Academic literature on the topic 'Curriculum-based assessment. Educational tests and measurements. Reading'

In language assessment and in educational measurement more broadly, there is a tendency to interpret scores from single-administration tests as accurate indicators of a latent trait (e.g., reading ability). Even in contexts where learners receive multiple formative assessments throughout the year, estimates of student ability are determined based on the most recent assessment. This paper demonstrates a technique that incorporates prior test scores with current scores for learners who re-test periodically, in order to arrive at an estimate closer to the learners’ true score. Over 21,000 learners from two separate studies (EFL and native speaker) were tested for reading proficiency between three and five times each, over a one- to two-year period, on a multiple-choice reading test which reported reading ability in Lexile® measures. Applying Bayes theorem, prior scores and the most recent test score were combined with uncertainty parameters (i.e., measurement error) to produce new estimates of student ability. This is advantageous as prior administration data is re-used rather than discarded. The approach is recommended in the context of periodic low-stakes tests designed to measure proficiency gains over time, as well as for high-stakes tests as an alternative to allowing candidates to cherry-pick their highest score for university applications.

The academic performances and naturally occurring characteristics of students referred by regular education classroom teachers for possible placement in special education programs were examined. Curriculum Based Assessment procedures were used with 570 grade 2 through 6 students referred because of reading difficulties. Teacher bias was examined by comparing the reading performances of referred students as a function of their sex and ethnicity and by comparing the percentages of students to the base rate population of low reading performers. Teacher accuracy was investigated using “narrow band” or “broad band” definitions. Findings indicated that teachers are both accurate and biased in the referral process. The implications of the findings are discussed in relationship to current identification practices and to the suggestion that teachers be treated as tests in lieu of current practice.

Introduction: Ultrasonography (US), performed in the Emergency Department (ED) by Emergency Physicians, is well established. Educational studies have shown some promise in training paramedics in US use. We have developed and piloted a novel curriculum for paramedic US education. Methods: Based on an informal needs assessment, an US curriculum for paramedics was developed to include: Basic principles, Focused assessment with sonography for trauma (FAST), cardiac, and vascular access. Participants included ED-based and pre-hospital paramedics including all paramedics with critical care training who routinely perform vascular access and procedural sedation within our ED. Comparisons were made using paired non-parametric tests (GraphPad). Results: Participants (N=9) were provided pre- reading materials prior to completing a 6-hour course, consisting of a mix of didactic and practical sessions with live models and vascular access phantoms. Each module was introduced with a 30 minute didactic session, led by an Emergency Physician trained in US, followed immediately by a 1 hour hands-on session lead by either an Emergency Physician or an Emergency Medicine Resident at a learner to instructor ratio of 3:1. At the end of the course, participants were asked to complete a short 10 minute survey that included (1) an assessment of the course quality with regard to preparatory material and course content/delivery (4 point Likert scale; excellent, good, fair, poor); (2) self reported US knowledge pre and post course on a scale of 1-10 (10 high, 1 low); (3) general yes/no questions related to the future of ECCU paramedical and (4) a subjective written section for additional comments. All participants rated the content favourably: 97% scoring it as excellent, and 3% as good. The participants median self-reported US knowledge score increased from 2/10 (IQR 2-3) to 8/10 (IQR 7.25-8; p=0.009) post- course. All comments from the text field were positive in nature. Conclusion: We report a paramedic US course curriculum, which when piloted resulted in high learner satisfaction and a high rate of self reported improvement in US knowledge. Further study will include an assessment of knowledge acquisition and practical performance. Future modifications in our curriculum will be based on needs assessment and may include additional modules.

The article is devoted to the topical problem of modern principles of developing tests of Russian as a foreign language (RFL), taking into account the world experience. The purpose of the article is to summarize the modern principles of language test development and to show how they are implemented in the new tests of Russian as a foreign language. The materials of the article include the research papers of Russian and foreign authors in the sphere of methodology over the past 20 years, as well as modern formats of testing in foreign languages. At the first stage of the study, general scientific methods of generalization, systematization and structuring were used. At the second phase, a new format of the RFL test Reading and Use of Language (B2) was modelled, combining language and communication competence testing. At the third stage, an experiment was conducted to test the new format. 48 foreign master students studying the program Russian Language and Russian Culture in the Aspect of Russian as a Foreign Language in Saint Petersburg State University took part in the experiment. It was concluded that the modern language test, in accordance with the basic cognitive and communicative principle of learning and control, should be based on the following principles: testing skills in different types of speech activities mainly on the text material; interdependence between the type of the task and the speech genre of the text being created/used in the task; basing on a linguistic and didactic description of the communicative competence level; integrative approach; using different types of test tasks within one subtest; the principle of increasing complexity of tasks; taking into account the complexity of each task in its assessment; task feasibility according to students educational level; taking into account the values of the multicultural world; taking into account international experience; basing on reliability and validity criteria of test tasks. These principles implemented in the new TORFL-II subtest format Reading and Use of Language are presented in the article. The implementation of modern test principles should ensure that all speech control facilities are systematically allocated to the appropriate level and parameters for their assessment. The above-mentioned principles of test creation and the example of their implementation can be taken as the basis of a full-fledged system of control and measurement materials based on linguistic and didactical descriptions of each level.

