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Journal articles on the topic 'Crosslinked polyethylene'

Author: Grafiati

Published: 4 June 2021

Last updated: 8 February 2022

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1

Monticelli, Damiano, Virginia Martina, Roberto Mocchi, et al. "Chemical Characterization of Hydrogels Crosslinked with Polyethylene Glycol for Soft Tissue Augmentation." Open Access Macedonian Journal of Medical Sciences 7, no. 7 (2019): 1077–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.3889/oamjms.2019.279.

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BACKGROUND: Hyaluronic acid (HA) based hydrogels for esthetic applications found widespread use. HA should be crosslinked for this application to achieve the correct viscoelastic properties and avoid fast degradation by the hyaluronidase enzyme naturally present in the skin: these properties are controlled by the amount of crosslinker and the fraction that is effectively crosslinked (i.e. that binds two HA chains). AIM: Crosslinking by polyethylene glycol diglycidyl ether (PEGDE) has been more recently introduced and showed attractive features in terms of viscoelastic properties and reduced biodegradation. Aim of this paper is to define a method for the determination of the crosslinking properties of these recently introduced fillers, method that is lacking at the moment. MATERIAL AND METHOD: The percentage of crosslinker and the fraction that is effectively crosslinked were determined by proton Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (1H NMR) and by 13C NMR, respectively. The filler were preliminarily washed with acetonitrile to remove residual PEG and then digested by hyaluronidase to obtain a sample that can be analysed by NMR. RESULTS: The crosslinking parameters were determined in four samples of NEAUVIA PEG-crosslinked dermal fillers (produced by MatexLab S.p.A., Italy). The percentage of crosslinker was between 2.8% and 6.2% of HA, whereas the effective crosslinker ratios were between 0.07 and 0.16 (ratio between the moles of effectively crosslinked PEG and total moles of PEG). Moreover, a digestion procedure alternative to enzymatic digestion, based on acidic hydrolysis, was successfully tested for the determination of crosslinker percentage. CONCLUSIONS: The proposed method successfully determined the two crosslinking parameters in PEG-crosslinked dermal fillers. The estimated percentage of crosslinker is similar to previously reported data for other crosslinkers, whereas the effective crosslinker ratio is lower for PEG crosslinked hydrogels.

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2

Qiu, Peng, Jun-Qi Chen, Wei-Feng Sun, and Hong Zhao. "Improved DC Dielectric Performance of Photon-Initiated Crosslinking Polyethylene with TMPTMA Auxiliary Agent." Materials 12, no. 21 (2019): 3540. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ma12213540.

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To achieve high direct current (DC) dielectric performance of crosslinked polyethylene (XLPE) applied for insulated cable, the auxiliary crosslinking agent of trimethylolpropane trimethacrylate (TMPTMA) is employed in photon-initiated crosslinking process to the present polar-molecular group which will introduce deep traps for charge carriers. The space-charge accumulation and electrical conductance of XLPE are observably suppressed due to the deep traps deriving from the TMPTMA crosslinkers that are chemically connecting (grafted onto) polyethylene molecules. Thermally stimulated depolarization current tests and first-principles calculations consistently demonstrate a trapping mechanism of impeding charge injection and carrier transport in XLPE with TMPTMA crosslinkers. The characteristic cyclic anhydrides with coupled carbonyl groups are used as auxiliary crosslinkers to promote crosslinking efficiency and provide polar groups to polyethylene molecules which can be effectively fulfilled in industrial cable production. The results of infrared spectroscopy show that the auxiliary crosslinkers have been successfully grated to polyethylene molecules through the UV-initiation process. The space-charge characteristics achieve a significant improvement consistent with the theoretical estimation that deeper electronic traps can be introduced by auxiliary crosslinker and will consequently suppress space-charge accumulation through a trapping mechanism. Meanwhile, the conductivity of XLPE observably increases after using TMPTMA auxiliary crosslinkers at various temperatures of cable operation. The first-principles calculations also demonstrate that substantial electronic bound states have been introduced at the band edge of polyethylene molecules crosslinked by TMPTMA, leading to reduction in electrical conductivity. On the advantage of ameliorating DC dielectric performance by way of UV-initiated crosslinking process, the present research suggests a substantial strategy in XLPE cable industrial productions.

