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1

Yu, Edward T. "Cross-Sectional Scanning Tunneling Microscopy." Chemical Reviews 97, no. 4 (June 1997): 1017–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/cr960084n.

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2

Yu, Edward T. "Cross-Sectional Scanning Tunneling Microscopy of Semiconductor Heterostructures." MRS Bulletin 22, no. 8 (August 1997): 22–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1557/s0883769400033765.

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As characteristic dimensions in semiconductor devices continue to shrink and as advanced heterostructure devices increase in prominence, the ability to characterize structure and electronic properties in semiconductor materials and device structures at the atomic to nanometer scales has come to be of outstanding and immediate importance. Phenomena such as atomic-scale roughness of heterojunction interfaces, compositional ordering in semiconductor alloys, discreteness and spatial distribution of dopant atoms, and formation of self-assembled nanoscale structures can exert a profound influence on material properties and device behavior. The relationships between atomic-scale structure, epitaxial growth or processing conditions, and ultimately material properties and device behavior must be understood for realization and effective optimization of a wide range of semiconductor heterostructure and nanoscale devices.Cross-sectional scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) has emerged as a unique and powerful tool in the study of atomic-scale properties in III-V compound semiconductor heterostructures and of nanometer-scale structure and electronic properties in Si micro-electronic devices, offering unique capabilities for characterization that in conjunction with a variety of other, complementary experimental methods are providing new and important insights into material and device properties at the atomic to nanometer scale. In this article, we describe the basic experimental techniques involved in cross-sectional STM and give a few representative applications from our work that illustrate the ability, using cross-sectional STM in conjunction with other experimental techniques, to probe atomic-scale features in the structure of semiconductor heterojunctions and to correlate these features with epitaxial-growth conditions and device behavior.
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3

Johnson, M. B., and H. W. M. Salemink. "Cross-sectional scanning tunneling microscopy on semiconductor heterostructures." Materials Science and Engineering: B 24, no. 1-3 (May 1994): 213–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0921-5107(94)90330-1.

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4

Zuo, S. L., E. T. Yu, A. A. Allerman, and R. M. Biefeld. "Cross-sectional scanning tunneling microscopy of InAsSb/InAsP superlattices." Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology B: Microelectronics and Nanometer Structures 17, no. 4 (1999): 1781. http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.590826.

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5

Cobley, R. J., K. S. Teng, M. R. Brown, and S. P. Wilks. "Cross-sectional scanning tunneling microscopy of biased semiconductor lasers." Journal of Applied Physics 102, no. 2 (July 15, 2007): 024306. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.2757006.

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6

Vaterlaus, A. "Cross-sectional scanning tunneling microscopy of epitaxial GaAs structures." Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology B: Microelectronics and Nanometer Structures 11, no. 4 (July 1993): 1502. http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.586959.

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7

Garleff, J. K., A. P. Wijnheijmer, and P. M. Koenraad. "Challenges in cross-sectional scanning tunneling microscopy on semiconductors." Semiconductor Science and Technology 26, no. 6 (March 29, 2011): 064001. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/0268-1242/26/6/064001.

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8

COBLEY, R. J., K. S. TENG, M. R. BROWN, T. G. G. MAFFEÏS, and S. P. WILKS. "CROSS-SECTIONAL SCANNING TUNNELING MICROSCOPY OF BURIED HETEROSTRUCTURE LASERS." International Journal of Nanoscience 03, no. 04n05 (August 2004): 525–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0219581x04002334.

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A single-mode buried heterostructure laser has been imaged using Cross-Sectional Scanning Tunneling Microscopy (X-STM). The problem of positioning the tip on the restricted active region on the (110) face has been overcome using combined Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM). In order to understand the change in the STM scans when biased, particularly the physical change in surface step defects caused by commercial sample preparation, the experimental setup has been modified to allow the sample to be biased. A simpler double quantum well test structure has been biased and it has been demonstrated that it is possible to continue performing STM whilst the device is powered. The change in the relative contrast across the image has been shown to be unaffected by this external bias for the range scanned, as predicted by a fully-coupled Poison drift–diffusion model calculated using Fermi–Dirac statistics.
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9

Yu, EdwardT. "Cross-sectional scanning tunneling microscopy of mixed-anion semiconductor heterostructures." Micron 30, no. 1 (February 1999): 51–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0968-4328(98)00042-0.

