Journal articles on the topic 'Culvert Failure'

Although bridges are a highly visible and crucial part of the highway infrastructure, smaller structures typically classified as culverts exist in even greater numbers. Nearly invisible to the public, culverts are crucial components of highways. Failure of culverts can lead to flooding, roadway damage, interruption of traffic, and even fatal accidents. Several states have implemented successful culvert inspection programs, but others are only beginning to formalize their culvert inspection and maintenance. Even after periodic inspection programs are in place, planners need a tool for consistent guidance to identify structures most in need of attention. This paper reports on a simple rating system based on a new culvert inspection program recently implemented by the Indiana Department of Transportation. The rating system uses weighting factors that can be adjusted by the user to provide an overall rating of a culvert based on ratings of specific characteristics of a culvert. The tool can be used to provide a consistent comparison with other culverts across the state and to provide quality control of the inspectors’ overall rating as entered into a database.

Transportation agencies are currently challenged to keep up with culvert infrastructure that is rapidly deteriorating due to lack of adequate maintenance and capital improvement. It is imperative for the transportation agencies to identify and rehabilitate deteriorated culverts prior to their failures. Among several concerns, lack of rational rehabilitation prioritization tools is foremost. Complicating this need further, current practices vary widely across the state departments of transportation (DOTs) which makes it difficult to develop a universal approach for prioritizing failing culverts. This paper presents and demonstrates a failure risk-based culvert prioritization approach that is compliant with the inspection procedures of the South Carolina DOT. The approach presented in this paper is specifically developed for reinforced concrete pipe (RCP) and corrugated metal pipe (CMP) materials because of their wide popularity. Outcomes from a survey of state DOTs informed the development of parametric weightings using the principles of analytical hierarchy process (AHP). Weightings developed for several critical inspection parameters are combined with the corresponding condition assessment scores to determine the failure criticality of culverts, which are subsequently combined with estimated failure consequences to determine failure risk estimates. The prioritization approach is demonstrated using the condition assessment scores of over 5200 culvert structures in South Carolina.

More than 47,000 culverts have been installed under the highways of Utah. The Utah Department of Transportation (DOT) maintains these culverts but has no comprehensive system for assessing condition and planning maintenance activities. Utah DOT initiated a study to determine the condition of its culverts by field surveys. The objective was to develop a system of qualitative and quantitative performance measures to assess both the long- and short-term behavior of highway culverts and to support the Utah DOT effort to modify and populate a computerized database designed to store culvert inspection data that can be used for statewide culvert asset management. Culvert management practices currently used by Utah DOT and other agencies are described. A total of 272 culvert inspections conducted during this project showed the inventory to be aging but not generally in need of immediate maintenance. The Utah DOT database, developed to track culvert condition, is effective but could be improved. Improvements would streamline both culvert inspections and priority ranking of culvert repairs. The FHWA system for rating culvert maintenance action was adopted, with a new proposed table for rating thermoplastic pipe. Culvert ratings were adjusted with an importance modifier that focused inspection and maintenance activity on critical culverts with higher consequence of failure. Critical culverts should be placed on a regular inspection schedule, whereas other culverts can be inspected during periodic roadway repaving or rehabilitation. Culvert inspection results will be added to the database to provide more insight eventually into culvert service life than is now possible.

Foundation failure mode of high filling culverts involves calculation theory and method of subgrade bearing capacity, and it has great theoretical and practical values. After model of the culvert has been established, finite difference method will be used to do the numerical simulation in FLAC3D. Reaserch suggests that traditional Terzaghi/Meyerhof failure mode are not suitable for relatively deep buried subgrade of high filling culvert. Foundation failure of high filling culvert is caused by difference in stiffness and earth press, which result in settlement difference, and then forms subsidiary shear stress on the sliding surface. When stress value reaches shear strength of the foundation soil, shear failure occured.

The characteristics of the corrugated steel culvert and the deterioration of the structure are analyzed. The Life Cycle Cost (LCC) approach is put forward to analysis the initial, maintenance and recycling cost of the different material culverts. The user delay costs are added to the typical LCC values considering the deterioration and the failure of structures. The analysis and the economic comparison results show that the total LCC values at the failure emergency situation is much larger than the situation when the deterioration is considered initiatively. Such economic analysis can help the project decision makers better understand the risks associated with deterioration and failure. The inspection and maintenance schedule should be formulated considering the culvert size, the environment in which the culvert is placed, and the characteristics of the soil and the backfill.

Culverts are used to preserve pavement embankments by draining water from the structures. However pavement roughness caused by excessive bumps, sags, and depressions at a culvert location are signs of failure or improper construction. The surface roughness at a culvert location can be caused by inadequate compaction of granular base material, erosion of the backfill or supporting materials, and (or) differential frost heaving. Pavement roughness can adversely affect ride quality and create potentially unsafe driving conditions. The objective of this study is to recommend construction and maintenance solutions to mitigate bumps, sags, and depressions at through-grade culverts on highways in Manitoba. The study consists of a review of the state of the art practices in culvert construction and maintenance; a survey questionnaire to obtain construction and performance history of through-grade culverts in Manitoba; and a forensic investigation and case study analysis of failed culverts with excessive bump, dip or sags. Culverts with minor or no pavement roughness were also investigated to identify design and construction elements that favor good performance. The results of the forensic investigation and recommended best practices construction and maintenance solutions to mitigate excessive pavement roughness at culverts are presented.

Flexible corrugated metal pipes are commonly used as an alternative to concrete bridges for small and medium sized streams. If these flexible culverts are improperly designed they can fail dramatically. One cause of failure is uplift at a submerged inlet. With the pipe flowing partly full, the weight of the pipe and the net force due to the internal water pressure may be less than the buoyant force acting on the submerged pipe; this may result in an upward bending moment. This paper describes an experimental study of the hydraulic forces inside culvert inlets. The tests were carried out on a plexiglass pipe with projecting and flush inlets. The effect of the flow separation on the pressure fluctuation at the inlet was investigated in this study. The internal pressures for the case with a headwall were found to be significantly higher than for the projecting inlet. The formation of a scour hole at the upstream end of the inlet increased the uplift potential. Internal pressure profiles were integrated to determine the internal load distributions on culverts with different inlet treatments. Key words: culvert, projecting inlets, headwall inlets, uplift failure, scour, hydraulic loading.

This study proposes a solid-fluid-coupled Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics model to investigate the behavior of pipe in the liquefied sand after failure. In this model, the liquefied soil is simulated as a Bingham fluid material combined with the equivalent Newtonian viscosity. Then the pipe culvert is treated as an elastic solid material, and the culvert-soil interaction is assumed as the solid-fluid coupling force. Verification has been conducted through a dam-break model to demonstrate the accuracy of simulating the flow behavior of liquefied sand. At the same time, the applicability of the SPH simulation in the two-phase-coupled force has been checked compared with previous researches. After that, parametric studies are performed on the lateral force and movement of pipe culverts in the flowing sand. The derived results demonstrate that the culvert size and buried depth are the significant factors when estimating the maximum lateral force of culvert-soil system, while the slope angle severely affects the run-out distance of culvert and the velocity of flowing sand.

Culvert is an important part of roads whose healthy operation is related to the efficiency and safety of road transportation. Therefore, it is very important to evaluate the safety of culvert structure by load test. Four types of prefabricated reinforced concrete box culverts (integral BC, round hinged BC, flat seam BC, and mortise BC) were designed in this paper. By designing a scale model test, the sensor system was used to test the mechanical properties of BC, which included dial indicators, strain gauges, and a pressure sensor. The finite element analysis based on material nonlinearity and contact nonlinearity of round hinged BC and integral BC was carried out. After validating the finite element models, mechanical properties of reinforcement and concrete of BCs were analyzed. The experimental results show that the failure mode of BC was tensile failure of concrete at the bottom of top slab under bending action, and integral BC had the maximum carrying capacity. The contact behaviour of sliding and rotating at hinge joints caused the first principal tensile stress of concrete at the internal surface of the side wall below hinge joints.

Corrugated metal pipes (CMPs) have been used as culverts in North America since the 1950s. Today, corrosion of CMPs is a major problem that requires an urgent and efficient solution to retrofit thousands of corroded CMPs across the country. One potential solution gaining wide acceptance is to use a fit-in Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymer (GFRP) liner inside the old CMPs and to connect them using polymer grout. In this paper, a methodology to retrofit corrugated metal culvert using a fit-in GFRP profile liner was developed and implemented. First, material characterization of the GFRP material and the epoxy grout were carried out for proper design of the retrofit system. Second, full-scale CMP-GFRP composite section was tested under three-point bending configuration to observe the retrofitted culvert behavior to failure. The new CMP-GFRP section develops full composite action and shows failure capacity of 75 kip with a deflection of 3.52 in at the end of the test. Post failure of the polymeric grout, GFRP pipe failure was observed at mid-span location starting on the tension side. A finite element model was developed to understand the behavior of the CMP-GFRP composite pipe and to allow for the efficient design of the proposed retrofitting system.

