Relevant bibliographies by topics / Crop production and soil

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  1. Journal articles
  2. Dissertations / Theses
  3. Books
  4. Book chapters
  5. Conference papers
  6. Reports

Academic literature on the topic 'Crop production and soil'

Author: Grafiati
Published: 4 June 2021
Last updated: 30 January 2023

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Journal articles on the topic "Crop production and soil"

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Dawadi, Sujan, Fulya Baysal-Gurel, Karla M. Addesso, Jason B. Oliver, and Terri Simmons. "Impact of Cover Crop Usage on Soilborne Diseases in Field Nursery Production." Agronomy 9, no. 11 (November 14, 2019): 753. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/agronomy9110753.

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Soilborne pathogens are a significant economic problem for nursery production in the Southeastern United States. The goal of this study was to determine the impact of cover crops on soilborne disease suppressiveness in such systems. Soils from red maple (Acer rubrum L.) plantation fields grown with and without cover crops were sampled, either while the cover crops were growing (pre-disked) or post-season, following cover crop incorporation into the soil (post-disked). Greenhouse bioassays were conducted using red maple seeds on inoculated (with Rhizoctonia solani (J.G. Kühn) or Phytophthora nicotianae (Breda de Haan)) and non-inoculated field soils. The damping-off, root rot disease severity, percent recovery of Rhizoctonia and Phytophthora, and pseudomonad population were examined during the two years of the experiment. Results showed that cover crop incorporation was beneficial for inducing disease supressiveness characteristics of soil. Cover crop incorporation into the soil significantly or numerically reduced disease severity and pathogen recovery in infested soil compared to the bare soil treatment. Cover crop incorporation was found to be partially associated with the reduction of seedling damping-off. The pseudomonad microbial population was greater when cover crop was present, and is thought to be antagonist to soilborne pathogens. Therefore, cover crops can be integrated in field nursery production systems to suppress soilborne pathogens.
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Chamen, W. C. T. "Soil compaction in crop production." Soil and Tillage Research 37, no. 2-3 (June 1996): 201–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0167-1987(96)85123-3.

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Gregory. "Soil compaction in crop production." Field Crops Research 42, no. 2-3 (August 1995): 145–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0378-4290(95)90042-x.

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Singh, Anil Kumar, Alok Kumar Singh, and Jay Prakash Singh. "Boron in crop production from soil to plant system: A review." Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science 5, no. 2 (June 25, 2020): 218–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.26832/24566632.2020.0502020.

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The deficiency of boron is spreading rapidly in Indian soils. Boron deficiency in crops is more widespread than deficiency of any other essential micronutrient. However, imbalanced or excess use of boron fertilizers found to impose negative impact on crops due to very narrow range of boron deficiency and toxicity in soil and plants which increases production cost also. Therefore, optimized boron fertilizer supply in boron deficient soils is important in order to attain normal crop growth, yield and high-quality produce. It this review the role of boron in crop production, its deficiency in crop plants has been discussed.
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Suk, Leonid, and Petro Suk. "Accounting Objects in Crop Production." Accounting and Finance, no. 3(89) (2020): 41–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.33146/2307-9878-2020-3(89)-41-47.

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The reporting period in crop production is the calendar year. However, at the end of the year, there are costs associated with harvesting in subsequent periods. The purpose of the article is to find and justify options for accounting for costs for the harvest of the current and future years. The formation of accounting objects in crop production was considered, in particular: economic content of costs for the harvest of current and future years; accounting for costs of growing plants and performing works; accounting for costs that to be allocated and other costs of crop production; the relationship between accounting objects. Expenses and accounting items at each stage of growing crops were disclosed in detail. It was determined that expenses for harvest of future years account for the work performed on soil preparation, and after sowing, they are distributed between the objects in proportion to the actual occupied areas of plants. Soil preparation works are performed in accordance with agrotechnical requirements for growing specific crops. For each year, the enterprise draws up a crop map. So, it is better to account costs for agricultural crops beginning with the preparation of soil for them. If the actual sowing area will differ from the planned area, then the costs for the plant accounting objects need to be refined. Some of their groups include costs that to be allocated and other costs. Crop accounting objects are grouped into four groups: 1) crops (works) that will yield in the current year; 2) crops and works for the harvest of subsequent years; 3) costs to be allocated ; 4) other objects. There is a close relationship between the accounting objects of crop production. The transfer of costs from one object to another is reflected in analytical accounts within the sub-account 231 “Crop production”, which in such cases is debited and credited for the same amount.
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Mitchell, J. P., C. Shennan, D. Peters, and R. O. Miller. "A CROPPING SYSTEMS APPROACH TO IMPROVING WATER USE EFFICIENCY IN SEMI-ARID IRRIGATED PRODUCTION AREAS." HortScience 27, no. 6 (June 1992): 682e—682. http://dx.doi.org/10.21273/hortsci.27.6.682e.

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Sustainable alternatives for saline drainage water management in areas such as California's San Joaquin Valley are needed. Previous work has demonstrated the short-term potential for reuse of saline drainage water for irrigation in this area. Results from our 6-year cyclic drainage reuse study, however, indicate that soil structural problems may occur which can greatly reduce stand establishment and crop yields in periodically salinized soils. To prevent these problems, we are evaluating the effectiveness of winter cover crop incorporation and gypsum applications relative to conventional fallows, for improving/maintaining soil physical properties and crop productivity in cyclically salinized soils. Six winter cover crop/fallow treatments have been imposed upon a rotation of tomatoes, tomatoes and cotton as summer crops. By monitoring water use, relevant soil physical and chemical properties as well as crop performance during the course of this 3-year rotation study, we are assessing the potential benefits and constraints of using winter cover crops in drainage water reuse systems.
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Pinchuk, Oleg, Serhii Klimov, Ivan Romaniuk, Florin Faur, Maria Lazăr, and Izabela-Maria Apostu. "Intensifying agricultural crops production by means of thermal reclamation." E3S Web of Conferences 280 (2021): 10006. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202128010006.