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3

Gent, A. N., E. G. Kim, and P. Ye. "Autohesion of crosslinked polyethylene." Journal of Polymer Science Part B: Polymer Physics 35, no. 4 (1997): 615–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/(sici)1099-0488(199703)35:4<615::aid-polb9>3.0.co;2-o.

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4

Torikai, Ayako, Sachiko Asada, and Kenji Fueki. "Photodegradation of crosslinked polyethylene." Polymer Photochemistry 7, no. 1 (1986): 1–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0144-2880(86)90035-7.

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5

Kumar, Suresh, and M. V. Pandya. "Thermally recoverable crosslinked polyethylene." Journal of Applied Polymer Science 64, no. 5 (1997): 823–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/(sici)1097-4628(19970502)64:5<823::aid-app1>3.0.co;2-r.

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6

Yutao Zhu, Ho Gyu Yoon, and K. S. Suh. "Electrical properties of silane crosslinked polyethylene in comparison with DCP crosslinked polyethylene." IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation 6, no. 2 (1999): 164–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/94.765906.

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7

Harris, W. H. "Alternative Bearing Surfaces: Crosslinked Polyethylenes for Total Hip Replacement. A Review." HIP International 13, no. 3 (2003): 127–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/112070000301300302.

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Highly crosslinked polyethylene has three major advantages as an alternative bearing surface that are in common with ceramic on ceramic and metal on metal. They are 1) prior long-term in vivo human use, 2) low wear and lysis rates and 3) being a relatively inert material. In addition they have several other advantages not shared by the hard on hard alternatives. They include lower cost, less difficulty from impingement and less difficulty with accelerated wear if the acetabular component is placed in a high degree of abduction. It does not have the brittleness of ceramic nor the metallosis that can accompany the metal on metal bearings. Polyethylene is familiar, without a learning curve. It is more adaptable, with extended lip liners, offset liners and constrained liners. For certain of the crosslinked polyethylenes wear is independent of head diameter. Thus, there appear to be several valuable advantages for considering highly crosslinked polyethylene as the preferred alternative bearing.

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8

Fisher, J., E. Ingham, and M. H. Stone. "Alternative Bearing Couples in Total Hip Replacements: Solutions for Young Patients." HIP International 13, no. 2_suppl (2003): 31–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/112070000301302s07.

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There is now considerable clinical concern about the effect of polyethylene wear debris induced osteolysis in long term failure of hip replacements. This paper compares the wear of stabilised and crosslinked polyethylene to alternative hard on hard bearings. The volumetric wear rates of stabilised and moderately crosslinked polyethylene 50 to 35 mm3/million cycles were less than previously reported for historical gamma irradiated in air polyethylene, but still of a level that in the long term could cause osteolysis. The moderately crosslinked polyethylene produced less wear than non-crosslinked polyethylene, but particles were smaller and more reactive resulting in little change in the osteolytic potential. Alumina ceramic on ceramic produced substantially less wear and osteolytic potential. Metal on metal also produced less wear than polyethylene but the particles adversely influence cell viability.

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9

FERRONI, DANIELA, VIRGINIO QUAGLINI, and PAOLO DUBINI. "HIGHLY CROSSLINKED POLYETHYLENE: A COMPARATIVE STUDY BETWEEN TWO UHMWPES WITH DISTINCT MOLECULAR WEIGHT." Journal of Mechanics in Medicine and Biology 10, no. 01 (2010): 95–111. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0219519410003253.

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In the recent years, radiation-induced highly crosslinked polyethylenes have been introduced in arthroplasties as an alternative to conventional ultra high molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) for their superior wear resistance. In the present study, the influence of the molecular weight of the raw on end-user properties of highly crosslinked polyethylenes (HXLPE) is investigated by means of a comparative study between two resins with distinct molecular weights. The main outcomes indicate that the differences in mechanical and wear properties between the row materials disappear after crosslinking; nevertheless the resin with the highest molecular weight is likely to retain a better resistance to short-term oxidation.

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10

Dement'ev, A. G., G. N. Matyukhina, and A. V. Pankratov. "Deformation of Chemically Crosslinked Polyethylene Foam. 1. Thermal Deformation of Polyethylene Foam." International Polymer Science and Technology 41, no. 10 (2014): 39–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0307174x1404101008.