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10

Eisele, H., O. Flebbe, T. Kalka, C. Preinesberger, F. Heinrichsdorff, A. Krost, D. Bimberg, and M. Dähne-Prietsch. "Cross-sectional scanning-tunneling microscopy of stacked InAs quantum dots." Applied Physics Letters 75, no. 1 (July 5, 1999): 106–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.124290.

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11

Golden, T. D., R. P. Raffaelle, and J. A. Switzer. "Cross‐sectional scanning tunneling microscopy of electrodeposited metal oxide superlattices." Applied Physics Letters 63, no. 11 (September 13, 1993): 1501–3. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.109669.

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12

Chien, Te Yu, Jak Chakhalian, John W. Freeland, and Nathan P. Guisinger. "Cross-Sectional Scanning Tunneling Microscopy Applied to Complex Oxide Interfaces." Advanced Functional Materials 23, no. 20 (March 26, 2013): 2565–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/adfm.201203430.

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13

GWO, Shangjr, and Hiroshi TOKUMOTO. "Cross-sectional Scanning Tunneling Microscopy and Spectroscopy of Compound Semiconductor Heterostructures." SHINKU 38, no. 12 (1995): 1009–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.3131/jvsj.38.1009.

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14

Keizer, J. G., M. Bozkurt, J. Bocquel, P. M. Koenraad, T. Mano, T. Noda, K. Sakoda, et al. "Shape Control of QDs Studied by Cross-sectional Scanning Tunneling Microscopy." Journal of the Korean Physical Society 58, no. 5(1) (May 13, 2011): 1244–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.3938/jkps.58.1244.

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15

Blokland, J. H., M. Bozkurt, J. M. Ulloa, D. Reuter, A. D. Wieck, P. M. Koenraad, P. C. M. Christianen, and J. C. Maan. "Ellipsoidal InAs quantum dots observed by cross-sectional scanning tunneling microscopy." Applied Physics Letters 94, no. 2 (January 12, 2009): 023107. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.3072366.

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16

Zuo, S. L., Y. G. Hong, E. T. Yu, and J. F. Klem. "Cross-sectional scanning tunneling microscopy of GaAsSb/GaAs quantum well structures." Journal of Applied Physics 92, no. 7 (October 2002): 3761–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1501740.

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17

Dong, Y., R. M. Feenstra, M. P. Semtsiv, and W. T. Masselink. "Cross-sectional scanning tunneling microscopy and spectroscopy of InGaP/GaAs heterojunctions." Applied Physics Letters 84, no. 2 (January 12, 2004): 227–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1638637.

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18

Wierts, A., J. M. Ulloa, C. Çelebi, P. M. Koenraad, H. Boukari, L. Maingault, R. André, and H. Mariette. "Cross-sectional scanning tunneling microscopy study on II–VI multilayer structures." Applied Physics Letters 91, no. 16 (October 15, 2007): 161907. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.2799254.

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19

Eisele, H., L. Ivanova, S. Borisova, M. Dähne, M. Winkelnkemper, and Ph Ebert. "Doping modulation in GaN imaged by cross-sectional scanning tunneling microscopy." Applied Physics Letters 94, no. 16 (April 20, 2009): 162110. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.3123258.

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20

Kim, Y. ‐C, M. J. Nowakowski, and D. N. Seidman. "Novelin situcleavage technique for cross‐sectional scanning tunneling microscopy sample preparation." Review of Scientific Instruments 67, no. 5 (May 1996): 1922–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1146997.

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21

Pai, Woei Wu, T. Y. Wu, C. H. Lin, B. X. Wang, Y. S. Huang, and H. L. Chou. "A cross-sectional scanning tunneling microscopy study of IrO2 rutile single crystals." Surface Science 601, no. 12 (June 2007): L69—L72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.susc.2007.04.227.

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22

Mikkelsen, A., and E. Lundgren. "Cross-sectional scanning tunneling microscopy studies of novel III–V semiconductor structures." Progress in Surface Science 80, no. 1-2 (January 2005): 1–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.progsurf.2005.10.001.

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23

Offermans, P., P. M. Koenraad, R. Nötzel, J. H. Wolter, and K. Pierz. "Formation of InAs wetting layers studied by cross-sectional scanning tunneling microscopy." Applied Physics Letters 87, no. 11 (September 12, 2005): 111903. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.2042543.