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The use of surface heating with heat exchangers significantly affects the temperature regime of the soil and the surface air layer. It is manifested in a change in the distribution of temperatures according to the soil horizon, in a considerable increase in the temperature of the soil and air, in a change of heat exchange between the soil and the surface layer of air. When using tunnel greenhouse, heating the soil with the coolant temperature of 25…30 ºC contributes to the creation of all necessary conditions in ground area equipped with a heat exchangers for shifting the vegetation period of ultra-early cultivation of agricultural crops, on average, by 1-2 months depending on the crop type. This allows for earlier sowing and planting of thermophilic crops and getting harvest earlier than usual, as well as increasing the amount of crop production and improving its quality. The thermal efficiency of soil heating with water-filled flexible sleeves was studied experimentally in a field model experiment performed in the climatic terms of the Ukrainian Polissya on sandy loam and chernozem soils. Strawberry of the “Festivalny” type was used as the main crop-indicator. The influence of soil heating with heat exchangers on the growth, development and yield of strawberries has been studied.
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Hamel, Chantal, and Désiré-Georges Strullu. "Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in field crop production: Potential and new direction." Canadian Journal of Plant Science 86, no. 4 (October 10, 2006): 941–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.4141/p05-099.

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Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) are multipurpose organisms with complex ecological ramifications in the soil system that have been difficult to study and understand. The phytocentric concept of AMF that has prevailed since the naming of these organisms is being replaced by a holistic vision recognizing that AMF are a key element of soil functioning and health rather than a plant root component. Recent advances in knowledge brought about by new techniques for soil microbiology research open the way to AMF management in crop production. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi may influence crop development, even in phosphorus-rich soils. However, growing crops in soil with lower fertility would optimize the expression of the multiple beneficial effects of AMF in agro-ecosystem and reduce nutrient seepage to the environment. The consideration of the soil mycorrhizal potential within the framework of soil testing and fertilization recommendations, the development of improved inoculants and signal molecules to manipulate AMF and the development of cultivars with improved symbiotic qualities would insure the production of good crop yields while improving agroecosystems’ sustainability. Key words: Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi management, field crop production, agriculture, soil quality, arbuscular mycorrhizal effect
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Zewide, Israel, and Abde Sherefu. "Review Paper on Effect of Micronutrients for Crop Production." Nutrition and Food Processing 4, no. 7 (November 13, 2021): 01–08. http://dx.doi.org/10.31579/2637-8914/063.

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Micronutrients are essentially as important as macronutrients to have better growth, yield and quality in plants. There requirement by plants is in trace amounts. Boron, iron, copper, zinc, manganese, magnesium and molybdenum constitute main micronutrients required by different crops in variable quantities. The requirement of micronutrients is partly met from the soil or through chemical fertilizer or through other sources. Various physical and metabolic functions are governed by these mineral nutrients. Boron is particularly essential in pollen germination, copper plays major role in photosynthesis and increases sugar content in fruits, chlorophyll synthesis and phosphorus availability is enhanced by manganese, iron acts as an oxygen carrier and promotes chlorophyll formation, while, zinc aids plant growth hormones and enzyme system. Yield and quality of agricultural products increased with micronutrients application, therefore human and animal health is protected with feed of enrichment plant materials. Each essential element only when can perform its role in plant nutrition properly that other necessary elements are available in balanced ratios for plant. therefore in the plant manganese plays an important role on oxidation and reduction processes, as electron transport in photosynthesis. Manganese deficiency has very serious effects on non-structural carbohydrates, and roots carbohydrates especially. Crops quality and quantity decreased due to manganese deficiency, and this is due to low fertility of pollen and low in carbohydrates during grain filling. In the xylem routes zinc is transmitted to divalent form or with organic acids bond. In the phloem sap zinc makes up complex with organic acids with low molecular weight, and increases its concentration. Zinc deficiency can be seen in eroded, calcareous and weathering acidic soils. Zinc deficiency is often accompanied with iron deficiency in calcareous soils. Iron in the soil is the fourth abundant element on earth, but its amount was low or not available for the plants and microorganisms needs, due to low solubility of minerals containing iron in many places the world, especially in arid region with alkaline soils.
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Cheema, Sikander Singh, Amardeep Singh, and Hassène Gritli. "Optimal Crop Selection Using Gravitational Search Algorithm." Mathematical Problems in Engineering 2021 (April 19, 2021): 1–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2021/5549992.

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For the economic growth of the crop, the optimal utilization of soil is found to be an open area of research. An efficient utilization includes various advantages such as watershed insurance, expanded biodiversity, and reduction of provincial destitution. Generally, soils present synthetic confinements for crop improvement. Therefore, in this paper, a novel diversified crop model is proposed to predict the suitable soil for good production of the crop. The proposed model utilizes a quantum value-based gravitational search algorithm (GSA) to optimize the best solution. Various features of soil are required to be investigated before crop selection. These features are refined further by applying quantum optimization. The crop selection based upon the soil requirement does not require any additional fertilizers which will reduce the production cost. Thus, the proposed model can select the optimal crop according to the soil components using the gravitational search algorithm. Therefore, the gravitational search algorithm is applied to the quantum values obtained from the crop and soil dataset. Extensive experiments show that the proposed model achieves an optimal selection of crops.
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Dissertations / Theses on the topic "Crop production and soil"

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Mallory, Ellen B. "Crop/Livestock Integration Effects on Soil Quality, Crop Production, and Soil Nitrogen Dynamics." Fogler Library, University of Maine, 2007. http://www.library.umaine.edu/theses/pdf/MalloryEB2007.pdf.

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Santos, Francisco SÃrgio Ribeiro dos. "Production and nutrition in strawberry crop soil and hydroponic." Universidade Federal do CearÃ, 2014. http://www.teses.ufc.br/tde_busca/arquivo.php?codArquivo=13165.

