Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Cross-cultural studies – Methodology'

University of Technology, Sydney. Faculty of Education.
This thesis examines the construction processes of language, culture and identities in relation to both the macro level of society and culture, as well as the micro-individual level. It argues that there is a need to understand these constructions beyond discrete notions of language, identities and culture. The thesis mobilises performativity theory to explore how exposure to a variety of practices during the life trajectory has an impact on the construction and performance of language, identities and culture. It shows how a theory of performativity can provide a comprehensive account of the complex process of, and the relationships between, hybridisation (engagement in a range of cultural practices) and monolithication (nostalgic attachments to familiar practices). The thesis also suggests that the deployment of performativity theory with a focus on individual biography as well as larger social-cultural factors may fill a gap left in some other modes of analysis such as Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) and Conversation Analysis (CA). Analysing data from four workplaces in Australia, the study focuses on trans-institutional talk, namely casual conversation in which people from a variety of linguistic and cultural backgrounds work together. Following the suggestion (Pennycook 2003; Luke 2002) that there is a need to shift away from the understanding that a particular language is attached to a particular nation, territory and ethnicity, the thesis shows how discrete ethnic and linguistic labels such as ‘Japanese’ and ‘English’ as well as notions of ‘code-switching’ and ‘bi-lingualism’ become problematic in the attempt to grasp the complexity of contemporary transcultural workplaces. The thesis also explores the potential agency of subjects at the convergence of various discourses through iterative linguistic and cultural performances. In summary, the thesis provides deeper insight into transcultural performances to show the links between idiosyncratic individual performances and the construction of transcultural linguistic, cultural phenomena within globalisation.

Literature reviews (Casas, 1984, 1985; Ponterotto, 1988) on the status of racial/ethnic minority research indicate that one of the problems in coming to definite conclusions about the effectiveness of counseling with the culturally different is the lack of research accounting for heterogeneity within ethnic groups. This study investigates ethnic identity as a possible variable tapping into intra-group variability with persons of Chinese origin currently living in Canada. Specifically, Atkinson, Morten & Sue (1979)'s model of ethnic identity development is examined in relation to its validity with this ethnic group. Atkinson et al.'s (1979) Minority Identity Development model postulates five stages minority persons experience in trying to discern and appreciate themselves based on their culture of origin, the mainstream culture and the relationship and meaning between the two. These stages are Conformity, Dissonance, Resistance and Immersion, Introspection and Synergetic Articulation and Awareness. Based on the model, 81 items were generated, translated and administered to 44 participants via Q-Sort Methodology. Also, relevant demographic information was collected. Factor analysis and qualitative analysis for Q-Methodology as suggested by Talbott (1971) generated four factors. The emerging factors reflected the Conformity, Dissonance, Resistance and Immersion, and Synergetic Articulation and Awareness Stages. Thus, based on the partial support for the five-stage model among persons of Chinese origin; a four-stage model was generated. The analysis of results suggests the following conclusions: (1) heterogeneity within ethnic groups must be accounted for it is accounted for within the mainstream culture; (2) ethno-cultural identity emerges as a viable construct (variable) tapping into intra-group differences; (3) Q-Methodology appears as a culturally non-intrusive method; and (4) ethno-cultural identity may mediate the counseling process.
Education, Faculty of
Educational and Counselling Psychology, and Special Education (ECPS), Department of
Graduate

The study focuses on the everyday problem solving processes of a group of community activists in a rural setting in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. It aims to uncover: first, the local knowledge of the participants of the study with reference to the concepts problem and problem solving; second, the participants' group problem solving procedure; and third, the dialectical interrelation between the participants' knowledge and practice with reference to everyday group problem solving. It is contended that the mainstream cognitive approach and the cross-cultural tradition are inappropriate for the study of everyday cognitive processes. A ‘situated cognition’ approach, based on the notions of activity and cultural mediation, is proposed as a theoretical framework for the study. The ontological and epistemological assumptions underpinning the empirical study were derived from a scientific realist and a hermeneutical paradigm. Data for the inquiry into the local knowledge of the participants was collected through individual interviews. The data was interpreted, using the grounded theory techniques of constant comparison, coding and compiling theoretical diagrams. Data for the inquiry into the participants' group problem solving practice consisted of video-taped group problem solving processes. This data was analysed, using a multi layered process of progressively deeper interpretation, employing a reading guide technique. Analysis of the research data revealed that the participants perceived a problem as an impediment to satisfactory participation in society. Problem solving was considered as an emotive, cognitive and inter-active process, involving particular role players. This process had a certain structure, involved attitudes and actions and relied on particular resources. Successful problem solving was perceived to result in restoration of social equilibrium. The group problem solving procedure used by the participants consisted of a process of developing a common understanding and group consensus. The strategies employed in the process, the roles played by the participants, the rules adhered to by the participants and the structure underlying the process were all congruent with these aims. There was a mutually reinforcing interrelation between knowledge and practice with reference to the participants’ problem solving.