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An investigation was made of the influence of the cellular structure on the coefficient of linear thermal deformation and inverse creep of chemically crosslinked polyethylene foam PPE-3M. The dependence of deformability on the nature of the force effect and on the temperature when exposed to the force effect at the stage of production of chemically crosslinked polyethylene foam was established.

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11

Hellstrom, Stefan, Fredrik Bergfors, Paul Laurenson, and James Robinson. "Aging of Silane Crosslinked Polyethylene." IEEE Access 2 (2014): 177–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/access.2014.2308919.

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12

Tobias, W. "Welding of Crosslinked Polyethylene Pipes." International Polymer Science and Technology 28, no. 6 (2001): 1–4. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0307174x0102800622.

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The butt-welding of pipes made of crosslinked polyethylene, the most efficient joining method for the material PE-X, which up to now has been regarded an ‘non-weldable’, will enable it to be used for industrial and underground pipes and hence will make a major contribution to state-of-the-art and future-orientated pipeline applications. In the future, it should also be possible to weld PE-X pipes with diameters of less than 90 mm and work is also being performed to develop welded joints with the same temperature resistance as the pipes. This will permit the use of welded PE-X pipes for hot-water systems and heating technology.

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13

Gustafsson, B., J. O. Boström, and R. C. Dammert. "Stabilization of peroxide crosslinked polyethylene." Die Angewandte Makromolekulare Chemie 261-262, no. 1 (1998): 93–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/(sici)1522-9505(19981201)261-262:1<93::aid-apmc93>3.0.co;2-y.

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14

Andreopoulos, A. G., and E. M. Kampouris. "Mechanical properties of crosslinked polyethylene." Journal of Applied Polymer Science 31, no. 4 (1986): 1061–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/app.1986.070310407.

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15

Phillips, P. J., and A. Vatansever. "Melt immiscibility in crosslinked polyethylene." Polymer Engineering and Science 30, no. 8 (1990): 444–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/pen.760300803.

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16

Learmonth, I. D., and H. Schmotzer. "Alternative bearing surfaces: Crosslinked polyethylene." HIP International 13, no. 3 (2003): 125–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/112070000301300301.

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17

Latocha, Czesz xl;law, Zenon Schneider, and Maria Uhniat. "Thermooxidative degradation of crosslinked polyethylene." Thermochimica Acta 93 (September 1985): 199–202. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0040-6031(85)85051-6.

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18

Chen, Jun-Qi, Xuan Wang, Wei-Feng Sun, and Hong Zhao. "Water-Tree Resistability of UV-XLPE from Hydrophilicity of Auxiliary Crosslinkers." Molecules 25, no. 18 (2020): 4147. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/molecules25184147.

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The water-resistant characteristics of ultraviolet crosslinked polyethylene (UV-XLPE) are investigated specially for the dependence on the hydrophilicities of auxiliary crosslinkers, which is significant to develop high-voltage insulating cable materials. As auxiliary crosslinking agents of polyethylene, triallyl isocyanurate (TAIC), trimethylolpropane trimethacrylate (TMPTMA), and N,N′-m-phenylenedimaleimide (HAV2) are individually adopted to prepared XLPE materials with the UV-initiation crosslinking technique, for the study of water-tree resistance through the accelerating aging experiments with water blade electrode. The stress–strain characteristics and dynamic viscoelastic properties of UV-XLPE are tested by the electronic tension machine and dynamic thermomechanical analyzer. Monte Carlo molecular simulation is used to calculate the interaction parameters and mixing energy of crosslinker/water binary systems to analyze the compatibility between water and crosslinker molecules. Water-tree experiments verify that XLPE-TAIC represents the highest ability to inhibit the growth of water-trees, while XLPE-HAV2 shows the lowest resistance to water-trees. The stress–strain and viscoelastic properties show that the concentration of molecular chains connecting the adjacent lamellae in amorphous phase of XLPE-HAV2 is significantly higher than that of XLPE-TAIC and XLPE-TMPTMA. The molecular simulation results demonstrate that TAIC/water and TMPTMA/water binary systems possess a higher hydrophilicity than that of HAV2/water, as manifested by their lower interaction parameters and mixing free energies. The auxiliary crosslinkers can not only increase the molecular density of amorphous polyethylene between lamellae to inhibit water-tree growth, but also prevent water molecules at insulation defects from agglomerating into micro-water beads by increasing the hydrophilicity of auxiliary crosslinkers, which will evidently reduce the damage of micro-water beads on the amorphous phase in UV-XLPE. The better compatibility of TAIC and water molecules is the dominant reason accounting for the excellent water resistance of XLPE-TAIC.