ABSTRAKProvinsi Kalimantan Tengah, Kabupaten Murung Raya adalah daerah yang mempunyai potensi pada pertambangan oleh karena itu direncanakan pembangunan jembatan sebagai peningkatan fasilitas mobilisasi pada daerah pertambangan di daerah kabupaten Murung Raya. Konstruksi jembatan yang dibangun menggunakan material Corrugated Metal Plate (CMP) sebagai struktur utama jembatan. Pada proses konstruksi terjadi keruntuhan yang mengakibatkan fail pada salah satu culvert dimana tanah timbunan yang digunakan adalah material clay. Dari kasus tersebut kemudian dianalisa dengan menggunakan software PLAXIS 2D dengan output total displacement sebesar 15,39 cm dimana lebih besar dari kapasitas displacement yang di ijinkan yaitu 2,54 cm. Untuk Menangani masalah displacement yang besar pada culvert, maka dilakukan pemodelan dengan metode penimbunan bertahap menggunakan material timbunan Clay Cement dan menghasilkan total displacement yang lebih rendah yaitu 0,036 cm dimana lebih kecil dari displacement yang diijinkan sehingga fail pada culvert dapat ditangani dengan metode penimbunan bertahap dan sudah diberikan beban surcharge load sebesar 10 kN/m2.Kata kunci: corrugated metal plate (CMP), material timbunan tanah, total displacementABSTRACTCentral Kalimantan Province, Murung Raya regency is a region which has a potency in minning, and that’s the reason why this region has a bridge construction planned as to improve the mobility the mining area of Murung Raya Regency. The bridge construction consist of Corrugated Metal Plate (CMP) material as the main structure. In the construction process there was a collapse by a clay material soil, resulting a failure on one of the culvert. This failure is then analyzed by the PLAXIS 2D software , with a total displacement output of 15.39 cm, bigger than the allowed displacement capacity which is 2.54 cm. To handle the high displacement problem on culverts, a model of gradual clay soil pile is made with clay cement material pile and produce a lower total displacement which is 0.036 , this number is lower than allowable displacement so the fail in the culvert can be handle with the gradual soil pile method and surcharge load as big as 10 kN/m2.Keywords: corrugated metal plate (CMP), soil fill material, total displacement

Abstract：The paper takes heavy haul train existing slab culvert disease and the research status for starting point, researches and analyzes the reliability assessment of slab culvert and fatigue test under heavy haul train. Different corrosion rate and reinforced section failure probability and reliable probability relations is researched as the emphasis . Strain-stress relations and slab culvert reinforced load are studied by the fatigue test , drawn the fatigue life of tensile steel. The research provides a reference for the stress analysis of slab culvert under the point supported conditions.

Debris accumulations upstream and through crossing hydraulic structures such as culverts cause the upstream water level and the downstream scour depth to increase, which can lead to structure failure. This experimental study aimed to investigate the effects of various inlet blockage ratios on culvert efficiency and scour hole depth. In a non-blocked case, various submergence ratios (S = 1.06, 1.33, 1.60, and 1.90) were tested with different discharge rates. In a blocked case, the effects of inlet blockage with various blockage ratios (Ar = 10%, 20%, and 30%) were seen as sediment blockage on the pipe bed or floating debris upstream of the culvert. The results show that as the submergence ratio increases, the maximum scour depth decreases at the same discharge rate, and the relative energy loss also decreases in the non-blocked case. In the sediment blockage (Ar d) case, the relative maximum depth increases with increasing densimetric Froude number and with an increasing blockage ratio. An empirical equation was developed to predict the relative scour depth under the present study conditions.

In July 1987, a section of the southwest wall of Sault Ste. Marie Lock failed during a locking operation when a portion of limestone facing, 60 m by 8 m, separated from the rubble backing wall. Engineering investigations resulted in the selection of the Recreational Lock Option, involving either downsizing the lock chamber within the existing lock or constructing a new lock as the most viable solutions. A Dry Dock Option, where the lock would be used to store craft during the winter months, was also considered. However, this option was abandoned during the course of testing. The engineering investigations also revealed that the emergency swing dam, constructed upstream of the existing lock to protect the system should the lock gates be damaged or carried away (as happened in 1909), was in poor condition and required rehabilitation in the order of over $0.5 million. A stop log emergency system was proposed as an alternative safety device designed to stop the flow of water through the canal in the event of gate failure. Physical hydraulic model studies were carried out to evaluate the feasibility of using an emergency stop log system. The tests showed that stop logs constructed with solid horizontal web plates top and bottom result in unacceptably high hydraulic downpull forces. Open truss stop logs can be deployed to stop the flow of water through the canal in the event of gate failure. The follower should also be constructed as an open truss such that the areas of steel exposed to the flow at the top and bottom of the follower are minimized. Hydraulic uplift forces that could prevent closure can be reduced by increasing the space between the stop log and the follower. Physical hydraulic model studies of the lock filling-emptying systems are described. The first and preferred option consists of downsizing the existing lock and retaining part of the existing wooden culverts and emptying system, if possible. A new filling port, filling valves, and supply culvert would be constructed upstream. In the event that the existing wooden culverts are found to be unserviceable, a second option was considered. This second option would be to fill in the wooden culverts and then construct a new filling port, filling valves, and supply culvert that would discharge into the lock through the upstream breast wall just above floor level. The existing emptying system would be retained or rebuilt. The third option, if both the filling and discharge culverts have to be condemned, would be to build a new lock. The results of the hydraulic model studies carried out to explore these three options are described.Key words: emergency closure, stop logs, follower, canal, lock, downpull, uplift, crane capacity, filling-emptying system, culverts.

Field experience indicates that large buried culverts have suffered essentially no damage during past earthquakes when no significant permanent ground movements have occurred. These soil structures, which generally comprise steel or concrete arch members and engineered soil, may have spans of 15 m. Static, pseudodynamic, and dynamic finite-element analyses have been carried out on these structures and indicate that for horizontal seismic loading, the surrounding soil is much stiffer than the arch and results in the seismic load being taken by the soil rather than by the arch. Under vertical seismic loading, the arch is stiffer than the surrounding soil and attracts significant load, which can essentially be accounted for by increasing the unit weight of the soil in proportion to the vertical acceleration. Thrusts and moments in a 10-m concrete arch are examined under combined static and seismic loading (both horizontal and vertical). The results indicate that significant increases in thrust and moment in the arch are predicted for peak ground accelerations in excess of 0.3 g. The good behavior of these structures under such acceleration levels in California, where they are not specifically designed for earthquake forces, indicates that their static design includes sufficient reserve to prevent failure under accelerations of these levels.

A long-span guardrail for use over low-fill culverts was developed and successfully crash tested. The guardrail system was configured with 30.48 m of nested, 12-gauge W-beam rail and centered around a 7.62-m-long unsupported span. The nested W-beam rail was supported by 16 W152×13.4 steel posts and 6 standard CRT posts, each with two 150-mm×200×360 mm wood block-outs. Each post was 1830 mm long. Post spacings were 1905 mm on center, except for the 7.62-m spacing between the two CRT posts surrounding the long span. The research study included computer simulation modeling with Barrier VII and full-scale vehicle crash testing, using 3/4-ton (680-kg) pickup trucks in accordance with the Test Level 3 (TL-3) requirements specified in NCHRP Report 350. Three full-scale vehicle crash tests were performed. The first test was unsuccessful because of severe vehicle penetration into the guardrail system. This penetration resulted from a loss of rail tensile capacity during vehicle redirection when the swagged fitting on the cable anchor assembly failed. A second test was performed on the same design, which contained a new cable anchor assembly. During vehicle redirection, the pickup truck rolled over and the test was considered a failure. The long-span system was subsequently redesigned to incorporate double block-outs on the CRT posts and crash tested again. Following the successful third test, the long-span guardrail system was determined to meet TL-3 criteria.

In the stream culvert discharge design guidelines of the Forest Practices Code (FPC) of British Columbia (BC), the 100-year instantaneous flood (Q100) is assumed to be three times as large as the mean annual flood (Q2) regardless of basin characteristics and location in the province. A regional linear moment analysis of annual maximum flows is used to demonstrate that this assumption is invalid and that Q100/Q2 ratios vary substantially with basin area and climate. For the snowmelt-dominated peak flows in the Columbia and southern Rocky Mountains, Q100/Q2 decreases slightly with increasing drainage area, from 2.3 (1 km2) to 1.9 (100 km2). For the flood peaks generated by rainfall and rain on snow in coastal BC, this range is 3.1–2.6. In the semi-arid Interior Plateau region, variability in Q100/Q2 ratios is most dramatic. For a 10-km2 basin, the calculated Q100/Q2 ratio of 4.9 is 1.6 times the assumed factor of 3, while for a 1-km2 basin Q100/Q2 is 7.5 or 2.5 times this factor. Underestimating Q100/Q2 may lead to underdesign and early failure of road culverts, and therefore, current FPC guidelines for estimating the 100-year instantaneous flood may have serious adverse economic and environmental consequences in small Interior Plateau watersheds.