This research was inspired by a pressing question which formed the main aim of the current study--What factors contribute to the differential academic performance of adult learners in the formal setting in Malaysia? It is hoped that by addressing this question, insights obtained may be useful for the Malaysian policy makers in attempting to implement the government's initiative--Malaysia Vision 2020. The current literature informs that in order to achieve the desired goals, Malaysian adult learners, must now more than ever be conscious of the effect of learning values and approaches to learning. Hence, there is a need to develop a more holistic understanding of the interrelated dynamics between learning values and approaches to learning. The current study adopts a transdisciplinary, etic/emic approach, using two culturally sensitive questionnaires, Revised Study Process Questionnaires-2 Factors Malaysia (RSPQ- 2FM) and Learning Values Survey (LVS) on 858 Malay and Chinese adult learners in Malaysia. The study found the significant others can have substantial influence on the 'face value' for both Malay and Chinese adult learners generally, but was more pronounced for the Malay adult learners. This in turn may encourage Malay adult learners to submit to pressure from others in influencing how they perceive the importance of learning and motivation in learning. Because Malay adult learners are constantly driven by external factors to compete with other cultural groups in education or economic achievement, they may tend to avoid challenging tasks such as deeper approaches to learning in order to rapidly achieve their immediate learning goals. Engaging with deep approaches and meaningful learning are effortful and the pressure to save face may result in the likelihood of adopting surface approaches. This coupled with the finding that they do not appreciate the middle way principles as much as the Chinese adult learners suggest that they may be less flexible and/or pragmatic learners. The findings suggest that practice of middle way principles (such as 'Willing to compromise one's own values to suit the situation/issues when I learn') can indeed enhance certain positive learning approaches which implies that Malay adult learners may be disadvantaged in the learning settings due to their lack of appreciation of the middle way principles. It is also interesting to find that Malay adult learners appreciate time factor more than their Chinese counterparts when engaging with Deep Approaches to learning. In contrast, the middle way principle practiced as a way of life by the Chinese culture has made Chinese adult learners more malleable, resulting in a relatively less face conscious cultural group. Being less externally driven and less restrictive, Chinese adult learners are more likely to adopt deep approaches to enhance meaningful learning. In addition, the Chinese culturally ingrained learning approach, Understand and Memorization was found to be more likely to produce positive learning outcome. Unlike their Malay counterparts, Chinese adult learners view work experiences more essential in helping them to engage with Deep Approaches to learning. The above findings are novel and add to previous studies on approaches to learning by introducing the effect of learning values. While previous research has referred to cultural variable in learning, they have not sufficiently explored the effect of culture. Learning values is one significant cultural variable that is considered in the study. The findings underpin the different emphasis placed by the two cultural groups as they engage with professional development activities. It is hoped that by identifying values pertinent to learning in this competitive globalized economy, the study has provided insights for Malaysian policy makers to develop holistic future education plans to assist in achieving Malaysian Vision 2020. Insights gained can also support plans where Malay can be encouraged to become competent global leaders and workers, capable of competing in this knowledge economy.

This study explored preschool teachers' perspectives on caring relationships and their perceptions of how such relationships affect children's autonomy and motivation in preschool in two cultural settings: one city in China and another in the U.S. Data was collected from preschool teachers in both locations using a qualitative interviewing research strategy. The study found that consensus exists among preschool teachers from the two cities about the importance of caring relationships, in which trust, acceptance, equality, and mutual respect were viewed as these relationships' primary characteristics. There were also shared values regarding teachers' roles and their effective strategies for establishing social skills and caring and sharing among children. Nevertheless, some underlying assumptions about caring, especially teachers' understandings of autonomy and motivation, differed somewhat in relation to the social, cultural, philosophical, or practical influences in the two cultural contexts. The results of the study provide opportunities for early childhood teachers and teacher educators in both contexts to reflect on their own assumptions about these values, as well as insights for preparing caring teachers in both cultural settings.

