Academic literature on the topic 'Crowding-in'

Cost-Benefit Analysis (CBA) is a common tool used when determining whether to invest or not in newpublic transport infrastructure by weighing the costs of the object in question against the benefits it isexpected to bring about. If the benefits exceed the costs, the recommendation would be to invest.Usually, however, the cost exceeds the benefit which makes it difficult to motivate new publictransportation investments.This does, however, not necessarily indicate that most public transportation investments areunprofitable but rather that there exist deficiencies in the tool. Usually a CBA does not include all aspectsnecessary for a proper appraisal and one of those aspects specifically may be the perceived on-boardcrowding.This thesis presents a method for incorporating the effects of perceived on-board crowding into a CBAvia an implementation of a seat-occupancy based crowding multiplier approximation into thegeneralized travel cost function of a static transit assignment model (TAM).A problem with static TAMs is that the underlying travel demand is fixed throughout the analyzed timeperiod.Consequently, only average passenger loads are obtained after an assignment procedure whichmeans that only the average perceived on-board crowding can be observed. A direct implementationwould thus not be sufficient for representing how travelers perceive crowding in real life as traveldemand is highly variable but also due to other load-impacting phenomena such as bus bunching.The solution to this problem was to make the TAM consider the actual perceived on-board crowding byderiving mode-wise expressions of the weighted crowding multiplier as a function of the averagecrowding multiplier. These expressions were further implemented into the generalized travel costfunction imbedded in the static TAM.The enhanced model was applied to a case being the proposed plan of building a new metro betweenÄlvsjö and Fridhemsplan in Stockholm. The results proved that the travel time savings were 70 % largerwhen crowding was considered in the TAM than when it was not. Moreover, the CBA resulted in apositive outcome when crowding was considered as opposed to the CBA in which it was not, which  indicated a negative outcome.

This paper examines whether other expenditure in Ghanaian households is crowded out by expenditure on tobacco over the period under study (2005/2006 and 2012/2013) and whether the magnitude of crowding-out over the period has been changed by the introduction of the tobacco control law in July, 2012. The paper uses household survey data from the Ghana Living Standards Survey in the years 2005/2006 and 2012/2013. A system of quadratic conditional Engel curves was estimated for a set of eleven groups of commodities for both periods. The results show a crowding-out of food, alcohol, clothing and transport and a crowding-in of furnishings, health and communication expenditure by tobacco. The magnitude of crowding-in and crowding-out declined over the period under study. The tobacco control law of 2012 was positively associated with a reduction in the prevalence rate of tobacco use among households, and a reduction in household budget share allocation to tobacco.

The evolution of public debt in the euro area into unsustainable levels is discussed now more than ever after the recent financial crisis of 2008 and the European sovereign debt crisis that followed. With countries like Greece and Italy hovering around the level of 181.2- and 134.8 percent of GDP in public debt in 2018 (AMECO database), it is hard not to be worried about the future. Macroeconomic theory predicts that increased bond-financed government expenditure will crowd out private investment. This paper tests the credibility of this theory by empirically examining the effect of public debt ratios on private investment in 26 countries in the euro area from 1999 to 2018. By using panel data regression, accounting for fixed effects, it emerged that public debt ratios are negatively correlated with private investment as is predicted by the crowding out theory. However, no statistically significant negative correlation was found when introducing an instrumental variable, military expenditure.

Thesis (M.S. )--University of Tennessee Health Science Center, 2008<br>Title from title page screen (viewed on July 30, 2008). Research advisor: Edward F. Harris, Ph.D. Document formatted into pages (xvi, 154 p. : ill.). Vita. Abstract. Includes bibliographical references (p. 148-154).