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CoordenaÃÃo de AperfeÃoamento de Pessoal de NÃvel Superior
Traditional soil based strawberry production currently faces some obstacles, both by excessive use of pesticides, as the diseases caused by fungi and other pathogens and ergonomic difficulties of cultivating the soil. Strawberry soilless cultivation combined with greenhouse and the use of substrate promotes some advantages such as: eliminating the use of products for soil disinfection, precocity, increased yields, better crop management conditions and crop protection against adverse weather conditions, pest attacks and diseases.. The objective of the study was to evaluate yield and nutrition of four strawberry cultivars in three cropping systems in Serra da Ibiapaba â CearÃ. The experiment was conducted in 3 x 4 factorial design, randomized blocks, with three cultivation systems arranged in strips (soil, hydroponic in gutters and bags), with four strawberry cultivars (Oso Grande, Albion, and Camarosa and Festival) and five replications. Coconut fiber was used as substrate in the hydroponic systems. In the period between the sixth and thirty-eighth week after transplanting, the number and average fruit weight, yield per plant and yield were determined. From the beginning of flowering, leaves were collected every two months to determine the levels of macro and micronutrients. Hydroponic gutter and bag systems increased the number of fruits per plant, but did not increase average fruit weight. The strawberry yield in hydroponic cultivation system was superior to soil cultivation. Cultivar Festival presented more fruits than the other cultivars in hydroponic systems. The Oso Grande and Festival cultivars stood out as the average fruit weight and yield, respectively, and may be recommended for hydroponic cultivation for the region of Serra da Ibiapaba. Based on the leaf nutrient contents, it is suggested adjustments in concentrations of phosphorus and magnesium in the nutrient solution used in hydroponic strawberry crop. Keywords: Fragaria x ananassa, cultivar, nutrients, crop system,
O cultivo do morangueiro no solo enfrenta atualmente alguns entraves, tanto pelo uso excessivo de defensivos, como pelas doenÃas causadas por fungos e outros patÃgenos e as dificuldades ergonÃmicas do cultivo no solo. O cultivo em sistemas sem solo combinado com ambiente protegido e o uso de substrato proporciona algumas vantagens como: eliminaÃÃo do uso de produtos destinados à desinfecÃÃo do solo, antecipaÃÃo do inÃcio das colheitas, aumento da produÃÃo, proteÃÃo da cultura Ãs condiÃÃes meteorolÃgicas adversas, ataque de pragas e doenÃas e melhores condiÃÃes de manejo da cultura. O experimento teve como objetivo avaliar a produÃÃo e nutriÃÃo de quatro cultivares de morango em trÃs sistemas de cultivo na Serra da Ibiapaba â CearÃ. O experimento foi conduzido em esquema fatorial 3 x 4, em blocos casualizados, sendo trÃs sistemas de cultivo dispostos em faixa (solo, hidropÃnico em calhas e em s a c o l a s ), com quatro cultivares de morangueiro (Oso Grande, Albion, Camarosa e Festival), com cinco repetiÃÃes. No sistema hidropÃnico foi utilizado como substrato fibra de coco. No perÃodo entre a sexta e trigÃsima oitava semana apÃs o transplantio, foi determinado o nÃmero e peso mÃdio de frutos, produÃÃo por planta e produtividade. A partir do inÃcio do florescimento, foram coletadas a cada dois meses folhas para determinaÃÃo dos teores de macro e micronutrientes. Os sistemas hidropÃnicos em calha e em sacolas aumentaram o nÃmero de frutos por planta, porÃm nÃo aumentaram o peso mÃdio de frutos. A produtividade do morangueiro cultivado no sistema hidropÃnico foi superior ao cultivo no solo. A cultivar Festival apresentou maior nÃmero de frutos em relaÃÃo as demais cultivares nos sistemas hidropÃnicos. As cultivares Oso Grande e Festival destacaram-se quanto a peso mÃdio de frutos e produtividade, respectivamente, sendo recomendadas para cultivo hidropÃnico para regiÃo da Serra da Ibiapaba. Com base nos teores de nutirentes na folha sugere-se ajustes nas concentraÃÃes de fÃsforo e magnÃsio na soluÃÃo nutritiva utilizada no cultivo hidropÃnico do morangueiro. Palavras-chaves: Fragaria x ananassa, cultivar, sistema de cultivo, nutrientes.
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Ohu, John Olutunde. "Peatmoss influence on strength, hydraulic characteristics and crop production of compacted soils." Thesis, McGill University, 1985. http://digitool.Library.McGill.CA:80/R/?func=dbin-jump-full&object_id=71960.

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The quantitative effects of increasing the organic matter contents of three soils upon their susceptibility to compaction, the recovery of tilth after compaction and the fertility of the soils were investigated. These effects were further studied on the production of bush bean (Phaseolus vulgaris).
Soil consistency limits, soil water status, applied pressure and organic matter contents were used to predict shear strength, penetration resistance and water retention characteristics of compacted soils, with the aim of meeting the widespread demand for possible techniques of soil compaction prediction.
Soil compaction increased the ability of the soils to retain moisture, increased penetration resistance, shear strength and decreased the available water capacity of soils. On the other hand, organic matter increased the ability of the soils to retain moisture, expanded the available water capacity and decreased the penetration resistance and shear strength of compacted soils.
Although soil compaction increased the stem diameter of bush bean; the height, yields and root dry matter of the crop decreased with higher compaction levels. On the contrary, higher organic matter levels increased the plant and yield parameters of the crop.
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Semple, Adelaide Mary. "Nitrogen balance and changes in soil nutrients in reduced inputs systems of cropping." Thesis, Queen's University Belfast, 1998. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.284399.

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Davis, Cathryn Joyce. "Cover crops for soil health and forage." Thesis, Kansas State University, 2016. http://hdl.handle.net/2097/34537.

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Master of Science
Department of Agronomy
DeAnn R. Presley
Cover crops have numerous benefits and while cover crops have been used for centuries, currently there are few producers in Kansas growing them and so there is a need for additional research on how cover crops affect soil properties, and on the potential for utilizing cover crops as forage. Two studies are presented in this thesis. The first study evaluated the use of cover crops in a vegetable production system as compared to a fully tilled control. This study evaluated soil physical properties in the form of wet aggregate stability and infiltration, and microbial properties by soil microbial biomass carbon (MBC). Over the three year study, the most pronounced differences observed were in the wet aggregate stability between the cover crop and control treatments where the cover crop treatments had better soil aggregation compared to the control. At the conclusion of the study, there was not a difference between fall and spring planted cover crop treatments. The second study evaluates species composition and forage quality of various combinations of multi-species cover crop mixtures. This study evaluated sixteen treatments, each consisting of a three-way mixture of a brassica (turnip or radish), grass (rye, wheat, barley, oat), and a legume (berseem clover or Austrian winter pea). Species composition analysis found that the brassica species dominated the mixtures (60-80% by mass on a dry weight basis) in 2014 while the grass species were dominant (62 – 67%) in 2015. Overall all treatments produced prime quality forage (as compared to hay values), however some treatments cost significantly more to plant than others. Therefore an economic analysis compared the treatments and found that the treatments containing turnips and oats generally provided the best return on investment given that both of these species were among the cheapest to plant and produced moderate to high biomass compared to the other treatments. The results of these projects point to the potential benefits that cover crops can have for producers interested in improving soil or utilizing cover crops for forage.
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Waine, Toby William. "Non-invasive soil property measurement for precision farming." Thesis, Cranfield University, 1999. http://dspace.lib.cranfield.ac.uk/handle/1826/11322.

