, with benefits for both human safety and conservation, and the application of environmental niche modelling for understanding human–wildlife conflicts involving both ectotherms and endotherms.

Abstract Experiments using model herons in natural mangrove habitats demonstrated that more hawks are attracted to white than to blue herons. Both Common Black-Hawks (Buteogallus anthracinus) and crocodiles (Crocodylus acutus) were observed preying on adult herons in Panama. Solitary herons were at greater risk than flocked foragers. White (immature) Little Blue Herons (Egretta caerulea) were attacked more frequently by hawks than were the blue adults of their species. Dark herons gave more alarms than white herons. Although flock size decreased in years of heavy predation and after attacks, mixed-flock composition remained the same. When flocks re-formed after hawk attacks, their members showed decreased foraging rates and increased interindividual distances. After repeated attacks, herons foraged in poorer habitats, under unfavorable climatic conditions, and under thermoregulatory stress. These results suggest that predation could be a potent force in maintaining color dimorphism in ardeids.

In mid-1964 the Smith regime in Southern Rhodesia was moving towards a final ban on the African nationalist parties, ZAPU and ZANU. At the same time it was widely believed to be preparing for a Unilateral Declaration of Independence and the nationalist parties in their turn were trying to find ways to prevent this. Both chose to launch sabotage campaigns, so as to demonstrate African opposition. In late June 1964 there was a wave of sabotage in Chipinga and Melsetter in Rhodesia's eastern districts. Roadblocks were erected, the police camp was attacked, dynamite was laid at bridges. Notes were left at the scene of some of these actions purporting to come from “the Crocodile Gang.” On the early evening of 4 July 1964, a 45-year-old foreman at the Silver Streams Wattle Factory in Melsetter, Pieter Johannes Andries Oberholzer, was driving home with his wife and daughter along the Umtali/Melsetter road. He came to a low roadblock made of stones; he tried to ram it; the car turned over; Oberholzer was stabbed to death; his assailants dispersed when another vehicle approached. Police found two notes at the site of the attack. One read “Confrontation Smith. Crocodile Gang will soon kill all whites. Beware!” The other read: “Crocodile Group in Action. We shall kill all whites if they don't want to give back our country. Confrontation!”How are we to read the significance of July 4? The events have been described in five main sources and they look very different from these varying perspectives. “What is Truth?” asks Ndabaningi Si thole, in the earliest of the sources. The Crocodile Gang's killing of Oberholzer constitutes a historical equivalent to the famous old Japanese film, Rashomon, with its presentation of different but equally plausible narratives of a violent event.

Especially prehistoric tradition of hunting and gathering tradition has continued until today in Bauzi tribe in Mamberamo Raya. This paper aims to discuss the tradition of hunting on Bauzi tribe, hunting equipment used and the strategy used in hunting. This study is descriptive and exploratory. Data collection was done of the literature study and interviews. Hunting animals is an activity undertaken Bauzi tribe throughout the year. Hunting methods used by individuals that hunt, hunt groups, and hunt groups using dogs. The strategy used in the hunt that is trapping, reconnaissance and attack suddenly, diving and attacked the crocodile in the water. Animal bone as a tool used in everyday life Bauzi tribe. ABSTRAKTradisi prasejarah terutama tradisi berburu dan meramu masih berlangsung hingga saat ini pada suku Bauzi di Mamberamo Raya. Tulisan ini bertujuan untuk membahas tradisi berburu pada suku Bauzi, peralatan berburu yang digunakan dan strategi yang dipakai dalam berburu. Penelitian ini bersifat deskriptif dengan bentuk penalaran induktif dan pendekatan kualitatif, serta pendekatan etnoarkeologi. Pengumpulan data yang dilakukan yaitu dengan studi kepustakaan, observasi lapangan dan wawancara. Berburu binatang merupakan aktivitas suku Bauzi yang dilakukan sepanjang tahun. Metode berburu yang digunakan yaitu berburu yang dilakukan individu, berburu kelompok, serta berburu kelompok menggunakan anjing. Strategi yang digunakan dalam berburu yaitu pemasangan perangkap, pengintaian serta penyerangan mendadak, menyelam dan menyerang buaya dalam air. Tulang binatang buruan dimanfaatkan sebagai bahan alat dalam kehidupan sehari-hari suku Bauzi.