Buried culverts are usually considered to be earthquake-resistant underground structures. Therefore, few studies have been conducted to investigate the seismic response of slab culverts under high fill embankment which are usually subjected to extreme dynamic loads. This paper presents a numerical analysis of the seismic response of slab culvert under high fill embankment in a loess region which is also a seismically active area in China. The influence of important factors such as fill height, incident angle of seismic wave and magnitude of earthquake on the response of culvert is carefully examined. And possible failures of culverts are also analyzed according to the numerical results.

Box culverts may be constructed in active seismic areas, where ground shaking or ground failures can impose considerable earth pressures on them. In this study, the seismic response of box culverts was investigated experimentally and numerically. A series of scaled centrifuge tests was performed and subjected to three different earthquake signals, with different amplitudes and frequencies. Two values of culvert wall thickness and two values of sand relative density were considered in the experimental program. Experimental results are presented in terms of comparisons of seismic bending moments. These results were used to calibrate and verify two-dimensional numerical models developed using the computer program FLAC. The verified models were then used to investigate the effect of earthquake intensity and frequency, height of soil cover, and culvert thickness on the seismic bending moments for the different culvert sections. Based on the analysis results, charts are presented to aid in the seismic design of box culverts.

A framework for inspection, rehabilitation, and replacement of corrugated steel culvert pipes (CSCP) is developed. It is expected to lead to developing a culvert information management system (CIMS), wherein justification and need are based on recent Governmental Accounting Standards Board (GASB) requirements. The CIMS will assist in evaluating infrastructure assets and facilitate comparing present costs of preserving infrastructure. Benefits include long-term savings from adopting optimized preventive maintenance strategies. CSCP condition states are used to express the extent of deterioration. Rehabilitation options and recommendations are given for deteriorated CSCPs. These options will be incorporated into the proposed CIMS, which uses survival probabilities based on the CSCP condition state during the previous year. Survival probabilities within Condition States 1, 2, and 3 are computed on the basis of corrosion research data. However, implementing the proposed CIMS requires field data for CSCPs or laboratory tests that mimic field conditions. The proposed CIMS can analyze decisions to inspect, rehabilitate and replace, or do nothing at both project and network levels. At the project level, inspection or rehabilitation and replacement costs are compared with failure risks and costs. At the network level, associated costs are optimized to meet the annual maintenance budget by prioritizing CSCPs needing inspection and rehabilitation and replacement. The proposed CIMS can also be used to estimate the required annual budgetary allocation for a stipulated planning horizon and to maintain or improve the aggregate condition state of the CSCP network or to maintain or improve the total highway CSCP network asset value, thereby meeting GASB 34 requirements. The optimum sequential path in the annual decision-making process may then be determined using a combination of operations research tools.

Although carbon textile reinforcement widely used to replace the steel reinforcing bars but the bonding strength of carbon textile is generally much smaller than that of common steel bars. This study examines the strengthening effect of concrete slab-type elements strengthened in flexure by carbon textile reinforcement according to the surface coating of textile and the amount of reinforcement. The effect of the surface coating of textile on the bond strength was evaluated through a direct pullout test with four different sizes of coating material. The surface coated specimens developed bond strength approximately twice that of the uncoated specimen. The flexural strengthening effect with respect to the amount of reinforcement was investigated by a series of flexural failure tests on full-scale reinforced concrete (RC) slab specimens strengthened by textile reinforced concrete (TRC) system. The flexural failure test results revealed that the TRC system-strengthened specimens develop load-carrying capacity that is improved to at least 150% compared to the non-strengthened specimen. The strengthening performance was not significantly influenced by the textile coating and was not proportional to the amount of reinforcement when this amount was increased, owing to the change in the failure mode. The outstanding constructability afforded by TRC strengthening was verified through field applications executing TRC strengthening by shotcreting on a concrete box culvert.

Papua New Guinea has been experiencing frequent bridge failures and collapses due to flooding rivers in the recent past. According to the records from Papua New Guinea Department of Works, it is estimated that over Two Hundred and Eighty (285) bridges, fords (causeways) and major culverts were damaged by flood action alone in the last five years between 2013-2017. That is approximately at an average rate of 57 bridges in a year. This result is very disturbing and as such this study was undertaken to assess and analyze the flood-induced bridge failure causes and offer applicable solutions. This study will report on the field investigation works and results derived from the twenty-one flood affected bridges in six different major road networks in three provinces of Papua New Guinea. Hence, it was observed in this study that substructure damages due to flooding account for seventy percent (70%) of the bridge damages while superstructure damages account for the thirty percent (30%). The common causes of flood-induced bridge failures were identified as local scour around bridge piers and abutments, contraction scours, sedimentation, debris, and log impact.

Contaminated land is a legacy of industrial revolution as a result of rapid growth of industries. Since long back, the disposal of liquid and solid wastes on land though undesirable, has been in practice. The leachate generated out from these hazardous wastes infiltrates into the ground and causes multiple problems viz., ground water pollution, soil pollution, loss of nutrition value of soil and thereby severe damage to plantation growth, changes in the soil behavior (excessive swell/shrink) depending on the nature of waste. It also causes serious distress to the existing structures such as pavements, foundations, underground pipelines and culverts. The changes in the soil behaviour caused by ground contamination can lead to structural failures. The present paper describes various physical, chemical, biological, thermal and solidification/stabilization methods of soil and ground water remediation and their comparison on the basis of applicability, time and cost.

This paper presents the results of experimental and analytical studies on the behaviour of sandwich beams fabricated with layered cores and glass fiber-reinforced polymer (GFRP) composite facings. The GFRP facings were fabricated using a unidirectional fiberglass fabric and epoxy resin, and the cores were fabricated using a thin non-woven continuous-strand polyester fiber mat with a thickness of 4.1 mm. A total of 30 sandwich beams with the width of 50 mm were prepared tested with five varying core configurations including cores made with one, two, or three layers of the fiber mat core and with or without the inclusion of intermediate GFRP layers. The specimens were tested up to failure under four-point bending at two different spans to characterize flexural and shear properties of the specimens. Two types of failure were observed, namely crushing of the compression facesheet and core shear. The load-deflection, load-strain, and moment-curvature behaviour were analyzed and using the results the flexural stiffness, shear stiffness, and core shear modulus were calculated. An analytical model was also developed to predict load-deflection behaviour and failure loading of sandwich specimens with varying core layouts. After verification, the analytical model was used for a parametric study of cases not considered in the experimental study, including additional GFRP and fiber mat core layers. It was shown that additional fiber mat core layers and the inclusion of intermediate GFRP layers can increase the strength and overall stiffness of a sandwich beam, while additional GFRP layers can only increase the overall stiffness of the system. The analytical model can be used to optimize the configuration of layered sandwich composites for cost effective rehabilitation techniques of culverts, pipelines, and other curved-shape structures where a thin, flexible core is needed to accommodate the curvature of the existing structure.

Trash racks are the first element mounted in inlet channels of hydraulic structures. Their primary task is to capture coarse pollutants flowing in the riverbed/river channel and protect water facilities downstream. With the use of these devices, it is possible to separate coarse suspended matter, branches carried with the current, floating plastic elements, etc., which undoubtedly contributes to a trouble-free flow through culverts or channels and prevents hydroelectric power plant turbines from failure. An important issue here is also to ensure the proper operation of trash racks, particularly in respect of hydraulic structures whose task is to convert water energy into electricity (hydropower plants). Proper operation of trash racks minimizes losses arising from obstructing the free flow of water through accumulated waste or, in the wintertime, through icing. Incorrect work in this area entails specific head losses, and consequently leads to economic harm. In the paper, the resistance values of trash racks were analyzed at small hydropower plants (SHPs) operating at low temperatures, determined under laboratory conditions, with the occurrence of frazil ice and ice. The results indicate that the added ice into the channel resulted in the formation of a cover in front of the trash racks with an average thickness of about 0.02 m. The accumulated ice increased the head losses up to 14%. The range of the ice cover depended on the weight added ice and reached 0.6 m in analyzed cases.

Introduction: Due to the influence of load, fatigue, corrosion, natural material aging and other long-term adverse factors, the state of the internal force of a cable-stayed bridge will be changed. These long-term effects can result in the bridge not meeting specified functional requirements, and potentially resulting in structural failure. This investigation focuses on the parameter identification of a girder for a pre-stressed concrete (PC) cable-stayed bridge. Without considering the influence of cable relaxation and temperature on the girder’s geometric shape, an improved method based on the “cable force-girder’s displacement” relationship is proposed. Method: In this method, measurement variations of displacement and cable force are simultaneously obtained, enabling the use of an optimization method to identify parameters which need to be resolved. To verify the proposed method, a single pylon PC cable stayed bridge (2×160m) is selected as a case study. For the state of internal force, results from the case study bridge indicate that the crack resistance value of the girder no longer satisfies the demand of Generalized codes for design of highway bridges and culverts(JTG D60-2004,in Chinese). In order to adjust the internal force, cable force optimization was undertaken, whereby bending energy was taken as the objective function. Result: Using these results the geometric shape of the girder was restored to its initial state. The results also show that neither the crack resistance value nor the compression resistance value of the girder exceeded specified limits, and that the stress of the girder was effectively controlled.