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19

Zong, Ruowen, Zhengzhou Wang, Naian Liu, Yuan Hu, and Guanxuan Liao. "Thermal degradation kinetics of polyethylene and silane-crosslinked polyethylene." Journal of Applied Polymer Science 98, no. 3 (2005): 1172–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/app.22124.

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20

Lee, Hong-Shik, Ju Hyeong Jeong, Soon Man Hong, Chong Min Koo, Hang-Kyu Cho, and Youn-Woo Lee. "Recycling of Crosslinked Polypropylene and Crosslinked Polyethylene in Supercritical Methanol." Korean Chemical Engineering Research 50, no. 1 (2012): 88–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.9713/kcer.2012.50.1.088.

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21

Guo, Xiangjin, Zhaoliang Xing, Shiyi Zhao та ін. "Investigation of the Space Charge and DC Breakdown Behavior of XLPE/α-Al2O3 Nanocomposites". Materials 13, № 6 (2020): 1333. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ma13061333.

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This paper describes the effects of α-Al2O3 nanosheets on the direct current voltage breakdown strength and space charge accumulation in crosslinked polyethylene/α-Al2O3 nanocomposites. The α-Al2O3 nanosheets with a uniform size and high aspect ratio were synthesized, surface-modified, and characterized. The α-Al2O3 nanosheets were uniformly distributed into a crosslinked polyethylene matrix by mechanical blending and hot-press crosslinking. Direct current breakdown testing, electrical conductivity tests, and measurements of space charge indicated that the addition of α-Al2O3 nanosheets introduced a large number of deep traps, blocked the charge injection, and decreased the charge carrier mobility, thereby significantly reducing the conductivity (from 3.25 × 10−13 S/m to 1.04 × 10−13 S/m), improving the direct current breakdown strength (from 220 to 320 kV/mm) and suppressing the space charge accumulation in the crosslinked polyethylene matrix. Besides, the results of direct current breakdown testing and electrical conductivity tests also showed that the surface modification of α-Al2O3 nanosheets effectively improved the direct current breakdown strength and reduced the conductivity of crosslinked polyethylene/α-Al2O3 nanocomposites.

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22

Cardoso, E. C. L., A. B. Lugão, and L. G. Andrade E. Silva. "Crosslinked polyethylene foams, via EB radiation." Radiation Physics and Chemistry 52, no. 1-6 (1998): 197–200. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0969-806x(98)00139-x.

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23

Al-Malaika, S., S. Riasat, and C. Lewucha. "Reactive antioxidants for peroxide crosslinked polyethylene." Polymer Degradation and Stability 145 (November 2017): 11–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2017.04.013.

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24

Piche, Laurence, Jean-Christophe Daigle, and Jerome P. Claverie. "A ruthenium catalyst yielding crosslinked polyethylene." Chemical Communications 47, no. 27 (2011): 7836. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c1cc11677k.

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25

Precopio, F. "The invention of chemically crosslinked polyethylene." IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine 15, no. 1 (1999): 23–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/57.744587.

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26

Illgen, Richard Lynn, Lia M. Bauer, Bryan T. Hotujec, Sarah E. Kolpin, Aleem Bakhtiar, and Todd M. Forsythe. "Highly Crosslinked Vs Conventional Polyethylene Particles." Journal of Arthroplasty 24, no. 1 (2009): 117–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.arth.2008.01.134.

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27

Kumara, Sarath, Xiangdong Xu, Thomas Hammarström, et al. "Electrical Characterization of a New Crosslinked Copolymer Blend for DC Cable Insulation." Energies 13, no. 6 (2020): 1434. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en13061434.