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24

Tsuruoka, T., N. Tachikawa, S. Ushioda, F. Matsukura, K. Takamura, and H. Ohno. "Local electronic structures of GaMnAs observed by cross-sectional scanning tunneling microscopy." Applied Physics Letters 81, no. 15 (October 7, 2002): 2800–2802. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1512953.

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25

Gwo, S., A. R. Smith, K. ‐J Chao, C. K. Shih, K. Sadra, and B. G. Streetman. "Cross‐sectional scanning tunneling microscopy and spectroscopy of passivated III–V heterostructures." Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology A: Vacuum, Surfaces, and Films 12, no. 4 (July 1994): 2005–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.578997.

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26

Keizer, J. G., M. Bozkurt, J. Bocquel, T. Mano, T. Noda, K. Sakoda, E. C. Clark, et al. "Shape control of quantum dots studied by cross-sectional scanning tunneling microscopy." Journal of Applied Physics 109, no. 10 (May 15, 2011): 102413. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.3577960.

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27

Liu, N., C. K. Shih, J. Geisz, A. Mascarenhas, and J. M. Olson. "Alloy ordering in GaInP alloys: A cross-sectional scanning tunneling microscopy study." Applied Physics Letters 73, no. 14 (October 5, 1998): 1979–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.122341.

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28

Chen, Huajie, H. A. McKay, R. M. Feenstra, G. C. Aers, P. J. Poole, R. L. Williams, S. Charbonneau, P. G. Piva, T. W. Simpson, and I. V. Mitchell. "InGaAs/InP quantum well intermixing studied by cross-sectional scanning tunneling microscopy." Journal of Applied Physics 89, no. 9 (May 2001): 4815–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1361237.

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29

Johnson, M. B., O. Albrektsen, R. M. Feenstra, and H. W. M. Salemink. "Direct imaging of dopants in GaAs with cross‐sectional scanning tunneling microscopy." Applied Physics Letters 63, no. 21 (November 22, 1993): 2923–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.110274.

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30

Gwo, S., K. ‐J Chao, and C. K. Shih. "Cross‐sectional scanning tunneling microscopy of doped and undoped AlGaAs/GaAs heterostructures." Applied Physics Letters 64, no. 4 (January 24, 1994): 493–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.111140.

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31

Cobley, R. J., K. S. Teng, M. R. Brown, P. Rees, and S. P. Wilks. "Surface defects in semiconductor lasers studied with cross-sectional scanning tunneling microscopy." Applied Surface Science 256, no. 19 (July 2010): 5736–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2010.03.089.

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32

Heinrich, A. J., M. Wenderoth, M. A. Rosentreter, K. Engel, M. A. Schneider, R. G. Ulbrich, E. R. Weber, and K. Uchida. "Ordering in ternary compound semiconductors studied with cross-sectional scanning tunneling microscopy." Applied Physics A: Materials Science & Processing 66, no. 7 (March 1, 1998): S959—S962. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s003390051274.

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33

Cobley, R. J., K. S. Teng, T. G. G. Maffeïs, and S. P. Wilks. "Cross-sectional scanning tunneling microscopy and spectroscopy of strain in buried heterostructure lasers." Surface Science 600, no. 14 (July 2006): 2857–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.susc.2006.05.024.

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34

Wang, Aaron, and TeYu Chien. "Perspectives of cross-sectional scanning tunneling microscopy and spectroscopy for complex oxide physics." Physics Letters A 382, no. 11 (March 2018): 739–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.physleta.2018.01.016.

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35

Feenstra, R. M., E. T. Yu, J. M. Woodall, P. D. Kirchner, C. L. Lin, and G. D. Pettit. "Cross‐sectional imaging and spectroscopy of GaAs doping superlattices by scanning tunneling microscopy." Applied Physics Letters 61, no. 7 (August 17, 1992): 795–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.107804.

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36

Eisele, H., O. Flebbe, T. Kalka, F. Heinrichsdorff, A. Krost, D. Bimberg, and M. D�hne-Prietsch. "The Stoichiometry of InAs Quantum Dots Determined by Cross-Sectional Scanning Tunneling Microscopy." physica status solidi (b) 215, no. 1 (September 1999): 865–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/(sici)1521-3951(199909)215:1<865::aid-pssb865>3.0.co;2-t.

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37

Eisele, H., S. Borisova, L. Ivanova, M. Dähne, and Ph Ebert. "Cross-sectional scanning tunneling microscopy and spectroscopy of nonpolar GaN(11¯00) surfaces." Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology B, Nanotechnology and Microelectronics: Materials, Processing, Measurement, and Phenomena 28, no. 4 (July 2010): C5G11—C5G18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.3456166.