Abstract. Escarpment highways, roads and mountainous areas in Saudi Arabia are facing landslide hazards that are frequently occurring from time to time causing considerable damage to these areas. Shear escarpment highway is located in the north of the Abha city. It is the most important escarpment highway in the area, where all the light and heavy trucks and vehicle used it as the only corridor that connects the coastal areas in the western part of the Saudi Arabia with the Asir and Najran Regions. More than 10 000 heavy trucks and vehicles use this highway every day. In the upper portion of Tayyah valley of Shear escarpment highway, there are several landslide and erosion potential zones that affect the bridges between tunnel 7 and 8 along the Shear escarpment Highway. In this study, different types of landslides and erosion problems were considered to access their impacts on the upper Tayyah valley's bridge along Shear escarpment highway using remote sensing data and field investigation. These landslides and erosion problems have a negative impact on this section of the highway. Results indicate that the areas above the highway and bridge level between bridge 7 and 8 have different landslides including planar, circular, rockfall failures and debris flows. In addition, running water through the gullies cause different erosional (scour) features between and surrounding the bridge piles and culverts. A detailed landslides and erosion features map was created based on intensive field investigation (geological, geomorphological, and structural analysis), and interpretation of Landsat image 15 m and high resolution satellite image (QuickBird 0.61 m), shuttle radar topography mission (SRTM 90 m), geological and topographic maps. The landslides and erosion problems could exhibit serious problems that affect the stability of the bridge. Different mitigation and remediation strategies have been suggested to these critical sites to minimize and/or avoid these problems in the future.

Purpose The 2011 and 2013 Queensland, Australia flood events caused massive infrastructure damage for low-level stream crossings such as floodways and culverts in regional Queensland. Failures of newly built floodways during the 2013 Queensland flood event in the Lockyer Valley Regional Council area raised significant concerns with respect to floodway design practices adopted in Australia and attracted significant research interest to enhance the resilience of floodways. Review of existing floodway design guidelines indicates that floodway design process is closely related to hydraulic and hydrological aspects. However, conducting a hydrological analysis is a challenging in rural areas, mainly owing to information scarcity. Floodways in rural areas often require a simple and economical solution contrast to more detailed hydrological analysis approaches adopted in urbanised areas. This paper aims to identify and apply the rational method to estimate maximum flood discharges at selected floodway locations in the Lockyer Valley Regional Council area. The paper further attempts to provide the first insight of flood characteristics during the 2011 and 2013 Queensland flood events at three catchment outputs across the selected case study area. It also highlights modern day challenges for practising engineers and researchers when estimating flood characteristics in rural areas. The paper shows that cross-cultivation of advancement in engineering practices and traditional approaches can promote quantitative approaches when assessing floodway damage in regional areas. Design/methodology/approach The research identifies limitations when assessing flood impact in rural regions in collaboration with experience from industry partners and authors themselves. The authors developed a framework to overcome those limitations arising from information scarcity to minimise the trial and error design approaches utilised in the current design practices for floodways. Findings This paper developed a simple and effective hydrological method with minimum inputs. It also provides an example on collating available but scattered resources and traditional method to quantitatively assess flood discharges of a rural catchment in Australia. Flood discharges at three catchment outlets along the Left-Hand Branch Road in the Lockyer Valley Region during both 2011 and 2013 Queensland flood events are estimated for the first time. The findings highlight the impact of flood discharges and flooded period on floodway failures. Research limitations/implications The current research is based on a selected case study area in Australia. However, similar challenges are expected all across the world, due to the scarcity of rainfall and flood measurement gauges. Practical implications Floodway designers can apply similar framework to estimate the flood discharges instead of current practice of trial and error process. This will provide more scientific and reliable estimation and assessment process. Social implications One of the social impacts identified in the broader research is the community outrages and disagreement between floodway design engineers and the community. Following the developed framework in the manuscript, design engineers will be able to justify their assumptions and design work. Originality/value The paper presents a novel framework on collating different and scattered information towards estimating flood discharges in rural areas. The manuscript presents the first insights on estimated flood discharges in the selected case study area during the 2011 and 2013 Queensland flood events. This will enable further research to be performed in a quantitative manner rather than the present approach of qualitative manner.

The structural performance and soil-structure interaction mechanism of a 7.3 m span three-sided culvert with flat top slab (TSC) are investigated through field monitoring and numerical analyses. The culvert was instrumented with 6 pressure cells and 14 strain gauges. Data were collected during and after construction. Two-dimensional finite element models were verified against the field measurements. The verified numerical models were then employed to evaluate the effects of the foundation soil condition (yielding or non-yielding) on the applied earth pressures along the culvert profile and the induced straining actions at the base of the culvert’s sidewall. Moreover, the structural performance of TSCs at the ultimate loading condition has been evaluated from the numerical model. The results indicated that for TSC supported on yielding foundation soil, significant bending moment develops at the sidewall base and that the assumption of hinged connection at the base is only realistic for the case of TSCs supported on rock (non-yielding foundation). In addition, the precast unit width was found to have minimal influence on the failure mechanism and the ductility of the precast unit. Finally, failure may occur at a lower backfill height for the case of non-yielding foundation relative to the case of yielding foundation.

AbstractThe limit state design of large-span soil–steel composite bridges (SSCB) entails that understanding their structural behaviour in the ultimate state is as much needed as their performance under service conditions. Apart from box culverts, the largest loading-to-failure test was done on a 6.3-m span culvert. More tests on larger spans are believed essentially valuable for the development of the design methods. This paper presents the numerical simulation efforts of an 18.1-m span SSCB pertaining to its ongoing preparations for a full-scale field test. The effect of the different loading positions on the ultimate capacity is investigated. Comparisons are made between three-dimensional (3D) and two-dimensional (2D) models. The results enabled to realise the important role of the soil load effects on the ultimate capacity. It is found that the failure load is reduced when the structure is loaded in an asymmetrical manner. A local effect is more pronounced for the live load when the tandem load is placed closer to the crown. The study also illustrates the complex correlation between 3D and 2D models, especially if one attempts to simultaneously associate sectional forces and displacements.

Culverts are important components of highway infrastructure. They are structurally designed to support earth and live traffic loads. Corrugated steel pipes (CSPs) are widely used as culverts in North America in different geometries. However, due to the corrosive nature of the stormwater passing through the culverts, it is common to find CSPs with partially or entirely lost inverts. Dependent on site, depth of cover and embedment conditions, invert deterioration would not necessarily result in culvert failure. This paper presents the results of a laboratory testing campaign that evaluates the structural capacity of two circular CSPs and their equivalent arch CSP through the application of a vertical static loading. The circular pipe samples had a length of 6 ft (1.82 m) and a diameter of 60 in. (1.52 m). The same length arch pipe sample had a span of 71 in. (1.8 m) and a rise of 47 in. (1.19 m). The invert of the arch and one of the circular CSPs were cut to simulate heavily corroded culverts in service. The pipe samples were embedded under two feet (0.6 m) of cover using one foot (0.3 m) of sand and one foot (0.3 m) of coarse aggregates on top, simulating a base course layer of pavement. The results of testing showed that the invert-cut circular CSP was highly dependent on its ring stiffness. While, the invert-cut arch CSP took advantage of its arch geometry and was able to resist the applied load without significant loss in the sample pipe’s horizontal dimension.

Proper inspection of small culverts can prevent roadway failures, traffic disturbances, and save tens of thousands of dollars on costly repairs. The Vermont Agency of Transportation (VTrans) has adopted a policy that requires all culverts to be inspected every 5 years. Because of this, approximately 9,600 small culverts must be inspected annually. In this study, a lightweight inspection vehicle was designed, built, and tested to meet VTrans requirements for efficient and affordable small culvert inspection. Optimal parameters for video transmission through small culverts were understood through theory and a series of field tests. Vehicle form factor was chosen for maneuverability through small, flooded culverts. Performance for drop inlet inspection scenarios is characterized and discussed. Compared with prior designs, the “Hydraulic Inspection Vehicle Explorer (HIVE) 2.0” inspection vehicle offered much greater video telemetry range and superior maneuverability.