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This work investigates the application of new sensors to enable agronomists and farm managers to make decisions for variable treatment strategies at key crop growth stages. This is needed to improve the efficiency of crop production in the context of precision farming. Two non-invasive sensors were selected for investigation. These were: 1) The MGD-1 ion mobility gas detector made by Environics OY, Finland. 2) The EM38 electromagnetic induction (EMI) sensor made by Geonics Inc., Canada. The gas detector was used to determine residual nitrogen and to measure carbon dioxide gas as a surrogate indicator of soil quality. In the latter, increased microbial carbon dioxide production was expected on soils with high organic matter content. Overall, the results of gas detection were disappointing. The main problems inherent in the system were; lack of control of the gas sampling, insufficient machine resolution and cross contamination. This led to the decision to discontinue the gas detection research. Instead, the application of electromagnetic induction (EMI) to measure soil variation was investigated. There were two principle advances in the research. Firstly the application of EMI to the rapid assessment of soil textural class. Secondly the mapping of available water content in the soil profile. These were achieved through the development of a new calibration procedure based on EMI survey of the sites at field capacity, working with field experiments from five sites over two years. Maps of total available water holding capacity were produced. These were correlated with yield maps from wet and dry seasons and used to explain some of the seasonal influences on the spatial variation in yield. A product development strategy for a new EMI sensor was considered which produced a recommendation to design a new EMI sensor specifically for available water content and soil texture mapping, that could be mounted on a tractor. For the first time, this procedure enables routine monitoring of the spatial variation in available water content. This enables the effects of seasonal and spatial variation to be included in crop models, targeted irrigation and to aid decisions for the variable application of inputs.
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Bryant, Heather D. "Hybrid Mulch System: Effects on Crop Production, Economics, Weeds and Soil Quality." Fogler Library, University of Maine, 2008. http://www.library.umaine.edu/theses/pdf/BryantHD2008.pdf.

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Booker, Bradley L. "No-Till Tomato Production." DigitalCommons@CalPoly, 2009. https://digitalcommons.calpoly.edu/theses/363.

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Tillage increases erosion rates and diminishes the quality of soils but has traditionally been a way to manage weeds and prepare a seedbed. No-till vegetable production can ameliorate the ill-effects of tillage in an economically effective way but has not been studied much in California. The objective of this thesis was to determine the viability of no-till vegetable cropping on the Central Coast of California. Tomatoes were grown in no-till and conventionally tilled treatments. Total yield, fruit weight, weed emergence, soil bulk density, soil aggregate stability, and soil organic carbon content were measured and compared. Yields and soil tests in both treatments were similar while weed emergence in the tilled plots was significantly higher than in no-till plots. The results may help vegetable producers determine how to make vegetable production on the Central Coast more sustainable.
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Battaglia, Martin. "Crop residue management effects on crop production, greenhouse gases emissions, and soil quality in the Mid-Atlantic USA." Diss., Virginia Tech, 2018. http://hdl.handle.net/10919/86483.

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Cellulosic biomass-to-bioenergy systems can provide environmental and economic benefits to modern societies, reducing the dependence on fossil-fuels and greenhouse gas emissions while simultaneously improving rural economies. Corn (Zea mays L.) stover and wheat straw (Triticum aestivum L.) residues have particular promise given these crops are widely grown and their cellulosic fractions present a captured resource as a co-product of grain production. Annual systems also offer the ability to change crops rapidly in response to changing market demands. However, concerns exist about residue removal effects on soil health, greenhouse gases emissions and subsequent crop productivity. The carbon footprint and the crop yield productivity and soil health responses resulting from the removal of crop residues has been studied extensively over the last 20 years, but this research has been largely conducted in the Corn Belt. To investigate the impact of crop residue removal in the Mid-Atlantic USA, combinations of corn stover (0, 3.33, 6.66, 10 and 20 Mg ha-1) and wheat straw (0, 1.0, 2.0, and 3.0 Mgha-1) were soil applied in a corn-wheat/soybean (Glycine max L. Merr.) rotation in Virginia's Coastal Plain. Corn stover (0, 3.33, 6.66, 10 and 20 Mg ha-1) was applied in a continuous corn cropping system in the Ridge/Valley province. For each system, residues were applied following grain harvest over two production cycles. Each experiment was conducted as a randomized complete design with four replications. The highest rates of stover retention resulted in greater greenhouse gas emissions in year 1, but not year 2 of these studies and did not affect overall global warming potentials. Stover application also increased soil carbon but had little effect on other measures of soil quality. Stover K levels were greater with high rates of stover retention. Overall, these studies indicate little effect of residue removal or retention (above typical residue production rates) on subsequent crop production, greenhouse gas emissions, or soil health measures in the short term. This study is one of the first to assess residue removal in the Mid-Atlantic USA and is the first study to investigate the impacts that managing more than one crop residue in a multi-crop system. Longer-term research of this type may be warranted both to determine the consequences of residue management and to start building a regionally-specific body of knowledge about these practices.
Ph. D.
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Matabwa, Charles January. "Nutrient and water constraints to crop production in the savanna soils of Mubangwe, Malawi." Thesis, University of Reading, 1991. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.304248.

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Books on the topic "Crop production and soil"

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D, Soane B., and Ouwerkerk C. van, eds. Soil compaction in crop production. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1994.

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Li, Minzan, Chenghai Yang, and Qin Zhang, eds. Soil and Crop Sensing for Precision Crop Production. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-70432-2.