This study notes similarities and differences between the United States (U.S.) and the United Kingdom (U.K.). Study findings suggest that while at first glance the United Kingdom and the United States may seem similar in many ways, the differences between these countries are great, making each one unique.

A fragilidade pode se manifestar em indivíduos de todas as faixas etárias, incluindo os idosos, porém, não deve ser entendida como sinônimo de velhice. Atualmente a fragilidade vem sendo fortemente considerada como uma síndrome multidimensional que envolve vários fatores: biológicos, físicos, cognitivos, sociais, econômicos e ambientais. É um tipo de síndrome que pode ser evitada, quando identificada precocemente, ou intervindo com base em seus indicadores, pelo menos postergada. Os objetivos desta pesquisa metodológica foram realizar adaptação cultural da Edmonton Frail Scale (EFS) para o português do Brasil, bem como analisar suas propriedades psicométricas em uma amostra de idosos de uma comunidade do interior paulista. Esta escala possui 11 itens e sua pontuação máxima é 17 representando o nível mais elevado de fragilidade. Para a adaptação cultural, utilizou-se o referencial da literatura: tradução da EFS para língua portuguesa; obtenção da primeira versão consensual em português; avaliação do item por um comitê de juízes; retrotradução; obtenção de uma versão consensual em inglês e comparação com a versão original; avaliação semântica da EFS; pré-teste da versão em português. A versão adaptada foi aplicada, no período de agosto de 2007 a junho de 2008, em 137 idosos de 65 anos ou mais que viviam na comunidade. A maioria dos participantes 102 (74,5%) era do sexo feminino, viúvos (58; 42,3%) com idade média de 75,33 anos (idade mínima de 65 e máxima de 100 anos), com tempo médio de estudo formal de um a quatro anos (75; 54,8%). Quanto às propriedades psicométricas avaliadas, na validação de grupos conhecidos foram realizadas análises de comparações, empregando-se o teste não-paramétrico de Mann-Whitney, do diagnóstico de fragilidade entre sexo, idade e déficit cognitivo. Obteve-se que idosos mais velhos, mulheres e com déficit cognitivo são mais propensos ao diagnóstico de fragilidade. Todas as comparações foram estatisticamente significativas. Na validade de construto convergente da EFS, com Medida de Independência Funcional (MIF) e Mini-Exame do Estado Mental (MEEM), houve correlação baixa e negativa, as mesmas foram adequadas com todas as correlações estatisticamente significativas (p< 0,001). A confiabilidade da escala para língua portuguesa foi avaliada através de três entrevistas. Duas avaliações foram realizadas independentemente por dois observadores O1 (T1) e O2 (A1), no mesmo dia (interobservador). Após um período máximo de 15 dias da primeira avaliação, uma segunda entrevista foi feita pelo observador O1 (T2). Na análise dos dados do diagnóstico de fragilidade interobservador, o Kappa foi de 0,81 (IC 0,61-1,00) e para o intra-observador, o Kappa foi de 0,83 (IC 0,72-0,94). O coeficiente de correlação intraclasse (CCI) do escore bruto de fragilidade foi de 0,87 no interobservador (IC 0,82-0,91, p< 0,001) e de 0,87 no intra-observador (IC 0,81-1,00, p< 0,001). Nas três aplicações da escala, a consistência interna (Alfa de Cronbach) dos 11 itens da EFS foi de T1 = 0,62, A1 = 0,62 e T2 = 0,54. Assim, pôde-se concluir que a versão adaptada da EFS para o português mostrou-se válida e confiável na amostra estudada. Sugerem-se mais estudos para verificar a sensibilidade da escala em idosos