The stress–strain response of cast iron under tension or compression is nonlinear. This paper examines how the hyperbolic constitutive law can be applied to characterize nonlinear stress–strain behavior of cast iron used in water supply networks. Procedures are described to obtain parameters of the hyperbolic constitutive law from either the response (data) obtained from simple uniaxial tensile and compressive tests or from bending tests. To demonstrate its applicability, this hyperbolic constitutive law is first applied to data obtained from uniaxial tensile and compressive tests conducted by Schlick and Moore (1936, “Strength and Elastic Properties of Cast Iron in Tension, Compression, Flexure, and Combined Tension and Flexure,” Bulletin 127, Iowa Engineering Experiment Station, Ames, IA). In addition, an approach to extract parameters for the hyperbolic constitutive law from bending (beam and pipe rings) tests is proposed and subsequently applied to tests conducted by Talbot (1908, “Tests of Cast-Iron and Reinforced Concrete Culvert Pipe,” Bulletin No. 22, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL). This latter approach is attractive for practical purposes because the test set up is simple and the test coupons are very easy to prepare. The hyperbolic constitutive law in conjunction with maximum normal strain theory as proposed by St. Venant (Collins, J. A., 1993, Failure of Materials in Mechanical Design: Analysis, Prediction, Prevention, John Wiley, New York, NY) was also used to predict failure loads.

Buried pipes are important components of the underground infrastructure. Structural failure of these pipes is costly, socially and environmentally disruptive. Currently, two common standard methods are available for the structural testing of pipes: parallel-plate loading test and three-edge bearing test, in which the effect of surrounding soil and distributed load on the pipe sample are ignored. As of today, there is no standard test method available for structural testing of pipes considering the effect of soil-pipe interaction system. Therefore, the objectives of this paper are to present a literature review of full-scale structural testing methods of relatively large diameter gravity pipes ranging from 90 cm and larger, and suggest a general soil-pipe test procedure for structural evaluation of large diameter gravity pipes, such as culverts. Discussions are made for selection of a soil-pipe structural testing condition, loading method, loading rate,loading configurations and required instrumentations for capturing and recording test results