The municipal water distribution system in Chirundu, Zambia is not affordable for many residents, so most families collect water, wash their clothes and socialize along the banks of the Zambezi River. The river is the native habitat for the Nile crocodile, and several fatal attacks have occurred at this site. Using locally available materials, a team of engineering students from Seattle University designed a waterwheel and coil pump to provide 30 liters of water per minute to a safe gathering area 30 meters onshore and at an elevation of 10 meters above the river. The team also sized a water storage system and designed a series of washbasins for the site. Local residents were able to improve the design and construction of the pump, and it has performed for up to two months without maintenance. The coil pump has the potential to provide crop irrigation for many neighboring communities. For this to be a sustainable technology, the pump’s rotating joint must be carefully fabricated.

This is a survey on the knowledge and beliefs of 100 parents or guardians of asthmatic children presenting to the emergency department with an asthmatic attack and staying in the observation ward for treatment. The parents were asked to fill in a questionnaire on their knowledge and beliefs about asthma. Demographic data and data related to routine asthma care were also collected. The mean age of the children was 6.2± 3.2. The mean duration of asthma was 3.4 year (±2.6). In the preceding 6 months the mean attendance frequency at our accident and Energency department was 1.5±1.4. The majority of respondent (79%) agreed that asthma is caused by bronchoconstriction but only 42% understood that mucosal oedema is involved during an acute attack. Many people (82%) believed that asthma is just sensitive bronchus. Less than half (40%) believes asthma is a hereditary disease. It was a common belief that asthmatic attack can be precipitated by a change of weather (89%) and cold food/drink (77%). Over 75% agreed that carpet in the house is undesirable for an asthmatic child. The majority of parents (69%) disagreed that an asthmatic child should avoid physical exercise and only 13 would not allow the child to attend physical exercise class. Over half (54%) of the respondents believed that asthma could be cured. Only a minority (17%) believed that antibiotics are useful in shortening the attack. Thirty (30%) respondents also used alternative means of therapy for example crocodile meat. Parents' knowledge of preventive medication was inadequate. Understanding common beliefs among parents is beneficial in patient and parental education.

The taphonomy of birds can be investigated with actualistic studies complemented by reviewing Konversat Lagerstätten such as Messel, Green River and Solnhofen.Two field sites were chosen in southern Florida: 1, a freshwater (16–23 ppt salinity) environment in which biogenic carbonate muds were being deposited and 2, a marine (30–34 ppt salinity) environment in which pyritous carbonate muds were being deposited. Ninety-six specimens (36 genera, 40 species) were used in this study (these were obtained from a wildlife centre where they died of natural causes). Experiments were set up in both marine and freshwater sites in the following categories: large protected, unprotected; small protected, unprotected. Protected specimens were placed in metal cages coated with small mesh (1.5mm2) nylon netting.The specimens were allowed to degrade under natural conditions. The following variables were recorded daily over a seventy day period: air and water temperature, humidity, rainfall, wind and current speed and direction, salinity, dissolved oxygen content, pH, and water depth. Specimens from each of the eight categories were sampled at day 1, 4, 7, 11, 28, 56, and 70.Scavengers play a major role in the early taphonomic processes. Unprotected specimens were rapidly removed from the study area by large predators such as alligators (Alligator mississippiensis) and American crocodiles (Crocodylus actus), and Turkey vultures (Cathartes aura). Even protected specimens were prone to attack by more “intelligent” large scavengers such as racoons. Smaller predators include crayfish in the freshwater site and the carnivorous gastropods (Crown conch) in the marine environment. The Crown conch was observed to be a voracious feeder and large numbers rapidly strip all flesh from any carcass within reach of the bottom.Decay proceeds rapidly in the warm waters of the field sites. Within the carcasses temperatures approach optimum bacterial temperatures and large bacterial colonies form within muscle blocks after only one day. The initial decay of the muscle fibres is also rapid (one day) as the muscle myofibrils start to break into short lengths and the myoseptum starts to disintegrate, and has totally disappeared after seven to fourteen days (depending on the initial mass of the bird).From graphs showing plots of percentage weight loss (weight loss as a percentage of original weight) versus time decay can be seen to follow an exponential curve ie. most rapid decay occurs early (as soft tissues decay) then weight loss slows down (after 10 days for small specimens and 28 days for large specimens) as by this time nearly all but the most resistant soft tissues have decayed and the weight loss is due to the removal of skeletal matter to the sedimentary record. Feathers are resistant to the initial stages of decay and the primary and secondary feathers remain attached to the wing bones for up to twenty-eight days even when the soft tissues have been totally removed.The results of the decay experiments have provided directly comparable specimens to those that can be found within the fossil record. This comparison of fossil and modern analogues allows a series of taphonomic thresholds to be defined in the fossilisation of birds.