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38

Lenz, A., H. Eisele, R. Timm, S. K. Becker, R. L. Sellin, U. W. Pohl, D. Bimberg, and M. Dähne. "Nanovoids in InGaAs∕GaAs quantum dots observed by cross-sectional scanning tunneling microscopy." Applied Physics Letters 85, no. 17 (October 25, 2004): 3848–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1808884.

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39

Johnson, M. B., U. Maier, H. ‐P Meier, and H. W. M. Salemink. "Atomic‐scale view of AlGaAs/GaAs heterostructures with cross‐sectional scanning tunneling microscopy." Applied Physics Letters 63, no. 9 (August 30, 1993): 1273–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.109755.

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40

Teng, K. S., M. R. Brown, S. P. Wilks, A. Sobiesierski, P. M. Smowton, and P. Blood. "Impurity-induced disordering in AlGaInP superlattices studied using cross-sectional scanning tunneling microscopy." Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology B: Microelectronics and Nanometer Structures 22, no. 4 (2004): 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1768187.

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41

Salemink, H. W. M. "Cross-sectional scanning tunneling microscopy on heterostructures: Atomic resolution, composition fluctuations and doping." Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology B: Microelectronics and Nanometer Structures 12, no. 1 (January 1994): 362. http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.587126.

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42

Zheng, J. F. "Cross-sectional scanning tunneling microscopy of semiconductor vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser structure." Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology B: Microelectronics and Nanometer Structures 12, no. 3 (May 1994): 2100. http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.587715.

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43

Johnson, M. B., U. Maier, H. P. Meier, and H. Salemink. "Atomic-scale view of AlGaAs/GaAs multilayers with cross-sectional scanning tunneling microscopy." Journal of Crystal Growth 127, no. 1-4 (February 1993): 1077–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0022-0248(93)90795-x.

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44

Ohno, Yutaka. "Microstructure of a CuPt-Ordered GaInP Alloy Revealed by Cross-Sectional Scanning Tunneling Microscopy." Japanese Journal of Applied Physics 45, no. 3B (March 27, 2006): 2357–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1143/jjap.45.2357.

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45

Gong, Q., P. Offermans, R. Nötzel, P. M. Koenraad, and J. H. Wolter. "Capping process of InAs∕GaAs quantum dots studied by cross-sectional scanning tunneling microscopy." Applied Physics Letters 85, no. 23 (December 6, 2004): 5697–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1831564.

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46

Smakman, E. P., J. K. Garleff, R. J. Young, M. Hayne, P. Rambabu, and P. M. Koenraad. "GaSb/GaAs quantum dot formation and demolition studied with cross-sectional scanning tunneling microscopy." Applied Physics Letters 100, no. 14 (April 2, 2012): 142116. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.3701614.

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47

Steinshnider, J., M. Weimer, R. Kaspi, and G. W. Turner. "Visualizing Interfacial Structure at Non-Common-Atom Heterojunctions with Cross-Sectional Scanning Tunneling Microscopy." Physical Review Letters 85, no. 14 (October 2, 2000): 2953–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1103/physrevlett.85.2953.

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48

Mauger, S. J. C., J. Bocquel, P. M. Koenraad, C. E. Feeser, N. D. Parashar, and B. W. Wessels. "Mn doped InSb studied at the atomic scale by cross-sectional scanning tunneling microscopy." Applied Physics Letters 107, no. 22 (November 30, 2015): 222102. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.4936754.

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49

Ouattara, L., A. Mikkelsen, E. Lundgren, L. Höglund, C. Asplund, and J. Y. Andersson. "A cross-sectional scanning tunneling microscopy study of a quantum dot infrared photodetector structure." Journal of Applied Physics 100, no. 4 (August 15, 2006): 044320. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.2245195.

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50

Kawasaki, Jason K., Rainer Timm, Trevor E. Buehl, Edvin Lundgren, Anders Mikkelsen, Arthur C. Gossard, and Chris J. Palmstrøm. "Cross-sectional scanning tunneling microscopy and spectroscopy of semimetallic ErAs nanostructures embedded in GaAs." Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology B, Nanotechnology and Microelectronics: Materials, Processing, Measurement, and Phenomena 29, no. 3 (May 2011): 03C104. http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.3547713.

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