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To design reliable high voltage cables, clean materials with superior insulating properties capable of operating at high electric field levels at elevated temperatures are required. This study aims at the electrical characterization of a byproduct-free crosslinked copolymer blend, which is seen as a promising alternative to conventional peroxide crosslinked polyethylene currently used for high voltage direct current cable insulation. The characterization entails direct current (DC) conductivity, dielectric response and surface potential decay measurements at different temperatures and electric field levels. In order to quantify the insulating performance of the new material, the electrical properties of the copolymer blend are compared with those of two reference materials; i.e., low-density polyethylene (LDPE) and peroxide crosslinked polyethylene (XLPE). It is found that, for electric fields of 10–50 kV/mm and temperatures varying from 30 °C to 70 °C, the DC conductivity of the copolymer blend is in the range of 10−17–10−13 S/m, which is close to the conductivity of crosslinked polyethylene. Furthermore, the loss tangent of the copolymer blend is about three to four times lower than that of crosslinked polyethylene and its magnitude is on the level of 0.01 at 50 °C and 0.12 at 70 °C (measured at 0.1 mHz and 6.66 kV/mm). The apparent conductivity and trap density distributions deduced from surface potential decay measurements also confirmed that the new material has electrical properties at least as good as currently used insulation materials based on XLPE (not byproduct-free). Thus, the proposed byproduct-free crosslinked copolymer blend has a high potential as a prospective insulation medium for extruded high voltage DC cables.

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28

Teeter, Matthew G., James P. McAuley, and Douglas D. Naudie. "Fracture of Two Moderately Cross-Linked Polyethylene Tibial Inserts in a TKR Patient." Case Reports in Orthopedics 2014 (2014): 1–5. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2014/491384.

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Highly cross-linked polyethylene has become the gold standard in total hip replacement for its wear resistance. Moderately crosslinked polyethylene is now available for total knee replacement (TKR), although concerns about reduced mechanical strength have prevented widespread adoption. The purpose of this report is to describe an unusual case where a patient underwent cruciate retaining TKR using a moderately crosslinked polyethylene tibial insert that went on to fracture twice in the same location across the primary and first revision surgery. The first tibial insert was 10 mm thick and was implanted for 16 months. The second tibial insert was 15 mm thick and was implanted for 11 months. Both fractured along the posterior aspect of the medial articular surface. The lack of a specific event leading to these fractures and the fact that they occurred twice in the same location in the same patient suggest that caution is still necessary regarding the introduction of crosslinked polyethylene for TKR surgery.

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29

Thoen, Peder S., Lars Nordsletten, Are H. Pripp, and Stephan M. Röhrl. "Results of a randomized controlled trial with five-year radiostereometric analysis results of vitamin E-infused highly crosslinked versus moderately crosslinked polyethylene in reverse total hip arthroplasty." Bone & Joint Journal 102-B, no. 12 (2020): 1646–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1302/0301-620x.102b12.bjj-2020-0721.r1.

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Aims Vitamin E-infused highly crosslinked polyethylene (VEPE) has been introduced into total hip arthroplasty (THA) with the aim of further improving the wear characteristics of moderately and highly crosslinked polyethylenes (ModXLPE and HXLPE). There are few studies analyzing the outcomes of vitamin E-infused components in cemented arthroplasty, though early acetabular component migration has been reported. The aim of this study was to measure five-year polyethylene wear and acetabular component stability of a cemented VEPE acetabular component compared with a ModXLPE cemented acetabular component. Methods In a prospective randomized controlled trial (RCT), we assessed polyethylene wear and acetabular component stability (primary outcome) with radiostereometric analysis (RSA) in 68 patients with reverse hybrid THA at five years follow-up. Patients were randomized to either a VEPE or a ModXLPE cemented acetabular component. Results Mean polyethylene wear in the proximal direction was 0.17 mm (SD 0.15) for the VEPE group and 0.20 mm (SD 0.09) for the ModXLPE group (p = 0.005) at five years. Annual proximal wear rates were 0.03 mm/year (VEPE) and 0.04 mm/year (ModXLPE). Total 3D wear was 0.21 mm (SD 0.26) and 0.23 mm (SD 0.10) for the VEPE and ModXLPE groups, respectively (p = 0.009). Total 3D cup translation was 0.72 mm (SD 0.70) (VEPE) and 0.50 mm (SD 0.44) (ModXLPE) (p = 0.409). Conclusion At five years, there was less polyethylene wear in the VEPE group than in the ModXLPE group. Both VEPE and ModXLPE cemented components showed low annual wear rates. Component stability was similar in the two groups and remained constant up to five years. Whether these results will equate to a lower long-term revision rate is still unknown. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2020;102-B(12):1646–1653.