Introduction In any list of dictators and antagonists of the West the name of Libya’s Colonel Muammar Qaddafi will always rank highly as one of the most memorable, colourful and mercurial. The roles he played to his fellow Libyans, to regional groupings, to revolutionaries and to the West were complex and nuanced. These various roles developed over time but were all grounded in his self-belief as a messianic revolutionary figure. More importantly, these roles and behaviours that stemmed from them were instrumental in preserving Qaddafi’s rule and thwarting challenges to it. These facets of Qaddafi’s public self accord with the model of “persona” described by Marshall. Whilst the nature of political persona and celebrity in the Western world has been explored by several scholars (for example Street; Wilson), little work has been conducted on the use of persona by non-democratic leaders. This paper examines the aspects of persona exhibited by Colonel Qaddafi and applied during his tenure. In constructing his role as a revolutionary leader, Qaddafi was engaging in a form of public performance aimed at delivering himself to a wider audience. Whether at home or abroad, this persona served the purpose of helping the Libyan leader consolidate his power, stymie political opposition and export his revolutionary ideals. The trajectory of his persona begins in the early days of his coming to power as a charismatic leader during a “time of distress” (Weber) and culminates in his bloody end next to a roadside drainage culvert. In between these points Qaddafi’s persona underwent refinement and reinvention. Coupled with the legacy he left on the Libyan political system, the journey of Muammar Qaddafi’s personas demonstrate how political personality can be the salvation or damnation of an entire state.Qaddafi: The Brotherly RevolutionaryCaptain Muammar Qaddafi came to power in Libya in 1969 at the age of just 27. He was the leader of a group of military officers who overthrew King Idris in a popular and relatively bloodless coup founded on an ideology of post-colonial Arab nationalism and a doing away with the endemic corruption and nepotism that were the hallmarks of the monarchy. With this revolutionary cause in mind and in an early indication that he recognised the power of political image, Qaddafi showed restraint in adopting the trappings of office. His modest promotion to the rank of Colonel was an obvious example of this, and despite the fact that in practical terms he was the supreme commander of Libya’s armed forces, he resisted the temptation to formally aggrandize himself with military titles for the ensuing 42 years of his rule.High military rank was in a way irrelevant to a man moving to change his persona from army officer to messianic national leader. Switching away from a reliance on military hierarchy as a basis for his authority allowed Qaddafi to re-cast himself as a leader with a broader mission. He began to utilise titles such as “Chairman of the Revolutionary Command Council” (RCC) and “Brotherly Leader and Guide of the Revolution.” The persona on display here was one of detached impartiality and almost reluctant leadership. There was the suggestion that Qaddafi was not really acting as a head of state, but merely an ordinary Libyan who, through popular acclaim, was being begged to lead his people. The attraction of this persona remained until the bitter end for Qaddafi, with his professed inability to step aside from a leadership role he insisted he did not formally occupy. This accords with the contention of Weber, who describes how an individual favoured with charisma can step forward at a time of crisis to complete a “mission.” Once in a position of authority, perpetuating that role of leadership and acclamation can become the mission itself:The holder, of charisma seizes the task that is adequate for him and demands obedience and a following by virtue of his mission. His success determines whether he finds them. His charismatic claim breaks down if his mission is not recognized by those to whom he feels he has been sent. If they recognize him, he is their master—so long as he knows how to maintain recognition through ‘proving’ himself. But he does not derive his ‘right’ from their will, in the manner of an election. Rather, the reverse holds: it is the duty of those to whom he addresses his mission to recognize him as their charismatically qualified leader. (Weber 266-7)As his rule extended across the decades, Qaddafi fostered his revolutionary credentials via a typical cult of personality approach. His image appeared on everything from postage stamps to watches, bags, posters and billboards. Quotations from the Brother Leader were set to music and broadcast as pop songs. “Spontaneous” rallies of support would occur when crowds of loyalists would congregate to hear the Brotherly Leader speak. Although Qaddafi publicly claimed he did not like this level of public adoration he accepted it because the people wanted to adore him. It was widely known however that many of these crowds were paid to attend these rallies (Blundy and Lycett 16).Qaddafi: The Philosopher In developing his persona as a guide and a man who was sharing his natural gifts with the people, Qaddafi developed a post-colonial philosophy he called “Third Universal Theory.” This was published in volumes collectively known as The Green Book. This was mandatory reading for every Libyan and contained a distillation of Qaddafi’s thoughts and opinions on everything from sports to politics to religion to the differences between men and women. Whilst it may be tempting for outsiders to dismiss these writings as the scribbling of a dictator, the legacy of Qaddafi’s persona as political philosopher is worthy of some examination. For in offering his revelations to the Libyan people, Qaddafi extended his mandate beyond leader of a revolution and into the territory of “messianic reformer of a nation.”The Green Book was a three-part series. The first instalment was written in 1975 and focuses on the “problem of democracy” where Qaddafi proposes direct democracy as the best option for a progressive nation. The second instalment, published in 1977, focuses on economics and expounds socialism as the solution to all fiscal woes. (Direct popular action here was evidenced in the RCC making rental of real estate illegal, meaning that all tenants in the country suddenly found themselves granted ownership of the property they were occupying!) The final chapter, published in 1981, proposes the Third Universal Theory where Qaddafi outlines his unique solution for implementing direct democracy and socialism. Qaddafi coined a new term for his Islamically-inspired socialist utopia: Jamahiriya. This was defined as being a “state of the masses” and formed the blueprint for Libyan society which Qaddafi subsequently imposed.This model of direct democracy was part of the charismatic conceit Qaddafi cultivated: that the Libyan people were their own leaders and his role was merely as a benevolent agent acceding to their wishes. However the implementation of the Jamahiriya was anything but benevolent and its legacy has crippled post-Qaddafi Libya. Under this system, Libyans did have some control over their affairs at a very local level. Beyond this, an increasingly complex series of committees and regional groupings, over which the RCC had the right of veto, diluted the participation of ordinary citizens and their ability to coalesce around any individual leader. The banning of standard avenues of political organisation, such as parties and unions, coupled with a ruthless police state that detained and executed anyone offering even a hint of political dissent served to snuff out any opposition before it had a chance to gather pace. The result was that there were no Libyans with enough leadership experience or public profile to take over when Qaddafi was ousted in 2011.Qaddafi: The Liberator In a further plank of his revolutionary persona Qaddafi turned to the world beyond Libya to offer his brotherly guidance. This saw him champion any cause that claimed to be a liberation or resistance movement struggling against the shackles of colonialism. He tended to favour groups that had ideologies aligned with his own, namely Arab unity and the elimination of Israel, but ultimately was not consistent in this regard. Aside from Palestinian nationalists, financial support was offered to groups such as the Provisional Irish Republican Army, the Moro National Liberation Front (Philippines), Umkhonto we Sizwe (South Africa), ETA (Spain), the Polisario Front (Western Sahara), and even separatist indigenous Australians. This policy of backing revolutionary groups was certainly a projection of his persona as a charismatic enabler of the revolutionary mission. However, the reception of this mission in the wider world formed the basis for the image that Qaddafi most commonly occupied in Western eyes.In 1979 the ongoing Libyan support for groups pursuing violent action against Israel and the West saw the country designated a State-Sponsor of Terror by the US Department of State. Diplomatic relations between the two nations were severed and did not resume until 2004. At this point Qaddafi seemed to adopt a persona of “opponent of the West,” ostensibly on behalf of the world’s downtrodden colonial peoples. The support for revolutionary groups was changing to a more active use of them to strike at Western interests. At the same time Qaddafi stepped up his rhetoric against America and Britain, positioning himself as a champion of the Arab world, as the one leader who had the courage of his convictions and the only one who was squarely on the side of the ordinary citizenry (in contrast to other, more compliant Arab rulers). Here again there is evidence of the charismatic revolutionary persona, reluctantly taking up the burden of leadership on behalf of his brothers.Whatever his ideals, the result was that Qaddafi and his state became the focus of increasing Western ire. A series of incidents between the US and Libya in international waters added to the friction, as did Libyan orchestrated terror attacks in Berlin, Rome and Vienna. At the height of this tension in 1986, American aircraft bombed targets in Libya, narrowly missing Qaddafi himself. This role as public