Frailty can manifest itself in individuals of all ages, including the elderly. However, it should not be considered a synonym of old age. Nowadays, frailty is strongly considered as a multidimensional syndrome that involves various factors: biological, physical, cognitive, social, economic and environmental. This type of syndrome can be avoided, when identified early, or at least delayed when intervening based on its indicators. This methodological research aimed at the cross-cultural adaptation of the Edmonton Frail Scale (EFS) to Brazilian Portuguese, as well as the analysis of its psychometric properties in a sample of elderly persons from a community in the interior of São Paulo State, Brazil. This scale comprises 11 items and its maximum score is 17, representing the highest level of frailty. For the crosscultural adaptation, the reference framework from literature was used: translation of the EFS to Portuguese; achievement of the first consensus version in Portuguese; item assessment by an expert committee; back-translation; achievement of a consensus version in English and comparison with the original version; semantic assessment of the EFS; pretest of the Portuguese version. The adapted version was applied to 137 elderly aged 65 years or older who lived in the community, between August 2007 and June 2008. Most of the participants, i.e. 102 (74.5%) were women, widowed (58; 42.3%), with an average age of 75.33 years (minimum age 65 and maximum 100 years) and a mean time of formal education ranging from one to four years (75; 54.8%). As to the assessed psychometric properties, in the knowngroups validation of the diagnosis of frailty between gender, age and cognitive deficit, comparative analyses were made, using Mann-Whitneys non-parametrical test. It was found that elder elderly, women and with a cognitive deficit are more prone to the frailty diagnosis. All comparisons were statistically significant. The construct validity of the EFS with the Functional Independence Measure (FIM) and the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE), low and negative correlation levels were found, with were adequate and statistically significant (p< 0.001). The reliability of the scale for Portuguese was assessed through three interviews. Two assessments were made independently by two observers O1 (T1) and O2 (A1), on the same day (interobserver). Within a maximum period of 15 days after the first assessment, observer O1 (T2) made a second assessment. In the analysis of the interobserver frailty diagnosis data, the Kappa index was 0.81 (CI 0.61-1.00), against 0.83 (CI 0.72-0.94) for intraobserver diagnosis. The intraclass correlation coefficient (CCI) of the gross frailty score was 0.87 for the interobserver (CI 0.82-0.91, p< 0.001) and 0.87 for the intraobserver diagnosis (CI 0.81-1.00, p< 0.001). In the three scale applications, internal consistency (Cronbachs Alpha) of the 11 EFS items was T1 = 0.62, A1 = 0.62 and T2 = 0.54. Hence, it can be concluded that the EFS version adapted to Portuguese was valid and reliable in the study sample. Further research is suggested to check the scale sensitivity in elderly persons with acute diseases, which can interfere in frailty

Performance measures have been used throughout the business sector as a means to assess productivity, allocate resources, and increase profitability. More recently, they have been utilized to answer increasing calls for accountability in public education. Legislation has been passed in both the United Kingdom and the United States that implements performance measures as a means to measure student achievement and assess school performance. This study, conducted both in the United States and the United Kingdom, examined the perceptions of 15 primary and 15 elementary school leaders with regard to the transnational issue of school performance measures. Q methodology was used to examine the opinions and perceptions of these leaders for the purpose of providing insight for stakeholders and identifying future areas of research. The data from the participants revealed patterns of opinion within the head teacher group, the principal group, and the participants as a whole. Common opinions included the balanced use of performance measures, the political nature of school performance measures, the appropriate use of standardized test scores, and the consideration of economic and social factors. This study also demonstrated the use of Q methodology in qualitative educational research by both obtaining and analyzing rich and insightful participant data.