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30

Chalov, K., Yu Lugovoy, Yu Kosivtsov, and E. Sulman. "Study of the Kinetics of Thermal Destruction of Crossed Polyethylene." Bulletin of Science and Practice 5, no. 12 (2019): 37–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.33619/2414-2948/49/04.

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This paper presents a study of the process of thermal degradation of crosslinked polyethylene. The kinetics of polymer decomposition was studied by thermogravimetry. Crosslinked polyethylene showed high heat resistance to temperatures of 400 °C. The temperature range of 430–500 °C was determined for the loss of the bulk of the sample. According to thermogravimetric data, the decomposition process proceeds in a single stage and includes a large number of fracture, cyclization, dehydrogenation, and other reactions. The process of pyrolysis of a crosslinked polymer in a stationary-bed metal reactor was investigated. The influence of the process temperature on the yield of solid, liquid, and gaseous pyrolysis products was investigated. The optimum process temperature was 500 °C. At this temperature, the yield of liquid and gaseous products was 85.0 and 12.5% (mass.), Respectively. Samples of crosslinked polyester decomposed almost completely. The amount of carbon–containing residue was 3.5% by weight of the feedstock. With increasing temperature, the yield of liquid products decreased slightly and the yield of gaseous products increased, but their total yield did not increase. For gaseous products, a qualitative and quantitative composition was determined. The main components of the pyrolysis gas were hydrocarbons C1–C4. The calorific value of pyrolysis gas obtained at a temperature of 500 °C was 17 MJ/m3. Thus, the pyrolysis process can be used to process crosslinked polyethylene wastes to produce liquid hydrocarbons and combustible gases.

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31

Dhanakodi, P., and M. Jayendran. "Novel Peroxide Crosslinked Polyethylene for Cable Insulation." Indian Journal of Public Health Research & Development 8, no. 3s (2017): 188. http://dx.doi.org/10.5958/0976-5506.2017.00278.9.

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32

Callary, Stuart A., Lucian B. Solomon, Oksana T. Holubowycz, David G. Campbell, Zachary Munn, and Donald W. Howie. "Wear of highly crosslinked polyethylene acetabular components." Acta Orthopaedica 86, no. 2 (2014): 159–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.3109/17453674.2014.972890.

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33

Bamji, S. S., A. T. Bulinski, H. Suzuki, M. Matsuki, and Z. Iwata. "Luminescence in crosslinked polyethylene at elevated temperatures." Journal of Applied Physics 74, no. 8 (1993): 5149–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.354277.

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34

Han, Seong Ok, Dong Won Lee, and Oc Hee Han. "Thermal degradation of crosslinked high density polyethylene." Polymer Degradation and Stability 63, no. 2 (1999): 237–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0141-3910(98)00098-6.

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35

McHugh, A. J., and W. S. Yung. "Strain-induced crystallization of swollen, crosslinked polyethylene." Journal of Polymer Science Part B: Polymer Physics 27, no. 2 (1989): 431–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/polb.1989.090270214.

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36

Abe, Shigehiko, and Masayuki Yamaguchi. "Study on the foaming of crosslinked polyethylene." Journal of Applied Polymer Science 79, no. 12 (2001): 2146–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/1097-4628(20010321)79:12<2146::aid-app1022>3.0.co;2-q.

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37

Garton, A., J. H. Groeger, and J. L. Henry. "Ionic impurities in crosslinked polyethylene cable insulation." IEEE Transactions on Electrical Insulation 25, no. 2 (1990): 427–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/14.52394.

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38

Lee, Y. D., and P. J. Phillips. "The electrically ruptured area of crosslinked polyethylene." IEEE Transactions on Electrical Insulation 26, no. 1 (1991): 171–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/14.68237.