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Dixon, Geoffrey R. Soil Microbiology and Sustainable Crop Production. Dordrecht: Springer Science+Business Media B.V., 2010.

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Dixon, Geoffrey R., and Emma L. Tilston, eds. Soil Microbiology and Sustainable Crop Production. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, 2010. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-9479-7.

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Anderson, Wilbur C. Benefits of fall-planted cover crops in the Puget Sound row crop production system. [Pullman, Wash.]: Cooperative Extension, Washington State University, 2000.

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Henning, Stanley J. Row crop production in Iowa on reclaimed prime farmland soil. S.l: s.n, 1992.

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K, Gupta S. Crop production in waterlogged saline soils. Jodhpur: Scientific Publishers, 1997.

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Turner, Nancy LeBlanc. Soil fertility and crop production 1895-1930: January 1979 - April 1990. Beltsville, Md: National Agricultural Library, 1990.

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Ball, B. C., and L. J. Munkholm, eds. Visual soil evaluation: realising potential crop production with minimum environmental impact. Wallingford: CABI, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1079/9781780644707.0000.

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Mokwunye, A. Uzo, ed. Alleviating Soil Fertility Constraints to Increased Crop Production in West Africa. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, 1991. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-3224-4.

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Book chapters on the topic "Crop production and soil"

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Imadi, Sameen Ruqia, Kanwal Shazadi, Alvina Gul, and Khalid Rehman Hakeem. "Sustainable Crop Production System." In Plant, Soil and Microbes, 103–16. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-27455-3_6.

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Chaves, Manuela M., and O. Zarrouk. "Crop crop/cropping Responses to Available Soil Water crop/cropping Responses to available soil water." In Sustainable Food Production, 615–37. New York, NY: Springer New York, 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-5797-8_194.

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Broadbent, F. E. "Plant Use of Soil Nitrogen." In Nitrogen in Crop Production, 171–82. Madison, WI, USA: American Society of Agronomy, Crop Science Society of America, Soil Science Society of America, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.2134/1990.nitrogenincropproduction.c11.

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Reddy, P. Parvatha. "Soil Organic Matter." In Sustainable Intensification of Crop Production, 157–73. Singapore: Springer Singapore, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-2702-4_11.

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Reddy, P. Parvatha. "Agricultural Soil Compaction." In Sustainable Intensification of Crop Production, 41–52. Singapore: Springer Singapore, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-2702-4_3.

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Singh, Ramji, P. Anbazhagan, H. S. Viswanath, and Ajay Tomer. "Trichoderma Species: A Blessing for Crop Production." In Soil Biology, 127–58. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-54758-5_6.

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Butterly, Clayton Robert, Telmo Jorge Carneiro Amado, and Caixian Tang. "Soil Acidity and Acidification." In Subsoil Constraints for Crop Production, 53–81. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-00317-2_3.

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Meisinger, J. J. "Evaluating Plant-Available Nitrogen in Soil-Crop Systems." In Nitrogen in Crop Production, 389–416. Madison, WI, USA: American Society of Agronomy, Crop Science Society of America, Soil Science Society of America, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.2134/1990.nitrogenincropproduction.c26.

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Hauck, Roland D. "Significance of Nitrogen Fertilizer Microsite Reactions in Soil." In Nitrogen in Crop Production, 507–19. Madison, WI, USA: American Society of Agronomy, Crop Science Society of America, Soil Science Society of America, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.2134/1990.nitrogenincropproduction.c33.

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Stark, Jeffrey C., and Mike Thornton. "Field Selection, Crop Rotations, and Soil Management." In Potato Production Systems, 87–100. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-39157-7_5.

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Conference papers on the topic "Crop production and soil"

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Rice, Marlin E., Jim Oleson, and Wendy Wintersteen. "Minor Soil Pests." In Proceedings of the First Annual Crop Production and Protection Conference. Iowa State University, Digital Press, 1990. http://dx.doi.org/10.31274/icm-180809-346.

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Miller, Gerald A., and Robert C. Mortensen. "Digital Soil Maps for Iowa." In Proceedings of the 1992 Crop Production and Protection Conference. Iowa State University, Digital Press, 1992. http://dx.doi.org/10.31274/icm-180809-414.

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Melvin, Stewart W. "Soil Compaction Problems of 1993." In Proceedings of the 1992 Crop Production and Protection Conference. Iowa State University, Digital Press, 1993. http://dx.doi.org/10.31274/icm-180809-451.

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Loux, Mark M. "Herbicide Presistence in Soil." In Proceedings of the First Annual Crop Production and Protection Conference. Iowa State University, Digital Press, 1990. http://dx.doi.org/10.31274/icm-180809-326.

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Melvin, Stewart W., and Donald C. Erbach. "Soil Compaction Research Summary." In Proceedings of the First Annual Crop Production and Protection Conference. Iowa State University, Digital Press, 1991. http://dx.doi.org/10.31274/icm-180809-370.

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Hatfield, J. L. "Soil Tilth and Sustainable Agriculture." In Proceedings of the First Annual Crop Production and Protection Conference. Iowa State University, Digital Press, 1989. http://dx.doi.org/10.31274/icm-180809-315.

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Miller, Gerald A., and Robert C. Mortensen. "Digitized Soil Maps for Iowa." In Proceedings of the First Annual Crop Production and Protection Conference. Iowa State University, Digital Press, 1990. http://dx.doi.org/10.31274/icm-180809-334.

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Wollenhaupt, N. C., and R. P. Wolkowski. "Grid Soil Sampling for Precision and Profit." In Proceedings of the 1992 Crop Production and Protection Conference. Iowa State University, Digital Press, 1994. http://dx.doi.org/10.31274/icm-180809-453.

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Voronov, Sergey, Vadim Kononchuk, Sergey Timoshenko, Viktor Shtyrhunov, and Tamara Nazarova. "Comparative productivity of legumes in single species and mixed sowings on soddy-podzolic soils of the central Non-Black earth region." In Multifunctional adaptive fodder production. ru: Federal Williams Research Center of Forage Production and Agroecology, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.33814/mak-2022-28-76-60-69.