Currently, there is great interest in the correlation between children’s physical activity and their academic performance. In this study, a pre-test/mid-test/post-test experimental strategy was used to avoid any disruption of educational activities, due to the random selection of children in each group. The experimental group was tested for eight months. We developed a methodology for innovative physical education classes and created a model of educational factors that encourage physical activity for children. The experimental group comprised 45 girls and 44 boys aged 6–7 years. The control group included 43 girls and 46 boys aged 6–7. Methods: Mathematical diagnostic progress tests were divided into two sections: tasks were allocated according to performance levels and the content as well as fields of activity and cognitive skills. The assessment of all areas of activity was based on student performance (unsatisfactory, satisfactory, basic, and advanced). Distribution of mathematical learning achievements by curriculum content: mathematical diagnosis was used to evaluate first-grade children’s mathematical knowledge and skills according to the five areas of the mathematics education curriculum: numbers and calculations; phenomena, equations, and inequalities; geometry, measures, and measurements; statistics and communication; and general problem-solving skills. The differences between the pre-test and mid-test results indicated that the number of children performing at a satisfactory level decreased (p = 0.035). The differences between the pre-test and post-test advanced (p = 0.038) and basic (p = 0.018) levels were found to be increased. Applying an innovative physical education program to first graders demonstrated a higher-level mathematics program in the areas of geometry, measures, and measurements; statistics; and communication and general problem-solving skills. Based on the interface between an innovative primary school physical education program and mathematics learning achievements, a research tool was developed that can be used in a quantitative research strategy.

Purpose Pay, tenure and promotion decisions are frequently based upon inferences regarding the value of faculty research. Meanwhile, departmental, college and university reputations are frequently based on perceptions regarding the quality of research being produced by its faculty. Making correct inferences requires accurate measurement of research quality, which is often based upon the journal through which results are shared. This research expands upon the research found elsewhere through its detailed investigation of leading journals in two business disciplines, including examination of four different citation-based measures and four journal characteristics which are exogenous to the quality of any individual piece of research. The paper aims to discuss this issue. Design/methodology/approach This study assists in the development of an accurate perspective regarding research quality, by studying the popular Journal Citation Reports (JCR) impact factor. A further expansion on the past literature is consideration of three newer journal quality metrics: SCImago Journal Rank (SJR), Source Normalized Impact per Paper (SNIP) and percentage of articles cited. Top-tier journals in finance and information systems are compared to evaluate the consistency of these measures across disciplines. Differences in journal characteristics and their impact on citation-rate based measures of quality are also examined. The potential impact of discipline-based variation in acceptance rate, issue frequency, the time since journal inception and total reviewers are put forth as additional potential exogenous factors that may impact the perception of journal quality. t-Tests are employed for discipline comparisons, while correlation and multiple regression are used for journal characteristic analysis. Findings There is a significant difference in the JCR impact measures of high-quality finance journals vs high-quality information systems journals, which are correlated with a variety of journal-specific factors including the journal’s acceptance rate and frequency of issue. Information systems journals domination of finance journals persists whether one considers mean, median, minimum or maximum impact factors. SJR measures for finance journals are consistently higher than information systems journals, though the SJR value of any individual journal can be quite volatile. By comparison, the SNIP metric rates premier information systems journals higher. Over 12 percent more of the articles in leading information systems journals are cited during the initial three years. Research limitations/implications Logical extensions of this research include examining journals in other business disciplines. One could also evaluate quality measures reaction to variation in journal characteristics (i.e. changes in acceptance rates). Furthermore, one could include other measures of journal quality, including the recently released CiteScore metric. Such research will build on the present research and improve the accuracy of research quality assessment. Practical implications To the extent that citation-based research measures and journal-specific factors vary across disciplines as demonstrated by our investigation, discipline-specific traits should be considered adjusted for, when making inferences about the long-term value of recently published research. For instance, finance faculty publishing in journals with JCR readings of 2.0 are in journals that are 53 percent above the discipline’s average, while information systems faculty publishing in journals with JCR readings of 2.0 are in journals that are 18 percent below the discipline’s average. Furthermore, discipline-specific differences in journal characteristics, leading to differences in citation-based quality measures, should be considered when making inferences about the long-term value of recently published research in the process of making recommendations regarding salary adjustments, retention and promotion. Social implications Quantity and quality of research are two hallmarks of leading research institutions. Assessing research quality is very problematic because its definition has changed from being based on review process (i.e. blind refereed), to acceptance rates, to impact factors. Furthermore, the impact factor construct has been a lightning rod of controversy as researchers, administrators and journals themselves argue over which metric to employ. This research is attempting to assess how impact factors and journal characteristics may influence the impact factors, and how these interactions vary business discipline. The research is especially important and relevant to the authors which separately chair departments including finance and information systems faculty, and therefore are in roles requiring assessment of faculty research productivity including quality. Originality/value This study is a detailed analysis of bibliographic aspects of the top-tier journals in two quantitative business areas. In addition to the popular JCR, SJR and SNIP measures of performance, the analysis studies the seldom-examined percentage of the article cited metric. A deeper understanding of citation-based measures is obtained though the evaluation of changes in how journals have been rated on these metrics over time. The research shows that there are discipline-related systematic differences in both citation-based research measures and journal-specific factors and that these discipline-specific traits should be considered when making inferences about the long-term value of recently published research. Furthermore, discipline-specific difference in journal characteristics, leading to differences in citation-based quality measures, should be considered when making personnel and remuneration decisions.