enemy of America led to Qaddafi being characterised by President Ronald Reagan (no stranger to the use of persona himself) as the “mad dog of the Middle East” and a “squalid criminal.” The enmity of the West made life difficult for ordinary Libyans dealing with crippling sanctions, but for Qaddafi, it helped bolster his persona as a committed revolutionary.Qaddafi: Leader of the Arab and African Worlds Related to his early revolutionary ideologies were Qaddafi’s aspirations as a pan-national leader. Inspired by Egypt’s Gamel Abdul Nasser from a young age, the ideals of pan-Arab unity were always a cornerstone of Qaddafi’s beliefs. It is not therefore surprising that he developed ambitions of being the person to bring about and “guide” that unity. Once again the Weberian description of the charismatic leader is relevant, particularly the notion that such leadership does not respect conventional boundaries of functional jurisdictions or local bailiwicks; in this case, state boundaries.During the 1970s Qaddafi was involved in numerous attempts to broker Arab unions between Libya and states such as Egypt, Syria and Tunisia. All of these failed to materialise once the exact details of the mergers began to be discussed, in particular who would assume the mantle of leadership in these super-states. In line with his persona as the rightly-guided revolutionary, Qaddafi consistently blamed the failure of these unions on the other parties, souring his relationship with his fellow Arab leaders. His hardline stance on Israel also put him at odds with those peers more determined to find a compromise. Following the assassination of Egypt’s Anwar Sadat in 1981 Qaddafi praised the act as justified because of Sadat’s signing of the Camp David Accords with Israel.Having given up on the hope of achieving pan-Arab Unity, Qaddafi sought to position himself as a leader of the African bloc. In 2009 he became Chairperson of the African Union and took to having himself introduced as “The King of Kings of Africa.” The level of dysfunction of the African Union was no less than that of the Arab League and Qaddafi’s grandiose plans for becoming the President of the United States of Africa failed to materialise.In both his pan-Arab and pan-Africa ambitions, we see a persona of Qaddafi that aims at leadership beyond his own state. Whilst there may be delusions of grandeur apparent in the practicalities of these goals, this image was nevertheless something that Qaddafi used to leverage the next phase of his political transformation.Qaddafi: The Post-9/11 Statesman However much he might be seen as erratic, Qaddafi’s innate intelligence could result in a political astuteness lacking in many of his Arab peers. Following the events of 11 September 2001, Qaddafi was the first international leader to condemn the attacks on America and pledge support in the War on Terror and the extermination of al-Qaeda. Despite his history as a supporter of terrorism overseas, Qaddafi had a long history of repressing it at home, just as with any other form of political opposition. The pan-Islamism of al-Qaeda was anathema to his key ideologies of direct democracy (guided by himself). This meant the United States and Libya were now finally on the same team. As part of this post-9/11 sniffing of the wind, Qaddafi abandoned his fledgling Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD) program and finally agreed to pay reparations to the families of the victims of the Pan Am 107 flight downed over Lockerbie in 1987.This shift in Qaddafi’s policy did not altogether dispel his persona of brotherly leadership amongst African nations. As a bloc leader and an example of the possibility of ‘coming in from the cold’, Qaddafi and Libya were reintegrated into the world community. This included giving a speech at the United Nations in 2009. This event did little to add to his reputation as a statesman in the West. Given a 15-minute slot, the Libyan leader delivered a rambling address over 90 minutes long, which included him tearing up a copy of the UN Charter and turning his back to the audience whilst continuing to speak.Qaddafi: The Clown From the Western point of view, performances like this painted Qaddafi’s behaviour as increasingly bizarre. Particularly after Libya’s rapprochement with the West, the label of threatening terrorist supporter faded and was replaced with something along the lines of a harmless clown prince. Tales of the Libyan leader’s coterie of virgin female bodyguards were the subject of ridicule, as was his ardour for US Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice. Perhaps this behaviour was indicative of a leader increasingly divorced from reality. Surrounded by sycophants dependent on his regard for their tenure or physical survival, as well as Western leaders eager to contrast his amiability with that of Saddam Hussein, nobody was prepared to draw attention to the emperor’s new clothes.Indeed, elaborate and outlandish clothing played an increasing role in Qaddafi’s persona as the decades went on. His simple revolutionary fatigues of the early years were superseded by a vast array of military uniforms heavily decorated with medals and emblems; traditional African, Arab or Bedouin robes depending on the occasion; and in later years a penchant for outfits that included images of the African continent or pictures of dead martyrs. (In 2009 Vanity Fair did a tongue-in-cheek article on the fashion of Colonel Qaddafi entitled Dictator Chic: Colonel Qaddafi—A Life in Fashion. This spawned a number of similar features including one in TIME Magazine entitled Gaddafi Fashion: The Emperor Had Some Crazy Clothes.)The Bedouin theme was an aspect of persona that Qaddafi cultivated as an ascetic “man of the people” throughout his leadership. Despite having many palaces available he habitually slept in an elaborate tent, according once again with Weber’s description of the charismatic leader as one who eschews methodical material gain. This predisposition served him well in the 1986 United States bombing, when his residence in a military barracks was demolished, but Qaddafi escaped unscathed as he was in his tent at the time. He regularly entertained foreign dignitaries in tents when they visited Libya and he took one when travelling abroad, including pitching it in the gardens of a Parisian hotel during a state visit in 2007. (A request to camp in New York’s Central Park for his UN visit in 2009 was denied; “Inside the Tents of Muammar Gaddafi”).The role of such a clown was unlikely to have been an aim for Qaddafi, but was instead the product of his own increasing isolation. It will likely be his most enduring character in the Western memory of his rule. It should be noted though that clowns and fools do not maintain an iron grip on power for over 40 years.The Legacy of Qaddafi’s Many Personas Colonel Muammar Qaddafi was a clever and complex leader who exhibited many variations of persona during his four decades of rule. These personas were generally facets of the same core self-belief of a charismatic leader, but could be conflicting, and often confusing, to observers. His eccentricities often hid a layer of deeper cunning and ambition, but ultimately led to his marginalisation and an impression by world leaders that he was untrustworthy.His erratic performance at the UN in 2009 perhaps typifies the end stages of Qaddafi’s leadership: a man increasingly disconnected from his people and the realities of what was going on around him. His insistence that the 2011 Libyan revolution was variously a colonial or terrorist inspired piece of theatre belied the deep resentment of his rule. His role as opponent of the Western and Arab worlds alike meant that he was unsupported in his attempts to deal with the uprising. Indeed, the West’s rapid willingness to use their airpower was instrumental in speeding on the rebel forces.What cannot be disputed is the chaotic legacy this charismatic figure left for his country. Since the uprising climaxed in his on-camera lynching in October 2011, Libya has been plunged in to turmoil and shows no signs of this abating. One of the central reasons for this chaos is that Qaddafi’s supremacy, his political philosophies, and his use of messianic persona left Libya completely unprepared for rule by any other party.This ensuing chaos has been a cruel, if ironic, proof of Qaddafi’s own conceit: Libya could not survive without him.References Al-Gathafi, Muammar. The Green Book: The Solution to the Problem of Democracy; The Solution to the Economic Problem; The Social Basis of the Third Universal Theory. UK: Ithaca Press, 2005.Blundy, David, and Andrew Lycett. Qaddafi and the Libyan Revolution. Boston and Toronto: Little Brown & Co, 1987.Marshall, P. David. “Persona Studies: Mapping the Proliferation of the Public Self”. Journalism 15.2 (2014): 153-170.Qaddafi, Muammar. Speech at the United Nations 2009. ‹http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BKMyY2V0J0Y›. Street, John. “Celebrity Politicians: Popular Culture and Political Representation.” British Journal of Politics and International Relations 6 (2004): 435-52.Street, John. “Do Celebrity Politics and Celebrity Politicians Matter?” The British Journal of Politics & International Relations 14.3 (2012): 346-356.TIME Magazine. “Gaddafi Fashion: The Emperor Had Some Crazy Clothes.” ‹http://content.time.com/time/photogallery/0,29307,2055860,00.html›.TIME Magazine. “Inside the Tents of Muammar Gaddafi.” ‹http://content.time.com/time/photogallery/0,29307,2058074,00.html›.Totman, Sally, and Mat Hardy. “In the Green Zone: 40 years with Colonel Qaddafi.” Ed. Geoffrey Hawker. APSA 2009: Proceedings of the APSA Annual Conference 2009. Sydney: Macquarie University, 2009. 1-19.Totman, Sally, and Mat Hardy. “The Rise and Decline of Libya as a Rogue State.” OCIS 2008: Oceanic Conference on International Studies. Brisbane: University of Queensland, 2008. 1-25.Vanity Fair. “Dictator Chic: Colonel Qaddafi—A Life in Fashion.” ‹http://www.vanityfair.com/politics/features/2009/08/qaddafi-slideshow200908›.Weber, Max, Hans Heinrich Gerth, and C. Wright Mills. From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology. London: Routledge, 2009.Wilson, J. “Kevin Rudd, Celebrity and Audience Democracy in Australia.” Journalism 15.2 (2013): 202-217.