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39

Raszkowska-Kaczor, Aneta, Andrzej Stasiek, Katarzyna Janczak, and Ewa Olewnik-Kruszkowska. "Chemically crosslinked polyethylene foams of limited flammability." Polimery 60, no. 04 (2015): 283–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.14314/polimery.2015.283.

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40

Markov, A. V., V. N. Kuleznev, and V. G. Persits. "Orientational Elongation of Silanol-Crosslinked Polyethylene Films." International Polymer Science and Technology 35, no. 12 (2008): 49–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0307174x0803501213.

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Markov, A. V., V. N. Kuleznev, V. V. Ivanov, V. G. Persits, V. A. Markov, and O. V. Krivolapova. "Heat-Resistant Films of Silanol-Crosslinked Polyethylene." International Polymer Science and Technology 38, no. 8 (2011): 33–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0307174x1103800807.

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42

Marcilla, A., R. Ruiz-Femenia, J. Hernández, and J. C. García-Quesada. "Thermal and catalytic pyrolysis of crosslinked polyethylene." Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis 76, no. 1-2 (2006): 254–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaap.2005.12.004.

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43

Vall�s, E. M., J. M. Carella, H. H. Winter, and M. Baumgaertel. "Gelation of a radiation crosslinked model polyethylene." Rheologica Acta 29, no. 6 (1990): 535–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf01329300.

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Guizhi, Wang, Liu Zongtiao, and Wei Zhengwen. "60Co radiation crosslinked polyethylene heat-shrinkable material." Radiation Physics and Chemistry 42, no. 1-3 (1993): 107–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0969-806x(93)90214-f.

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Zamotaev, P. V., and Z. O. Streltsova. "Thermo-oxidative stabilization of photochemically crosslinked polyethylene." Polymer Degradation and Stability 36, no. 3 (1992): 267–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0141-3910(92)90066-e.

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Venkatraman, S., and L. Kleiner. "Properties of three types of crosslinked polyethylene." Advances in Polymer Technology 9, no. 3 (1989): 265–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/adv.1989.060090308.

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MURATOGLU, ORHUN K., ARTHUR MARK, DAVID A. VITTETOE, WILLIAM H. HARRIS, and HARRY E. RUBASH. "POLYETHYLENE DAMAGE IN TOTAL KNEES AND USE OF HIGHLY CROSSLINKED POLYETHYLENE." Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery-American Volume 85 (2003): 7–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.2106/00004623-200300001-00003.

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Laguna-Gutierrez, Ester, Javier Pinto, Vipin Kumar, Maria L. Rodriguez-Mendez, and Miguel A. Rodriguez-Perez. "Improving the extensional rheological properties and foamability of high-density polyethylene by means of chemical crosslinking." Journal of Cellular Plastics 54, no. 2 (2016): 333–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0021955x16681454.

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Abstract:

Obtaining high-density polyethylene-based microcellular foams is a topic of interest due to the synergistic properties that can be obtained by the fact of achieving a microcellular structure using a polymer with a high number of interesting properties. However, due to the high crystallinity of this polymer, the production of low-density microcellular foams, by a physical foaming process, is not a simple task. In this work, the proposed solution to produce these materials is based on using crosslinked high-density polyethylenes. By crosslinking the polymer matrix, it is possible to increase the amount of gas available for foaming and also to improve the extensional rheological properties. In addition, the foaming time and the foaming temperature have also been modified with the aim of analyzing and understanding the mechanisms taking place during the foaming process to finally obtain cellular materials with low densities and improved cellular structures. The results indicate that cellular materials with relative densities of 0.37 and with cell sizes of approximately 2 µm can be produced from crosslinked high-density polyethylene using the appropriate crosslinking degree and foaming parameters.

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Fu, Yu-Wei, Wei-Feng Sun, and Xuan Wang. "UV-Initiated Crosslinking Reaction Mechanism and Electrical Breakdown Performance of Crosslinked Polyethylene." Polymers 12, no. 2 (2020): 420. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/polym12020420.