IntroductionFilmed during a 1955 family trip from Perth to the Gulf of Carpentaria, Keith Adams’s Northern Safari showed to packed houses across Australia, and in some overseas locations, across three decades. Essentially a home movie, initially accompanied by live commentary and subsequently by a homemade sound track, it tapped into audiences’ sense of Australia’s north as a place of adventure. In the film Adams interacts with the animals of northern Australia (often by killing them), and while by 1971 the violence apparent in the film was attracting criticism in letters to newspapers, the film remained popular through to the mid-1980s, and was later shown on television in Australia and the United States (Cowan 2; Adams, Crocodile Safari Man 261). A DVD is at present available for purchase from the website of the same name (Northern Safari). Adams and his supporters credited the film’s success to the rugged and adventurous landscape of northern Australia (Northeast vii), characterised by dangerous animals, including venomous spiders, sharks and crocodiles (see Adams, “Aussie”; “Crocodile”). The notion of Australia’s north as a place of rugged adventure was not born with Adams’s film, and that film was certainly not the last production to exploit the region and its wildlife as a source of excitement. Rather, Northern Safari belongs to a long list of adventure narratives whose hunting exploits have helped define the north of Australian as a distinct region and contrast it with the temperate south where most Australians make their lives.This article explores the connection between adventure in Australia’s north and the large animals of the region. Adams’s film capitalised on popular interest in natural history, but his film is only one link in a chain of representations of the Australian north as a place of dangerous and charismatic megafauna. While over time interest shifted from being largely concentrated on the presence of buffalo in the Northern Territory to a fascination with the saltwater crocodiles found more widely in northern Australia that interest in dangerous prey animals is significant to Australia’s northern imaginary.The Northern Safari before AdamsNorthern Australia gained a reputation for rugged, masculine adventure long before the arrival there of Adams and his cameras. That reputation was closely associated with the animals of the north, and it is generally the dangerous species that have inspired popular accounts of the region. Linda Thompson has recognised that before the release of the film Crocodile Dundee in 1986 crocodiles “received significant and sensational (although sporadic) media attention across Australia—attention that created associations of danger, mystery, and abnormality” (118). While Thompson went on to argue that in the wake of Crocodile Dundee the saltwater crocodile became a widely recognised symbol of Australia (for both Australians and non-Australians) it is perhaps more pertinent to consider the place of animals in creating a notion of the Australian north.Adams’s extended and international success (he showed his film profitably in the United States, Canada, England, Germany, South Africa, Rhodesia, and New Zealand as well as throughout Australia) suggests that the landscape and wildlife of northern Australia holds a fascination for a wide audience (Adams, Crocodile Safari Man 169-261). Certainly northern Australia, and its wild beasts, had established a reputation for adventure earlier, particularly in the periods following the world wars. Perhaps crocodiles were not the most significant of the north’s charismatic megafauna in the first half of the twentieth century, but their presence was a source of excitement well before the 1980s, and they were not the only animals in the north to attract attention: the Northern Territory’s buffalo had long acted as a drawcard for adventure seekers.Carl Warburton’s popular book Buffaloes was typical in linking Australians’ experiences of war with the Australian north and the pursuit of adventure, generally in the form of dangerous big game. War and hunting have long been linked as both are expressions of masculine valour in physically dangerous circumstances (Brennan “Imperial” 44-46). That link is made very clear in Warbuton’s account when he begins it on the beach at Gallipoli as he and his comrades discuss their plans for the future. After Warburton announces