Products are designed to satisfy user needs. Thus, industrial designers are expected to have a thorough understanding of user needs and to incorporate those understandings into the design of products; however, it is not a straightforward task for designers to translate their conditional understanding into a product. The gap between product and user can be even wider when latent user needs, such as cultural ones, are calculated into the problem. Therefore the meanings and functions imbued in products by the designer may not be recognized and acknowledged by users, due to the differences in cultural preferences of designers and users from separate cultures. In spite of the fact that user satisfaction has been extensively supported in the design literature, it seems that such an approach allows only a passive role for designers, who actually act as cultural intermediaries; that is, the designers' role is merely presumed to catalyze the process and match user requirements to the end product. Thus, the impact of designers' cultural preferences is considered as incidental, or at least overlooked. A content analysis method was triangulated to collect and analyze diverse visual and textual data relating to the concept generation stage of the product development process. To collect data, professional industrial designers in the two culturally diverse countries of Australia and Iran were recruited to participate in half-hour design exercise sessions to sketch to a design brief, followed by responding to an interview questionnaire. The analysis of data revealed that: (1) designers' cultural preferences do influence their approaches toward tackling the design problem; (2) there are nexuses between the design aspects of the concepts generated and the cultural dimensions of the values of the societies in which the designers were born and has lived, and; (3)potential users can unconsciously comprehend the meaning invested in the product by the designer. This thesis breaks new ground for further advancing the study of the Designer-Precedent Approach (DPA) in other cultural and social contexts, while it challenges the conventional approaches of user-centered design (UCD) broadlyperceived as the ultimate method of incorporating users' wants into products.

M.A. (Political Science)
Recent studies in a diversity of social science disciplines indicate the growing importance of cross-cultural attitude surveys; and the central theme of this dissertation is the methodological implications thereof. This study aims (1) to make a contribution to the relatively small number of studies ,in South-Africa on the subject of Political Science research methodology, and' (2) to analyze systematically the methodological problems of cross-cultural research into political attitudes. The research problem was formulated as follows: How should cross-cultural survey research of a political nature be planned, structured and conducted to ensure reliability, validity and objectivity? The focus throughout the dissertation, was on two dimensions of the research process namely (1) research design and (2) data-collection, the latter being further divided in two main categories: instrument construction and instrument implementation. A theoretical framework (Chapter 2) was developed incorporating the different methodological factors to be taken into: account when designing and implementing a research project. This framework was applied to (1) survey research in general (Chapter 3), and (2) cross-cultural political attitude surveys (Chapter 4), Special attention was given to research conducted in South Africa. The last chapter contains (1) a summary of the most important considerations relevant to cross-cultural attitude research, and (2) an overview of the main problems of cross-cultural political attitude research in South Africa. The main finding of the study is that in cross-cultural attitude research in South Africa, too little attention is given to methodological issues - both in designing and implementing research projects. In particular, the explication of methodological issues and procedures in research articles and reports is recommended.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI)
Nurse-physician collaboration has received much attention over the past decade in the USA. The release of three reports from the Institute of Medicine implicated poor communication and collaboration among nurses and physicians as a major contributing factor to the incidence of sentinel events and medical errors. Despite the growing awareness of the imperative related to collaboration between nurses and physicians to ensure patient safety, the problem of poor nurse-physician collaboration remains endemic throughout the country. Indian nurses, along with many other internationally educated nurses, comprise 12-15.2% of the nursing workforce in the USA. Little is known about how Indian nurses culture potentially influences their ability to effectively collaborate with physicians to ensure patient safety. The purpose of this study is to understand Indian nurses’ attitudes and perceptions about nurse-physician collaboration. Hermeneutic interpretive phenomenology as influenced by the work of Martin Heidegger guided this study through the use of interviews via Skype. The overall experience of the Indian nurses was of one experiencing a dramatic positive change in nurse-physician collaboration in the USA as compared to India. Four themes emerged describing this phenomenon: Respect/feeling heard, Being Trusted, Assurance of Accountability, and Finding Freedom. Indian nurses practicing in the USA find a freedom that empowers them to collaborate with physicians for patient safety. They, as all nurses may, benefit from continuing educational opportunities that demonstrate ways to collaborate more fully.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI)