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In a series of short-term field experiments (2016–2021) on medium loamy soddy-podzolic soil with a high supply of the arable layer with mobile phosphorus and potassium, the conditions for the formation of high productivity of new generation leguminous crop varieties in pure and mixed crops for grain and haylage were revealed. To increase the productivity and sustainability of fodder production in the changing climate of the Central Non-Chernozem Region, it is proposed to expand the species diversity of field agrophytocenoses by cultivating grain fodder crop rotations in fallow links, along with traditional peas, pelushka and spring vetch, also early ripe lupine varieties of narrow-leaved determinant type. This will not only reduce the cost of production of concentrated and bulky feeds, improve their quality characteristics, but also reduce dependence on imports of soybeans and products of its processing.
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Voss, Regis D. "Effect of '93 on 1994 Soil Fertility Decisions." In Proceedings of the 1992 Crop Production and Protection Conference. Iowa State University, Digital Press, 1993. http://dx.doi.org/10.31274/icm-180809-416.

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Reports on the topic "Crop production and soil"

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Rawitz, Eliahu, J. F. Power, Amos Hadas, Wallace W. Wilhelm, Dan Wolf, and Yona Chen. Tillage and Crop Residue Management Practices for Improved Crop Production and Soil Structure Maintenance. United States Department of Agriculture, April 1985. http://dx.doi.org/10.32747/1985.7566585.bard.

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Clark, Justin, James R. Russell, Douglas Karlen, Darrell Busby, L. James Secor, Brian Peterson, Larry Pellack, Carroll Olsen, and Shawn C. Shouse. Effects of Corn Crop Residue Grazing on Soil Physical Properties and Subsequent Soybean Production in a Corn-Soybean Crop Rotation (A Progress Report). Ames: Iowa State University, Digital Repository, 2001. http://dx.doi.org/10.31274/farmprogressreports-180814-2594.

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Clark, Justin, James R. Russell, Douglas Karlen, Darrell Busby, L. James Secor, Brian Peterson, Larry Pellack, Carroll Olsen, and Shawn C. Shouse. Effects of Corn Crop Residue Grazing on Soil Physical Properties and Subsequent Soybean Production in a Corn-Soybean Crop Rotation (A Progress Report). Ames: Iowa State University, Digital Repository, 2001. http://dx.doi.org/10.31274/farmprogressreports-180814-2800.

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Bonfil, David J., Daniel S. Long, and Yafit Cohen. Remote Sensing of Crop Physiological Parameters for Improved Nitrogen Management in Semi-Arid Wheat Production Systems. United States Department of Agriculture, January 2008. http://dx.doi.org/10.32747/2008.7696531.bard.

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To reduce financial risk and N losses to the environment, fertilization methods are needed that improve NUE and increase the quality of wheat. In the literature, ample attention is given to grid-based and zone-based soil testing to determine the soil N available early in the growing season. Plus, information is available on in-season N topdressing applications as a means of improving GPC. However, the vast majority of research has focused on wheat that is grown under N limiting conditions in sub-humid regions and irrigated fields. Less attention has been given to wheat in dryland that is water limited. The objectives of this study were to: (1) determine accuracy in determining GPC of HRSW in Israel and SWWW in Oregon using on-combine optical sensors under field conditions; (2) develop a quantitative relationship between image spectral reflectance and effective crop physiological parameters; (3) develop an operational precision N management procedure that combines variable-rate N recommendations at planting as derived from maps of grain yield, GPC, and test weight; and at mid-season as derived from quantitative relationships, remote sensing, and the DSS; and (4) address the economic and technology-transfer aspects of producers’ needs. Results from the research suggest that optical sensing and the DSS can be used for estimating the N status of dryland wheat and deciding whether additional N is needed to improve GPC. Significant findings include: 1. In-line NIR reflectance spectroscopy can be used to rapidly and accurately (SEP <5.0 mg g⁻¹) measure GPC of a grain stream conveyed by an auger. 2. On-combine NIR spectroscopy can be used to accurately estimate (R² < 0.88) grain test weight across fields. 3. Precision N management based on N removal increases GPC, grain yield, and profitability in rainfed wheat. 4. Hyperspectral SI and partial least squares (PLS) models have excellent potential for estimation of biomass, and water and N contents of wheat. 5. A novel heading index can be used to monitor spike emergence of wheat with classification accuracy between 53 and 83%. 6. Index MCARI/MTVI2 promises to improve remote sensing of wheat N status where water- not soil N fertility, is the main driver of plant growth. Important features include: (a) computable from commercial aerospace imagery that include the red edge waveband, (b) sensitive to Chl and resistant to variation in crop biomass, and (c) accommodates variation in soil reflectance. Findings #1 and #2 above enable growers to further implement an efficient, low cost PNM approach using commercially available on-combine optical sensors. Finding #3 suggests that profit opportunities may exist from PNM based on information from on-combine sensing and aerospace remote sensing. Finding #4, with its emphasis on data retrieval and accuracy, enhances the potential usefulness of a DSS as a tool for field crop management. Finding #5 enables land managers to use a DSS to ascertain at mid-season whether a wheat crop should be harvested for grain or forage. Finding #6a expands potential commercial opportunities of MS imagery and thus has special importance to a majority of aerospace imaging firms specializing in the acquisition and utilization of these data. Finding #6b on index MCARI/MVTI2 has great potential to expand use of ground-based sensing and in-season N management to millions of hectares of land in semiarid environments where water- not N, is the main determinant of grain yield. Finding #6c demonstrates that MCARI/MTVI2 may alleviate the requirement of multiple N-rich reference strips to account for soil differences within farm fields. This simplicity will be less demanding of grower resources, promising substantially greater acceptance of sensing technologies for in-season N management.
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Tolbert, V. R., J. E. Lindberg, and T. H. Green. Soil and water quality implications of production of herbaceous and woody energy crops. Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI), October 1997. http://dx.doi.org/10.2172/634029.

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VanderGheynst, Jean, Michael Raviv, Jim Stapleton, and Dror Minz. Effect of Combined Solarization and in Solum Compost Decomposition on Soil Health. United States Department of Agriculture, October 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.32747/2013.7594388.bard.