his determination not to return from war to work in a bank, he and a friend determine that they will go to either Brazil or the Northern Territory to seek adventure (2). Back in Sydney, a coin flip determines their “compass was set for the unknown north” (5).As the title of his book suggests, the game pursued by Warburton and his mate were buffaloes, as buffalo hides were fetching high prices when he set out for the north. In his writing Warburton was keen to establish his reputation as an adventurer and his descriptions of the dangers of buffalo hunting used the animals to establish the adventurous credentials of northern Australia. Warburton noted of the buffalo that: “Alone of all wild animals he will attack unprovoked, and in single combat is more than a match for a tiger. It is the pleasant pastime of some Indian princes to stage such combats for the entertainment of their guests” (62-63). Thereby, he linked Arnhem Land to India, a place that had long held a reputation as a site of adventurous hunting for the rulers of the British Empire (Brennan “Africa” 399). Later Warburton reinforced those credentials by noting: “there is no more dangerous animal in the world than a wounded buffalo bull” (126). While buffalo might have provided the headline act, crocodiles also featured in the interwar northern imaginary. Warburton recorded: “I had always determined to have a crack at the crocodiles for the sport of it.” He duly set about sating this desire (222-3).Buffalo had been hunted commercially in the Northern Territory since 1886 and Warburton was not the first to publicise the adventurous hunting available in northern Australia (Clinch 21-23). He had been drawn north after reading “of the exploits of two crack buffalo shooters, Fred Smith and Paddy Cahill” (Warburton 6). Such accounts of buffalo, and also of crocodiles, were common newspaper fodder in the first half of the twentieth century. Even earlier, explorers’ accounts had drawn attention to the animal excitement of northern Australia. For example, John Lort Stokes had noted ‘alligators’ as one of the many interesting animals inhabiting the region (418). Thus, from the nineteenth century Australia’s north had popularly linked together remoteness, adventure, and large animals; it was unsurprising that Warburton in turn acted as inspiration to later adventure-hunters in northern Australia. In 1954 he was mentioned in a newspaper story about two English migrants who had come to Australia to shoot crocodiles on Cape York with “their ambitions fed by the books of men such as Ion Idriess, Carl Warburton, Frank Clune and others” (Gay 15).The Development of Northern ‘Adventure’ TourismNot all who sought adventure in northern Australia were as independent as Adams. Cynthia Nolan’s account of travel through outback Australia in the late 1940s noted the increasing tourist infrastructure available, particularly in her account of Alice Springs (27-28, 45). She also recorded the significance of big game in the lure of the north. At the start of her journey she met a man seeking his fortune crocodile shooting (16), later encountered buffalo shooters (82), and recorded the locals’ hilarity while recounting a visit by a city-based big game hunter who arrived with an elephant gun. According to her informants: “No, he didn’t shoot any buffaloes, but he had his picture taken posing behind every animal that dropped. He’d arrange himself in a crouch, gun at the ready, and take self-exposure shots of himself and trophy” (85-86). Earlier, organised tours of the Northern Territory included buffalo shooter camps in their itineraries (when access was available), making clear the continuing significance of dangerous game to the northern imaginary (Cole, Hell 207). Even as Adams was pursuing his independent path north, tourist infrastructure was bringing the northern Australian safari experience within reach for those with little experience but sufficient funds to secure the provision of equipment, vehicles and expert advice. The Australian Crocodile Shooters’ Club, founded in 1950, predated Northern Safari, but it tapped into the same interest in the potential of northern Australia to offer adventure. It clearly associated that adventure with big game hunting and the club’s success depended on its marketing of the adventurous north to Australia’s urban population (Brennan “Africa” 403-06). Similarly, the safari camps