The Leichhardt Highway is a six hundred-kilometre stretch of sealed inland road that joins the Australian Queensland border town of Goondiwindi with the Capricorn Highway, just south of the Tropic of Capricorn. Named after the young Prussian naturalist Ludwig Leichhardt, part of this roadway follows the route his party took as they crossed northern Australia from Morton Bay (Brisbane) to Port Essington (near Darwin). Ignoring the usual colonial practice of honouring the powerful and aristocratic, Leichhardt named the noteworthy features along this route after his supporters and fellow expeditioners. Many of these names are still in use and a series of public monuments have also been erected in the intervening century and a half to commemorate this journey. Unlike Leichhardt, who survived his epic trip, some contemporary travellers who navigate the remote roadway named in his honour do not arrive at their final destinations. Memorials to these violently interrupted lives line the highway, many enigmatically located in places where there is no obvious explanation for the lethal violence that occurred there. This examination profiles the memorials along Leichhardt’s highway as Gothic practice, in order to illuminate some of the uncanny paradoxes around public memorials, as well as the loaded emotional terrain such commemorative practices may inhabit. All humans know that death awaits them (Morell). Yet, despite this, and the unprecedented torrent of images of death and dying saturating news, television, and social media (Duwe; Sumiala; Bisceglio), Gorer’s mid-century ideas about the denial of death and Becker’s 1973 Pulitzer prize-winning description of the purpose of human civilization as a defence against this knowledge remains current in the contemporary trope that individuals (at least in the West) deny their mortality. Contributing to this enigmatic situation is how many deny the realities of aging and bodily decay—the promise of the “life extension” industries (Hall)—and are shielded from death by hospitals, palliative care providers, and the multimillion dollar funeral industry (Kiernan). Drawing on Piatti-Farnell’s concept of popular culture artefacts as “haunted/haunting” texts, the below describes how memorials to the dead can powerfully reconnect those who experience them with death’s reality, by providing an “encrypted passageway through which the dead re-join the living in a responsive cycle of exchange and experience” (Piatti-Farnell). While certainly very different to the “sublime” iconic Gothic structure, the Gothic ruin that Summers argued could be seen as “a sacred relic, a memorial, a symbol of infinite sadness, of tenderest sensibility and regret” (407), these memorials do function in both this way as melancholy/regret-inducing relics as well as in Piatti-Farnell’s sense of bringing the dead into everyday consciousness. Such memorialising activity also evokes one of Spooner’s features of the Gothic, by acknowledging “the legacies of the past and its burdens on the present” (8).Ludwig Leichhardt and His HighwayWhen Leichhardt returned to Sydney in 1846 from his 18-month journey across northern Australia, he was greeted with surprise and then acclaim. Having mounted his expedition without any backing from influential figures in the colony, his party was presumed lost only weeks after its departure. Yet, once Leichhardt and almost all his expedition returned, he was hailed “Prince of Explorers” (Erdos). When awarding him a significant purse raised by public subscription, then Speaker of the Legislative Council voiced what he believed would be the explorer’s lasting memorial —the public memory of his achievement: “the undying glory of having your name enrolled amongst those of the great men whose genius and enterprise have impelled them to seek for fame in the prosecution of geographical science” (ctd. Leichhardt 539). Despite this acclaim, Leichhardt was a controversial figure in his day; his future prestige not enhanced by his Prussian/Germanic background or his disappearance two years later attempting to cross the continent. What troubled the colonial political class, however, was his transgressive act of naming features along his route after commoners rather than the colony’s aristocrats. Today, the Leichhardt Highway closely follows Leichhardt’s 1844-45 route for some 130 kilometres from Miles, north through Wandoan to Taroom. In the first weeks of his journey, Leichhardt named 16 features in this area: 6 of the more major of these after the men in his party—including the Aboriginal man ‘Charley’ and boy John Murphy—4 more after the tradesmen and other non-aristocratic sponsors of his venture, and the remainder either in memory of the journey’s quotidian events or natural features there found. What we now accept as traditional memorialising practice could in this case be termed as Gothic, in that it upset the rational, normal order of its day, and by honouring humble shopkeepers, blacksmiths and Indigenous individuals, revealed the “disturbance and ambivalence” (Botting 4) that underlay colonial class relations (Macintyre). On 1 December 1844, Leichhardt also memorialised his own past, referencing the Gothic in naming a watercourse The Creek of the Ruined Castles due to the “high sandstone rocks, fissured and broken like pillars and walls and the high gates of the ruined castles of Germany” (57). Leichhardt also disturbed and disfigured the nature he so admired, famously carving his initials deep into trees along his route—a number of which still exist, including the so-called Leichhardt Tree, a large coolibah in Taroom’s main street. Leichhardt also wrote his own memorial, keeping detailed records of his experiences—both good and more regretful—in the form of field books, notebooks and letters, with his major volume about this expedition published in London in 1847. Leichhardt’s journey has since been memorialised in various ways along the route. The Leichhardt Tree has been further defaced with numerous plaques nailed into its ancient bark, and the town’s federal government-funded Bicentennial project raised a formal memorial—a large sandstone slab laid with three bronze plaques—in the newly-named Ludwig Leichhardt Park. Leichhardt’s name also adorns many sites both along, and outside, the routes of his expeditions. While these fittingly include natural features such as the Leichhardt River in north-west Queensland (named in 1856 by Augustus Gregory who crossed it by searching for traces of the explorer’s ill-fated 1848 expedition), there are also many businesses across Queensland and the Northern Territory less appropriately carrying his name. More somber monuments to Leichhardt’s legacy also resulted from this journey. The first of these was the white settlement that followed his declaration that the countryside he moved through was well endowed with fertile soils. With squatters and settlers moving in and land taken up before Leichhardt had even arrived back in Sydney, the local Yeeman people were displaced, mistreated and completely eradicated within a decade (Elder). Mid-twentieth century, Patrick White’s literary reincarnation, Voss of the eponymous novel, and paintings by Sidney Nolan and Albert Tucker have enshrined in popular memory not only the difficult (and often described as Gothic) nature of the landscape through which Leichhardt travelled (Adams; Mollinson, and Bonham), but also the distinctive and contrary blend of intelligence, spiritual mysticism, recklessness, and stoicism Leichhardt brought to his task. Roadside Memorials Today, the Leichhardt Highway is also lined with a series of roadside shrines to those who have died much more recently. While, like centotaphs, tombstones, and cemeteries, these memorialise the dead, they differ in usually marking the exact location that death occurred. In 43 BC, Cicero articulated the idea of the dead living in memory, “The life of the dead consists in the recollection cherished of them by the living” (93), yet Nelson is one of very few contemporary writers to link roadside memorials to elements of Gothic sensibility. Such constructions can, however, be described as Gothic, in that they make the roadway unfamiliar by inscribing onto it the memory of corporeal trauma and, in the process, re-creating their locations as vivid sites of pain and suffering. These are also enigmatic sites. Traffic levels are generally low along the flat or gently undulating terrain and many of these memorials are located in locations where there is no obvious explanation for the violence that occurred there. They are loci of contradictions, in that they are both more private than other memorials, in being designed, and often made and erected, by family and friends of the deceased, and yet more public, visible to all who pass by (Campbell). Cemeteries are set apart from their surroundings; the roadside memorial is, in contrast, usually in open view along a thoroughfare. In further contrast to cemeteries, which contain many relatively standardised gravesites, individual roadside memorials encapsulate and express not only the vivid grief of family and friends but also—when they include vehicle wreckage or personal artefacts from the fatal incident—provide concrete evidence of the trauma that occurred. While the majority of individuals interned in cemeteries are long dead, roadside memorials mark relatively contemporary deaths, some so recent that there may still be tyre marks, debris and bloodstains marking the scene. In 2008, when I was regularly travelling this roadway, I documented, and researched, the six then extant memorial sites that marked the locations of ten fatalities from 1999 to 2006. (These were all still in place in mid-2014.) The fatal incidents are very diverse. While half involved trucks and/or road trains, at least three were single vehicle incidents, and the deceased ranged from 13 to 84 years of age. Excell argues that scholarship on roadside memorials should focus on “addressing the diversity of the material culture” (‘Contemporary Deathscapes’) and, in these terms, the Leichhardt Highway memorials vary from simple crosses to complex installations. All include crosses (mostly, but not exclusively, white), and almost all are inscribed with the name and birth/death dates of the deceased. Most include flowers or other plants (sometimes fresh but more often plastic), but sometimes also a range of relics from the crash and/or personal artefacts. These are, thus, unsettling sights, not least in the striking contrast they provide with the highway and surrounding road reserve. The specific location is a key component of their ability to re-sensitise viewers to the dangers of the route they are travelling. The first memorial travelling northwards, for instance, is situated at the very point at which the highway begins, some 18 kilometres from Goondiwindi. Two small white crosses decorated with plastic flowers are set poignantly close together. The inscriptions can also function as a means of mobilising connection with these dead strangers—a way of building Secomb’s “haunted community”, whereby community in the post-colonial age can only be built once past “murderous death” (131) is acknowledged. This memorial is inscribed with “Cec Hann 06 / A Good Bloke / A Good hoarseman [sic]” and “Pat Hann / A Good Woman” to tragically commemorate the deaths of an 84-year-old man and his 79-year-old wife from South Australia who died in the early afternoon of 5 June 2006 when their Ford Falcon, towing a caravan, pulled onto the highway and was hit by a prime mover pulling two trailers (Queensland Police, ‘Double Fatality’; Jones, and McColl). Further north along the highway are two memorials marking the most inexplicable of road deaths: the single vehicle fatality (Connolly, Cullen, and McTigue). Darren Ammenhauser, aged 29, is remembered with a single white cross with flowers and plaque attached to a post, inscribed hopefully, “Darren Ammenhauser 1971-2000 At Rest.” Further again, at Billa Billa Creek, a beautifully crafted metal cross attached to a fence is inscribed with the text, “Kenneth J. Forrester / RIP Jack / 21.10.25 – 27.4.05” marking the death of the 79-year-old driver whose vehicle veered off the highway to collide with a culvert on the creek. It was reported that the vehicle rolled over several times before coming to rest on its wheels and that Forrester was dead when the police arrived (Queensland Police, ‘Fatal Traffic Incident’). More complex memorials recollect both single and multiple deaths. One, set on both sides of the road, maps the physical trajectory of the fatal smash. This memorial comprises white crosses on both sides of road, attached to a tree on one side, and a number of ancillary sites including damaged tyres with crosses placed inside them on both sides of the road. Simple inscriptions relay the inability of such words to express real grief: “Gary (Gazza) Stevens / Sadly missed” and “Gary (Gazza) Stevens / Sadly missed / Forever in our hearts.” The oldest and most complex memorial on the route, commemorating the death of four individuals on 18 June 1999, is also situated on both sides of the road, marking the collision of two vehicles travelling in opposite directions. One memorial to a 62-year-old man comprises a cross with flowers, personal and automotive relics, and a plaque set inside a wooden fence and simply inscribed “John Henry Keenan / 23-11-1936–18-06-1999”. The second memorial contains three white crosses set side-by-side, together with flowers and relics, and reveals that members of three generations of the same family died at this location: “Raymond Campbell ‘Butch’ / 26-3-67–18-6-99” (32 years of age), “Lorraine Margaret Campbell ‘Lloydie’ / 29-11-46–18-6-99” (53 years), and “Raymond Jon Campbell RJ / 28-1-86–18-6-99” (13 years). The final memorial on this stretch of highway is dedicated to Jason John Zupp of Toowoomba who died two weeks before Christmas 2005. This consists of a white cross, decorated with flowers and inscribed: “Jason John Zupp / Loved & missed by all”—a phrase echoed in his newspaper obituary. The police media statement noted that, “at 11.24pm a prime mover carrying four empty trailers [stacked two high] has rolled on the Leichhardt Highway 17km north of Taroom” (Queensland Police, ‘Fatal Truck Accident’). The roadside memorial was placed alongside a ditch on a straight stretch of road where the body was found. The coroner’s report adds the following chilling information: “Mr Zupp was thrown out of the cabin and his body was found near the cabin. There is no evidence whatsoever that he had applied the brakes or in any way tried to prevent the crash … Jason was not wearing his seatbelt” (Cornack 5, 6). Cornack also remarked the truck was over length, the brakes had not been properly adjusted, and the trip that Zupp had undertaken could not been lawfully completed according to fatigue management regulations then in place (8). Although poignant and highly visible due to these memorials, these deaths form a small part of Australia’s road toll, and underscore our ambivalent relationship with the automobile, where road death is accepted as a necessary side-effect of the freedom of movement the technology offers (Ladd). These memorials thus animate highways as Gothic landscapes due to the “multifaceted” (Haider 56) nature of the fear, terror and horror their acknowledgement can bring. Since 1981, there have been, for instance, between some 1,600 and 3,300 road deaths each year in Australia and, while there is evidence of a long term downward trend, the number of deaths per annum has not changed markedly since 1991 (DITRDLG 1, 2), and has risen in some years since then. The U.S.A. marked its millionth road death in 1951 (Ladd) along the way to over 3,000,000 during the 20th century (Advocates). These deaths are far reaching, with U.K. research suggesting that each death there leaves an average of 6 people significantly affected, and that there are some 10 to 20 per cent of mourners who experience more complicated grief and longer term negative affects during this difficult time (‘Pathways Through Grief’). As the placing of roadside memorials has become a common occurrence the world over (Klaassens, Groote, and Vanclay; Grider; Cohen), these are now considered, in MacConville’s opinion, not only “an appropriate, but also an expected response to tragedy”. Hockey and Draper have explored the therapeutic value of the maintenance of “‘continuing bonds’ between the living and the dead” (3). This is, however, only one explanation for the reasons that individuals erect roadside memorials with research suggesting roadside memorials perform two main purposes in their linking of the past with the present—as not only sites of grieving and remembrance, but also of warning (Hartig, and Dunn; Everett; Excell, Roadside Memorials; MacConville). Clark adds that by “localis[ing] and personalis[ing] the road dead,” roadside memorials raise the profile of road trauma by connecting the emotionless statistics of road death directly to individual tragedy. They, thus, transform the highway into not only into a site of past horror, but one in which pain and terror could still happen, and happen at any moment. Despite their increasing commonality and their recognition as cultural artefacts, these memorials thus occupy “an uncomfortable place” both in terms of public policy and for some individuals (Lowe). While in some states of the U.S.A. and in Ireland the erection of such memorials is facilitated by local authorities as components of road safety campaigns, in the U.K. there appears to be “a growing official opposition to the erection of memorials” (MacConville). Criticism has focused on the dangers (of distraction and obstruction) these structures pose to passing traffic and pedestrians, while others protest their erection on aesthetic grounds and even claim memorials can lower property values (Everett). While many ascertain a sense of hope and purpose in the physical act of creating such shrines (see, for instance, Grider; Davies), they form an uncanny presence along the highway and can provide dangerous psychological territory for the viewer (Brien). Alongside the townships, tourist sites, motels, and petrol stations vying to attract customers, they stain the roadway with the unmistakable sign that a violent death has happened—bringing death, and the dead, to the fore as a component of these journeys, and destabilising prominent cultural narratives of technological progress and safety (Richter, Barach, Ben-Michael, and Berman).Conclusion This investigation has followed Goddu who proposes that a Gothic text “registers its culture’s contradictions” (3) and, in profiling these memorials as “intimately connected to the culture that produces them” (Goddu 3) has proposed memorials as Gothic artefacts that can both disturb and reveal. Roadside memorials are, indeed, so loaded with emotional content that their close contemplation can be traumatising (Brien), yet they are inescapable while navigating the roadway. Part of their power resides in their ability to re-animate those persons killed in these violent in the minds of those viewing these memorials. In this way, these individuals are reincarnated as ghostly presences along the highway, forming channels via which the traveller can not only make human contact with the dead, but also come to recognise and ponder their own sense of mortality. While roadside memorials are thus like civic war memorials in bringing untimely death to the forefront of public view, roadside memorials provide a much more raw expression of the chaotic, anarchic and traumatic moment that separates the world of the living from that of the dead. While traditional memorials—such as those dedicated by, and to, Leichhardt—moreover, pay homage to the vitality of the lives of those they commemorate, roadside memorials not only acknowledge the alarming circumstances of unexpected death but also stand testament to the power of the paradox of the incontrovertibility of sudden death versus our lack of ability to postpone it. In this way, further research into these and other examples of Gothic memorialising practice has much to offer various areas of cultural study in Australia.ReferencesAdams, Brian. Sidney Nolan: Such Is Life. Hawthorn, Vic.: Hutchinson, 1987. Advocates for Highway and Auto Safety. “Motor Vehicle Traffic Fatalities & Fatality Rate: 1899-2003.” 2004. Becker, Ernest. The Denial of Death. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1973. Bisceglio, Paul. “How Social Media Is Changing the Way We Approach Death.” The Atlantic 20 Aug. 2013. Botting, Fred. Gothic: The New Critical Idiom. 2nd edition. Abingdon, UK: Routledge, 2014. 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