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In soil solarization, moist soil is covered with a transparent plastic film, resulting in passive solar heating which inactivates soil-borne pathogen/weed propagules. Although solarization is an effective alternative to soil fumigation and chemical pesticide application, it is not widely used due to its long duration, which coincides with the growing season of some crops, thereby causing a loss of income. The basis of this project was that solarization of amended soil would be utilized more widely if growers could adopt the practice without losing production. In this research we examined three factors expected to contribute to greater utilization of solarization: 1) investigation of techniques that increase soil temperature, thereby reducing the time required for solarization; 2) development and validation of predictive soil heating models to enable informed decisions regarding soil and solarization management that accommodate the crop production cycle, and 3) elucidation of the contributions of microbial activity and microbial community structure to soil heating during solarization. Laboratory studies and a field trial were performed to determine heat generation in soil amended with compost during solarization. Respiration was measured in amended soil samples prior to and following solarization as a function of soil depth. Additionally, phytotoxicity was estimated through measurement of germination and early growth of lettuce seedlings in greenhouse assays, and samples were subjected to 16S ribosomal RNA gene sequencing to characterize microbial communities. Amendment of soil with 10% (g/g) compost containing 16.9 mg CO2/g dry weight organic carbon resulted in soil temperatures that were 2oC to 4oC higher than soil alone. Approximately 85% of total organic carbon within the amended soil was exhausted during 22 days of solarization. There was no significant difference in residual respiration with soil depth down to 17.4 cm. Although freshly amended soil proved highly inhibitory to lettuce seed germination and seedling growth, phytotoxicity was not detected in solarized amended soil after 22 days of field solarization. The sequencing data obtained from field samples revealed similar microbial species richness and evenness in both solarized amended and non-amended soil. However, amendment led to enrichment of a community different from that of non-amended soil after solarization. Moreover, community structure varied by soil depth in solarized soil. Coupled with temperature data from soil during solarization, community data highlighted how thermal gradients in soil influence community structure and indicated microorganisms that may contribute to increased soil heating during solarization. Reliable predictive tools are necessary to characterize the solarization process and to minimize the opportunity cost incurred by farmers due to growing season abbreviation, however, current models do not accurately predict temperatures for soils with internal heat generation associated with the microbial breakdown of the soil amendment. To address the need for a more robust model, a first-order source term was developed to model the internal heat source during amended soil solarization. This source term was then incorporated into an existing “soil only” model and validated against data collected from amended soil field trials. The expanded model outperformed both the existing stable-soil model and a constant source term model, predicting daily peak temperatures to within 0.1°C during the critical first week of solarization. Overall the results suggest that amendment of soil with compost prior to solarization may be of value in agricultural soil disinfestations operations, however additional work is needed to determine the effects of soil type and organic matter source on efficacy. Furthermore, models can be developed to predict soil temperature during solarization, however, additional work is needed to couple heat transfer models with pathogen and weed inactivation models to better estimate solarization duration necessary for disinfestation.
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Agassi, Menahem, Michael J. Singer, Eyal Ben-Dor, Naftaly Goldshleger, Donald Rundquist, Dan Blumberg, and Yoram Benyamini. Developing Remote Sensing Based-Techniques for the Evaluation of Soil Infiltration Rate and Surface Roughness. United States Department of Agriculture, November 2001. http://dx.doi.org/10.32747/2001.7586479.bard.

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The objective of this one-year project was to show whether a significant correlation can be established between the decreasing infiltration rate of the soil, during simulated rainstorm, and a following increase in the reflectance of the crusting soil. The project was supposed to be conducted under laboratory conditions, using at least three types of soils from each country. The general goal of this work was to develop a method for measuring the soil infiltration rate in-situ, solely from the reflectance readings, using a spectrometer. Loss of rain and irrigation water from cultivated fields is a matter of great concern, especially in arid, semi-arid regions, e.g. much of Israel and vast area in US, where water is a limiting factor for crop production. A major reason for runoff of rain and overhead irrigation water is the structural crust that is generated over a bare soils surface during rainfall or overhead irrigation events and reduces its infiltration rate (IR), considerably. IR data is essential for predicting the amount of percolating rainwater and runoff. Available information on in situ infiltration rate and crust strength is necessary for the farmers to consider: when it is necessary to cultivate for breaking the soil crust, crust strength and seedlings emergence, precision farming, etc. To date, soil IR is measured in the laboratory and in small-scale field plots, using rainfall simulators. This method is tedious and consumes considerable resources. Therefore, an available, non-destructive-in situ methods for soil IR and soil crusting levels evaluations, are essential for the verification of infiltration and runoff models and the evaluation of the amount of available water in the soil. In this research, soil samples from the US and Israel were subjected to simulated rainstorms of increasing levels of cumulative energies, during which IR (crusting levels) were measured. The soils from the US were studied simultaneously in the US and in Israel in order to compare the effect of the methodology on the results. The soil surface reflectance was remotely measured, using laboratory and portable spectrometers in the VIS-NIR and SWIR spectral region (0.4-2.5mm). A correlation coefficient spectra in which the wavelength, consisting of the higher correlation, was selected to hold the highest linear correlation between the spectroscopy and the infiltration rate. There does not appear to be a single wavelength that will be best for all soils. The results with the six soils in both countries indeed showed that there is a significant correlation between the infiltration rate of crusted soils and their reflectance values. Regarding the wavelength with the highest correlation for each soil, it is likely that either a combined analysis with more then one wavelength or several "best" wavelengths will be found that will provide useful data on soil surface condition and infiltration rate. The product of this work will serve as a model for predicting infiltration rate and crusting levels solely from the reflectance readings. Developing the aforementioned methodologies will allow increased utilization of rain and irrigation water, reduced runoff, floods and soil erosion hazards, reduced seedlings emergence problems and increased plants stand and yields.
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Gillor, Osnat, Stefan Wuertz, Karen Shapiro, Nirit Bernstein, Woutrina Miller, Patricia Conrad, and Moshe Herzberg. Science-Based Monitoring for Produce Safety: Comparing Indicators and Pathogens in Water, Soil, and Crops. United States Department of Agriculture, May 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.32747/2013.7613884.bard.