which developed in the Northern Territory, starting with Nourlangie in 1959, promoted the adventure available in Australia’s north to those who sought to visit without necessarily roughing it. The degree of luxury that was on offer initially is questionable, but the notion of Australia’s north as a big game hunting destination supported the development of an Australian safari industry (Berzins 177-80, Brennan “Africa” 407-09). Safari entrepreneur Allan Stewart has eagerly testified to the broad appeal of the safari experience in 1960s Australia, claiming his clientele included accountants, barristers, barmaids, brokers, bankers, salesmen, journalists, actors, students, nursing sisters, doctors, clergymen, soldiers, pilots, yachtsmen, racing drivers, company directors, housewives, precocious children, air hostesses, policemen and jockeys (18).Later Additions to the Imaginary of the Northern SafariAdams’s film was made in 1955, and its subject of adventurous travel and hunting in northern Australia was taken up by a number of books during the 1960s as publishers kept the link between large game and the adventurous north alive. New Zealand author Barry Crump contributed a fictionalised account of his time hunting crocodiles in northern Australia in Gulf, first published in 1964. Crump displayed his trademark humour throughout his book, and made a running joke of the ‘best professional crocodile-shooters’ that he encountered in pubs throughout northern Australia (28-29). Certainly, the possibility of adventure and the chance to make a living as a professional hunter lured men to the north. Among those who came was Australian journalist Keith Willey who in 1966 published an account of his time crocodile hunting. Willey promoted the north as a site of adventure and rugged masculinity. On the very first page of his book he established his credentials by advising that “Hunting crocodiles is a hard trade; hard, dirty and dangerous; but mostly hard” (1). Although Willey’s book reveals that he did not make his fortune crocodile hunting he evidently revelled in its adventurous mystique and his book was sufficiently successful to be republished by Rigby in 1977. The association between the Australian north, the hunting of large animals, and adventure continued to thrive.These 1960s crocodile publications represent a period when crocodile hunting replaced buffalo hunting as a commercial enterprise in northern Australia. In the immediate post-war period crocodile skins increased in value as traditional sources became unreliable, and interest in professional hunting increased. As had been the case with Warburton, the north promised adventure to men unwilling to return to domesticity after their experiences of war (Brennan, “Crocodile” 1). This part of the northern imaginary was directly discussed by another crocodile hunting author. Gunther Bahnemann spent some time crocodile hunting in Australia before moving his operation north to poach crocodiles in Dutch New Guinea. Bahnemann had participated in the Second World War and in his book he was clear about his unwillingness to settle for a humdrum life, instead choosing crocodile hunting for his profession. As he described it: “We risked our lives to make quick money, but not easy money; yet I believe that the allure of adventure was the main motive of our expedition. It seems so now, when I think back to it” (8).In the tradition of Adams, Malcolm Douglas released his documentary film Across the Top in 1968, which was subsequently serialised for television. From around this time, television was becoming an increasingly popular medium and means of reinforcing the connection between the Australian outback and adventure. The animals of northern Australia played a role in setting the region apart from the rest of the continent. The 1970s and 1980s saw a boom in programs that presented the outback, including the north, as a source of interest and national pride. In this period Harry Butler presented In the Wild, while the Leyland brothers (Mike and Mal) created their iconic and highly popular Ask the Leyland Brothers (and similar productions) which ran to over 150 episodes between 1976 and 1980. In the cinema, Alby Mangels’s series of World Safari movies included Australia in his wide-ranging adventures. While these documentaries of outback Australia traded on the same sense of adventure and fascination with