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Abstract:

The ultraviolet (UV) irradiation crosslinking reactions of polyethylene and the electronic properties of photo-initiators and reaction products are theoretically investigated by the first-principles calculations. The crosslinked polyethylene (XLPE) materials are prepared in experiments that employ the UV-initiated crosslinking technique with different photon-initiation systems. Infrared spectrum and the alternating current dielectric breakdown strength of UV-initiated XLPE are tested to explore the effect of reaction products on the breakdown characteristics in combination with the electron structure calculations. The theoretical calculations indicate that the 4-hydroxybenzophenone laurate, which is compatible with polyethylene, can effectively initiate crosslinking reactions of polyethylene molecules under UV photon excitation and will produce reaction by-products from carbonyl radicals; as a macromolecular auxiliary crosslinker, the monomer or homopolymer of dioleyl-2,2′,4,4′-tetraallyl isocyanurate can form chemical connections with multiple polyethylene molecules acting as a crosslinking node in a photon-initiated reaction process. The carbonyl, hydroxyl, or ester groups of reaction by-products are capable of capturing hot electrons to prevent polyethylene molecules from impact ionization, and thus will increase the breakdown electric field. The macromolecular auxiliary crosslinker and the macromolecular photon initiator as well as its reaction by-product can convert the energy of their captured high-energy electrons into heat, which can act as a voltage stabilizer. The molecule characterization of infrared spectra demonstrates that the characteristic absorption peaks of the carbonyl in the macromolecular photon initiator and the allyl in the macromolecular auxiliary crosslinking agent are gradually decreasing in intensity as the crosslinking reaction proceeds, which is consistent with the conclusion from theoretical calculations. Compared with the small molecular photon-initiation system generally used in the photon-initiated crosslinking process, the higher dielectric breakdown field of XLPE being prepared by utilizing a macromolecular photon-initiation system is in good agreement with the calculation results of electronic affinity and ionization potential. The consistent results of the experiments and first-principles calculations elucidate the fundamental mechanism of the UV-initiation crosslinking technique and suggest a prospective routine to improve the insulation strength for developing high-voltage XLPE insulating materials.

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Zhang, Yong-Qi, Ping-Lan Yu, Wei-Feng Sun, and Xuan Wang. "Ameliorated Electrical-Tree Resistant Characteristics of UV-Initiated Cross-Linked Polyethylene Nanocomposites with Surface-Functionalized Nanosilica." Processes 9, no. 2 (2021): 313. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/pr9020313.

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Given the high interest in promoting crosslinking efficiency of ultraviolet-initiated crosslinking technique and ameliorating electrical resistance of crosslinked polyethylene (XLPE) materials, we have developed the funcionalized-SiO2/XLPE nanocomposites by chemically grafting auxiliary crosslinkers onto nanosilica surfaces. Trimethylolpropane triacrylate (TMPTA) as an effective auxiliary crosslinker for polyethylene is grafted successfully on nanosilica surfaces through thiolene-click chemical reactions with coupling agents of sulfur silanes and 3-mercaptopropyl trimethoxy silane (MPTMS), as characterized by nuclear magnetic resonance and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. The functionalized SiO2 nanoparticles could be dispersively filled into polyethylene matrix even at a high filling content that would generally produce agglomerations of neat SiO2 nanofillers. Ultraviolet-initiated polyethylene crosslinking reactions are efficiently stimulated by TMPTA grafted onto surfaces of SiO2 nanofillers, averting thermal migrations out of polyethylene matrix. Electrical-tree pathways and growth mechanism are specifically investigated by elucidating the microscopic tree-morphology with fractal dimension and simulating electric field distributions with finite-element method. Near nano-interfaces where the shielded-out electric fluxlines concentrate, the highly enhanced electric fields will stimulate partial discharging and thus lead to the electrical-trees being able to propagate along the routes between nanofillers. Surface-modified SiO2 nanofillers evidently elongate the circuitous routes of electrical-tree growth to be restricted from directly developing toward ground electrode, which accounts for the larger fractal dimension and shorter length of electrical-trees in the functionlized-SiO2/XLPE nanocomposite compared with XLPE and neat-SiO2/XLPE nanocomposite. Polar-groups on the modified nanosilica surfaces inhibit electrical-tree growth and simultaneously introduce deep traps impeding charge injections, accounting for the significant improvements of electrical-tree resistance and dielectric breakdown strength. Combining surface functionalization and nanodielectric technology, we propose a strategy to develop XLPE materials with high electrical resistance.

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