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Using treated wastewater (TWW) for crop irrigation represents an important opportunity for ensuring adequate food production in light of growing freshwater scarcity worldwide. However, the environmentally sustainable approach of using TWW for irrigation can lead to contamination of produce with fecal pathogens that may remain in treated water. The overall goal of this research was to evaluate the correlation between the presence of fecal indicator bacteria (FIB) and that of a suite of human pathogens in TWW, the irrigated soil, and crops. Field experiments were conducted to compare secondary and tertiary TWW with dechlorinated tap water for irrigation of tomatoes, a typical commercial crop, in Israel, a semi-arid country. Human pathogens including bacteria (Salmonella), protozoa (Cryptosporidiumand Giardia), and viruses (Adenovirus [AV Types A, B, C & 40/41] and Enterovirus [EV71 subtypes]) were monitored in two field trials using a combination of microscopic, cultivation-based, and molecular (qPCR) techniques. Results from the field trials indicate that microbial contamination on the surface of tomatoes did not appear to be associated with the source of irrigated waters; FIB contamination was not statistically different on tomatoes irrigated with TWW as compared to tomatoes irrigated with potable water. In fact, Indicator bacteria testing did not predict the presence of pathogens in any of the matrices tested. High concentrations of FIB were detected in water and on tomato surfaces from all irrigation treatment schemes, while pathogen contamination on tomato surfaces (Cryptosporidiumand Salmonella) was only detected on crops irrigated with TWW. These results suggest that regular monitoring for pathogens should take place to accurately detect presence of harmful microorganisms that could threaten consumer safety. A notable result from our study is that the large numbers of FIB in the water did not appear to lead to FIB accumulation in the soil. With the exception of two samples, E. coli that was present at 10³ to 10⁴ cells/100 mL in the water, was not detected in the soil. Other bacterial targets associated with the enteric environment (e. g., Proteusspp.) as well as protozoal pathogens were detected in the TWW, but not in the soil. These findings suggest that significant microbial transfer to the soil from TWW did not occur in this study. The pattern of FIB contamination on the surfaces of tomatoes was the same for all treatment types, and showed a temporal effect with more contamination detected as the duration of the field trial increased. An important observation revealed that water quality dramatically deteriorated between the time of its release from the wastewater treatment plant and the time it was utilized for irrigation, highlighting the importance of performing water quality testing throughout the growing season at the cultivation site.
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Tsur, Yacov, David Zilberman, Uri Shani, Amos Zemel, and David Sunding. Dynamic intraseasonal irrigation management under water scarcity, water quality, irrigation technology and environmental constraints. United States Department of Agriculture, March 2007. http://dx.doi.org/10.32747/2007.7696507.bard.

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In this project we studied optimal use and adoption of sophisticated irrigation technologies. The stated objectives in the original proposal were to develop a conceptual framework for analyzing intra-season timing of water application rates with implications for crop and irrigation technology selection. We proposed to base the analysis on an intra-seasonal, dynamic, agro-economic model of plants' water demand, paying special attention to contamination of groundwater and soil in intensively cultivated areas that increasingly rely on water of lesser quality. The framework developed in the project integrates (i) a bio-physical model of water flow in the vadose zone and water uptake by plants and yield response with (ii) a dynamic management model to determine the optimal intra-season irrigation policy. It consists of a dynamic optimization model to determine irrigation rates at each point of time during the growing season and aggregation relating harvested yield with accumulated water input. The detailed dynamic approach provides a description of yield production processes at the plant’s level, and serves to determine intra-season irrigation decisions. Data derived from extensive field experiments were used to calibrate the model's parameters. We use the framework to establish the substitution between irrigation technology (capital) and water inputs; this is an important property of irrigation water productivity that has been overlooked in the literature. Another important feature investigated is the possibility to substitute fresh and saline water with a minimal productivity loss. The effects of soil properties and crop characteristics on optimal technology adoption have also been studied. We find that sandy soil, with low water holding capacity, is more conducive to adoption of sophisticated drip irrigation, as compared to heavier soils in which drainage losses are significantly smaller.
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Lieth, J. Heiner, Michael Raviv, and David W. Burger. Effects of root zone temperature, oxygen concentration, and moisture content on actual vs. potential growth of greenhouse crops. United States Department of Agriculture, January 2006. http://dx.doi.org/10.32747/2006.7586547.bard.

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Soilless crop production in protected cultivation requires optimization of many environmental and plant variables. Variables of the root zone (rhizosphere) have always been difficult to characterize but have been studied extensively. In soilless production the opportunity exists to optimize these variables in relation to crop production. The project objectives were to model the relationship between biomass production and the rhizosphere variables: temperature, dissolved oxygen concentration and water availability by characterizing potential growth and how this translates to actual growth. As part of this we sought to improve of our understanding of root growth and rhizosphere processes by generating data on the effect of rhizosphere water status, temperature and dissolved oxygen on root growth, modeling potential and actual growth and by developing and calibrating models for various physical and chemical properties in soilless production systems. In particular we sought to use calorimetry to identify potential growth of the plants in relation to these rhizosphere variables. While we did experimental work on various crops, our main model system for the mathematical modeling work was greenhouse cut-flower rose production in soil-less cultivation. In support of this, our objective was the development of a Rose crop model. Specific to this project we sought to create submodels for the rhizosphere processes, integrate these into the rose crop simulation model which we had begun developing prior to the start of this project. We also sought to verify and validate any such models and where feasible create tools that growers could be used for production management. We made significant progress with regard to the use of microcalorimetry. At both locations (Israel and US) we demonstrated that specific growth rate for root and flower stem biomass production were sensitive to dissolved oxygen. Our work also identified that it is possible to identify optimal potential growth scenarios and that for greenhouse-grown rose the optimal root zone temperature for potential growth is around 17 C (substantially lower than is common in commercial greenhouses) while flower production growth potential was indifferent to a range as wide as 17-26C in the root zone. We had several set-backs that highlighted to us the fact that work needs to be done to identify when microcalorimetric research relates to instantaneous plant responses to the environment and when it relates to plant acclimation. One outcome of this research has been our determination that irrigation technology in soilless production systems needs to explicitly include optimization of oxygen in the root zone. Simply structuring the root zone to be “well aerated” is not the most optimal approach, but rather a minimum level. Our future work will focus on implementing direct control over dissolved oxygen in the root zone of soilless production systems.
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