Australia’s wildlife that had promoted Northern Safari, the element of big game hunting was muted.That link was reforged in the 1980s and 1990s. Crocodile Dundee was an extremely successful movie and it again placed interactions with charismatic megafauna at the heart of the northern Australian experience (Thompson 124). The success of the film reinvigorated depictions of northern Australia as a place to encounter dangerous beasts. Capitalising on the film’s success Crump’s book was republished as Crocodile Country in 1990, and Tom Cole’s memoirs of his time in northern Australia, including his work buffalo shooting and crocodile hunting, were first published in 1986, 1988, and 1992 (and reprinted multiple times). However, Steve Irwin is probably the best known of northern Australia’s ‘crocodile hunters’, despite his Australia Zoo lying outside the crocodile’s natural range, and despite being a conservationist opposed to killing crocodiles. Irwin’s chosen moniker is ironic, given his often-stated love for the species and his commitment to preserving crocodile lives through relocating (when necessary, to captivity) rather than killing problem animals. He first appeared on Australian television in 1996, and continued to appear regularly until his death in 2006.Tourism Australia used both Hogan and Irwin for promotional purposes. While Thompson argues that at this time the significance of the crocodile was broadened to encompass Australia more generally, the examples of crocodile marketing that she lists relate to the Northern Territory, with a brief mention of Far North Queensland and the crocodile remained a signifier of northern adventure (Thompson 125-27). The depiction of Irwin as a ‘crocodile hunter’ despite his commitment to saving crocodile lives marked a larger shift that had already begun within the safari. While the title ‘safari’ retained its popularity in the late twentieth century it had come to be applied generally to organised adventurous travel with a view to seeing and capturing images of animals, rather than exclusively identifying hunting expeditions.ConclusionThe extraordinary success of Adams’s film was based on a widespread understanding of northern Australia as a type of adventure playground, populated by fascinating dangerous beasts. That imaginary was exploited but not created by Adams. It had been in existence since the nineteenth century, was particularly evident during the buffalo and crocodile hunting bubbles after the world wars, and boomed again with the popularity of the fictional Mick Dundee and the real Steve Irwin, for both of whom interacting with the charismatic megafauna of the north was central to their characters. The excitement surrounding large game still influences visions of northern Australia. At present there is no particularly striking northern bushman media personage, but the large animals of the north still regularly provoke discussion. The north’s safari camps continue to do business, trading on the availability of large game (particularly buffalo, banteng, pigs, and samba) and northern Australia’s crocodiles have established themselves as a significant source of interest among international big game hunters. Australia’s politicians regularly debate the possibility of legalising a limited crocodile safari in Australia, based on the culling of problem animals, and that debate highlights a continuing sense of Australia’s north as a place apart from the more settled, civilised south of the continent.ReferencesAdams, Keith. ’Aussie Bites.’ Australian Screen 2017. <https://aso.gov.au/titles/documentaries/northern-safari/clip2/>.———. ‘Crocodile Hunting.’ Australian Screen 2017. <https://aso.gov.au/titles/documentaries/northern-safari/clip3/>.———. Crocodile Safari Man: My Tasmanian Childhood in the Great Depression & 50 Years of Desert Safari to the Gulf of Carpentaria 1949-1999. Rockhampton: Central Queensland University Press, 2000.Bahnemann, Gunther. New Guinea Crocodile Poacher. 2nd ed. London: The Adventurers Club, 1965.Berzins, Baiba. Australia’s Northern Secret: Tourism in the Northern Territory, 1920s to 1980s. Sydney: Baiba Berzins, 2007.Brennan, Claire. "’An Africa on Your Own Front Door Step’: The Development of an Australian Safari.” Journal of Australian Studies 39.3 (2015): 396-410.———. “Crocodile Hunting.” Queensland Historical Atlas (2013): 1-3.