Chinese students are the biggest ethnic group of international students in the United States. Previous studies have identified many unique problems of Chinese students during their acculturation process and a higher level of acculturative stress than international students from other countries. A systematic review of instruments that assess acculturative stress revealed that none of the existing scales apply to Chinese students in the United States, either because of language issues or validity problems. Thus, this study aims to develop a reliable and valid scale to accurately measure the acculturative stress of Chinese students in the United States. A 72-item pool was generated by interviewing eight Chinese students and borrowing items from existing literature and scales. The item pool was sent online to 607 Chinese students and 267 of them completed the survey. Exploratory Factor Analysis was conducted to empirically derive the factor structure of the Acculturative Stress Scale for Chinese Students (ASSCS). The results produced a 32-item scale in five dimensions, which were Language Insufficiency, Social Isolation, Perceived Discrimination, Academic Pressure, and Guilt toward Family. The ASSCS demonstrated high reliability (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.939) and initial validity by predicting depression (Beta = 0.490, p<.001) and life satisfaction (Beta = -0.505, p<.001). It was the first Chinese scale of acculturative stress developed and validated among a Chinese student sample in the United States. Further studies need to be conducted to provide empirical support and confirm the validity for the scale. In the future, the scale can be used as diagnosing tool and self-assessment tool.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI)
This study explored the lived experiences of family case managers who routinely work with families who are culturally different from themselves. The purpose was to understand and interpret the meaning of culture and cultural difference as it relates to the engagement process with families. The research also sought to understand whether cultural insensitivity or bias may contribute to the overrepresentation of children of color in the child welfare system. The author conducted 10 in-depth, semi-structured interviews with graduates of a large, research-intensive Midwestern university’s Title-IV-E Social Work Program, who also were employed as family case managers in public child welfare. Interviews were transcribed and analyzed using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis and the analytic process of the hermeneutic circle. Results suggest the concept of culture is a complex term that encompasses many characteristics and a number of dimensions. In addition, four themes were identified as underlying the engagement process with culturally different families. These themes routinely overlapped, and family case managers often had to attend to each of the thematic areas simultaneously. At nearly every step in the engagement process, family case managers modulated their interactions in order to find balance and stability in their relationship with the family. Finally, poverty was revealed to be the most salient cultural difference in working with families involved in the child welfare system. These results have important implications for social work education, child welfare practice, and research on the overrepresentation of children of color in the child welfare system.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI)
Grounded in leadership, cultural, communication, and gender studies, this dissertation investigates the challenges African-American women executives in the philanthropic foundation sector faced as they strive to have their culture legitimated within the culture of the workplace. Through the use of case study methodology, I examined the experiences of participants by conducting oral history interviews that traced their critical path to leadership. I also incorporated my own experiences in the field to further explore the connections between race, gender, and leadership styles in philanthropic organizations. The interviews and my own auto-ethnographic research explored the possible consequences of black executive women in the foundation world not being able to share aspects of their cultural lives in workplace networks and the impact of the critical exclusion of who they really are as whole human beings on the quality of their careers. An analysis of data collected from the interviews revealed key factors critical to the success of study participants. First was the presence of familial or close adults actively engaged in philanthropic activity during the participants’ formative years. Second was a strong influence of a faith tradition. Additionally, the date revealed that participants’ involvement in outside leadership roles, often tied to their racial and gender identities, were not capitalized on by employers. This study achieved several key outcomes. First, it afforded participants an opportunity to develop the personal satisfaction of expanding the body of knowledge related to leadership development within the philanthropic foundation sector. Additionally, by sharing their stories, these individuals were able to develop or strengthen mentorship relationships. Lastly, this study has the potential of being of significant benefit to the greater philanthropic foundation sector, since it worked towards the expansion of the body of knowledge specific to the issues of gender and cultural differences within the foundation sector.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI)
The landscape of James A. Garfield’s Mentor, Ohio home (now preserved at James A. Garfield National Historic Site) contains multiple layers of historical meanings and values. The landscape as portrayed in political biographies, political cartoons, and other ephemera during Garfield’s 1880 presidential campaign reveals the existence of the dual cultural values of agrarian tradition and agricultural progress in the late nineteenth century. Although Garfield did not depend on farming exclusively for his livelihood, he, like many agriculturalists of this era participated in a process of mediation between these dual values. The function of the landscape of Garfield’s farm between 1876 and 1880 is a reflection of this process of mediation. After President Garfield’s assassination in 1881, his wife and children returned to their Mentor home. Between 1885 and c. 1905, Garfield’s widow Lucretia made numerous changes to the agricultural landscape, facilitating the evolution of the home from farm to country estate. Despite the rich history of this landscape, its cultural complexity and evolution over time makes it difficult to interpret for public audiences. Additionally, the landscape is currently interpreted exclusively through indoor museum exhibits and outdoor wayside panels, two formats with severe limitations. I propose the integration of deep mapping into interpretation at James A. Garfield National historic site in order to more effectively represent the multi-layered qualities of its historic landscape.