———. "Imperial Game: A History of Hunting, Society, Exotic Species and the Environment in New Zealand and Victoria 1840-1901." Dissertation. Melbourne: University of Melbourne, 2005.Clinch, M.A. “Home on the Range: The Role of the Buffalo in the Northern Territory, 1824–1920.” Northern Perspective 11.2 (1988): 16-27.Cole, Tom. Crocodiles and Other Characters. Chippendale, NSW: Sun Australia, 1992.———. Hell West and Crooked. Sydney: Angus and Robertson, 1990.———. Riding the Wildman Plains: The Letters and Diaries of Tom Cole 1923-1943. Sydney: Pan Macmillan, 1992.———. Spears & Smoke Signals: Exciting True Tales by a Buffalo & Croc Shooter. Casuarina, NT: Adventure Pub., 1986.Cowan, Adam. Letter. “A Feeling of Disgust.” Canberra Times 12 Mar. 1971: 2.Crocodile Dundee. Dir. Peter Faiman. Paramount Pictures, 1986.Crump, Barry. Gulf. Wellington: A.H. & A.W. Reed, 1964.Gay, Edward. “Adventure. Tally-ho after Cape York Crocodiles.” The World’s News (Sydney), 27 Feb. 1954: 15.Nolan, Cynthia. Outback. London: Methuen & Co, 1962.Northeast, Brian. Preface. Crocodile Safari Man: My Tasmanian Childhood in the Great Depression & 50 Years of Desert Safari to the Gulf of Carpentaria 1949-1999. By Keith Adams. Rockhampton: Central Queensland University Press, 2000. vi-viii.Northern Safari. Dir. Keith Adams. Keith Adams, 1956.Northern Safari. n.d. <http://northernsafari.com/>.Stewart, Allan. The Green Eyes Are Buffaloes. Melbourne: Lansdown, 1969.Stokes, John Lort. Discoveries in Australia: With an Account of the Coasts and Rivers Explored and Surveyed during the Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle in the Years 1837-38-39-40-41-42-43. By Command of the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty, Also a Narrative of Captain Owen Stanley's Visits to the Islands in the Arafura Sea. London: T. and W. Boone, 1846.Thompson, Linda. “’You Call That a Knife?’ The Crocodile as a Symbol of Australia”. New Voices, New Visions: Challenging Australian Identities and Legacies. Eds. Catriona Elder and Keith Moore. Newcastle upon Tyne, UK: Cambridge Scholars, 2012: 118-134.Warburton, Carl. Buffaloes: Adventure and Discovery in Arnhem Land. Sydney: Angus & Robertson Ltd, 1934.Willey, Keith. Crocodile Hunt. Brisbane: Jacaranda Press, 1966.

Study/Objective A 10-year descriptive analysis of morbidity and mortality associated with water-related activities in the Top End, Northern Territory (NT), Australia. Background An outdoor, water-orientated lifestyle characterises the Top End due to its tropical climate, lengthy coastline, many inland-waterways, and common domestic-pool ownership. However, the water holds many dangers: from drowning to the prospect of crocodile attacks. Methods Data were retrospectively collected from two sources: the Trauma Registry (TR), Royal Darwin Hospital, NT and the National Coronial Information System. Inclusion criteria: all mortality or injury with an Injury Severity Score (ISS) ≥9 from water-related activity in the Top End. Exclusion criteria: envenomation. Data included: demographics, geographical location, time/mechanism of injury, injury narrative/outcome, alcohol consumption, ISS, and Indigenous race. Results Ninety-five deaths occurred from 1/1/2005–12/31/2014; 87 prehospital (92%). The leading three mechanisms of injury for the 138 TR admissions were drowning (40%), falling/diving (35%), and watercraft events (14%). Median age 27 (0-90); 78% males. There were 74 children (&lt;16 years) including 20 deaths. Indigenous Australians represent 30% of the NT population, but had 43% of deaths and 12% of admissions. Deaths from crocodile attacks are increasing with 14 deaths from 2005-2014, compared to 10 deaths from 1971-2004 (Caldicutt). Alcohol was recorded in 31% of admissions and 52% of deaths in those age &gt;16. The Top End’s crude rate of drowning averaged over 10 years was 4.36/100,000/annum, compared to 1.31/100,000/annum in Australia. Conclusion Alcohol plays a major role in the Top End’s water-related harm, associated with all mechanisms and over one-half of adult deaths. Also striking is increasing crocodile fatalities, possibly caused by population recovery from endangered to plentiful, since hunting ceased in 1971. Local authorities/advocates push water-safety and crocodile-awareness programs. However, the lure of tropical waters combined with alcohol remains a risk to life and limb. Further public health campaigns focusing on these issues are called for.

AbstractCommonly exhibited in museum galleries, animal mummies have been the focus of interest of both visitors and researchers alike. The study of these animal remains not only provides new insights into embalming techniques, but also brings a unique perspective on religious, social and economic practices. Twenty animal mummies are discussed in this study, including cats, ibises, crocodiles, calves and birds of prey from the collections of the British Museum (London, UK) and the Museo Egizio (Turin, Italy). The external textile wrappings encasing the mummified body of the animals were investigated with the main aim of identifying the colourants used. In fact, these are mostly patterned using undyed and coloured (mostly red, brown and black) linen strips. Broadband multispectral imaging (MSI) was initially carried out to obtain preliminary information at the macro-scale on the distribution and chemical nature of the colouring agents. Fibre optic reflectance spectroscopy (FORS) was then used to survey several coloured areas of the textile wrappings. Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius) and red ochre were identified non-invasively. Representative samples were then taken and observed using optical microscopy (OM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM), in order to obtain information at the micro-scale on the distribution of the colouring agents on the fibres, as well as the presence of other materials, including those from environmental contamination. Energy dispersive X-ray spectrometry (EDX) revealed the elemental composition of particles and clear areas of the fibres, whereas high performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC–MS/MS) provided the identification of the organic dyes at a molecular level. The use of hydrolysable and condensed tannins, in combination with iron as a mordant, was found to be used in the very dark shades, which generally corresponded to the textiles with the worst state of preservation. Nevertheless, other aspects, such as fibre processing and bleaching, fungal attack and presence of coating materials appeared to play a role in the evaluation of the conservation state of these textiles. The characterisation of the dyes and the additional inorganic materials contributed to elucidating the production technology of the colours used for animal mummification, and provided insights into ancient dyeing methods.

<p>Wellbeing is a multidimensional practical concept that captures a mix of people’s life circumstances. Categorically wellbeing may be divided into three divisions: physical, mental and social wellbeing. As a construct, it may also be perceived as objective wellbeing (relates to material attributes like the amount of wealth, provision of education and health care and social infrastructure) and subjective wellbeing (how people think and feel about their quality of life). In both, the dimension Environment, more specifically the natural environment plays an important key role- both negative and positive. Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), [1] postulates the ecosystem approach as a means of understanding the roles played by land, water and living resources of the environment (ecological resources) in the life of people as well as integrated management of cultural and biological diversity of the land and the people. Ecosystems are defined as the functional units that are in continual dynamic and complex interaction among plants, animals, water bodies, forest, climate and all other non-living issues in the environment. Ecosystem services are the benefits that people are supposed to or actually obtain from the ecosystem. These inter-phase interactional dynamics is the guiding principle of Ecopsychiatry - where environmental issues influence positively or negatively on the mental health of the people (individual) and the community (collective). Or in other words the impact of environmental specificity (of normal or abnormal state) on the mental health and wellbeing (as also physical and spiritual) of the community or individual. </p><p>The following inter-connected Eco-psychiatric issues that negatively impacted human wellbeing (both physical and mental) are discussed:</p><ol><li>Anthropogenic factors and its impact on population density, land distribution, agricultural production, food insecurity and poverty.</li><li>Attempts to enhance the crop production in a climatic uncertainty and saline field by pesticide over/incorrect -use - resultant in a high incidence of mortality and morbidity (accidental and deliberate self-harm/suicide) of human and pesticide contamination of the environment.</li><li>Nutritional deficiency, animal health and livestock: salinization of water impacted the availability of freshwater fish species, and thus depriving the poor of their protein food source and adversely impacting the income and family integrity.</li><li>Risk factors in human-animal conflicts (tiger/ crocodile/snake attacks) and resultant mortality and morbidity: forest exploration for livelihood measures (fishing, timber-honey-crab-collection) leading to death, family disruption, poverty and overuse of eco-resources.</li><li>Sea-level change and its impact on environment and wellbeing: the health of human, animals, mangrove vegetation, repeated storm and flood, inundation of salt water in agricultural field (high salinity), flood and destruction of life and property is a recurrent event.</li><li>Land erosion and destruction of islands and internal and external migration and displacement of population.</li><li>Climate change and its impact on agriculture, food production, eco-resources and health and emergence of vector-born and water-borne diseases. Cyclone related disaster and it's public/ animal (tiger) health effects on the environment and population health.</li></ol>