The progress of science is discontinuous. However, accepting the dynamic nature of science, most of us have experienced the point of research crossroads when it was hard to choose the correct path. In 1962 Thomas Samuel Kuhn published his controversial book The Structure of Scientific Revolutions introducing the term “paradigm shift” raising the idea that progress isn't a continuous accumulation, but rather a revolutionary process where brand new ideas are adopted and old ideas are abandoned. Without trying to accept or argue philosphical aspects, today we experience a rapidly growing amount of research in ophthalmology. The goal of the current evidence-based approach in medicine is to optimize everyday clinical practice based on comprehensive research. However, results coming from the basic sciences sometimes may not be directly applicableto an individual patient. The latest developments, scientific achievements and research in ophthalmology steer to the exciting new perspective based on a multidisciplinary approach. Bringing together scientists whose expertise encompasses ophthalmology, physiology, mathematics, physics and engineering and who explore different aspects of the same problems empowering to make scientific progress. Can ophthalmologists think mathematically? Is it possible to provide a quantitative representation of the biophysical processes in the eye? Application of objective scientific methods and subjective perspectives can open up a wide range of educational and professional opportunities leading to a better understanding of the pathogenesis and the natural course of the disease, progression and new ways of treatment. Introducing the 2nd issue of Journal for Modeling in Ophthalmology, we hope the reader will enjoy both clinical and theoretical insights on glaucoma in short papers that followed the International Congress on Advanced Technologies and Treatments for Glaucoma (ICATTG15) held in Milan (Italy), October 29-31, 2015 (http://www.icatto.com/archive/icattg2015/). Normal tension glaucoma is a particularly difficult type of glaucoma both in terms of diagnosis and treatment. M. Iester pointed out that different types of glaucoma exist and are probably based on the presence of different risk factors. The cut-off value of 21 mmHg is not used anymore to differentiate healthy subjects from glaucoma patients. The paper by L. Quaranta et al analyses the rationale for IOP measurements throughout the 24-hour cycle. IOP is not a static number; rather, it exhibits time-dependent variations that can reach up to 6 mmHg over a 24-hour period in healthy eyes, and even more in eyes with glaucoma2-5. Regarding 24-hour IOP characteristics, only IOP peak was correlated to visual field progression, while 24-hour IOP fluctuation was not an independent risk factor6. Indeed, 24-hour mean, peak and fluctuation were all associated and a strong correlation was found between mean and peak IOP, and between fluctuation and peak IOP. Mean IOP is a strong predictor of glaucomatous damage. A desired therapeutic target is therefore a uniform reduction of IOP throughout the 24 hours. A reliable method of continuous IOP measurement would be desirable, making 24-hour IOP phasing easier and opening new pathways for research. Interestingly, the papers by M. Szopos M et al and A. Mauri et al lead to new perspectives of mathematical modeling of aqueous humor flow and intraocular pressure towards individualized glaucoma management. M. Szopos et al aimed to provide both a qualitative description and a quantitative assessment of how variations in aqueous humor flow parameters influence IOP and the outcome of IOP lowering medications. They developed a mathematical model that described the steady state value of IOP as the result of the balance between aqueous humor production and drainage and performing stochastic simulations to assess the influence of different factors on the IOP distribution in ocular normotensive and ocular hypertensive subjects and also on the IOP reduction following medications. This model may help identify patient specific factors that influence the efficacy of IOP lowering medications and aid the development of novel, effective, and individualized therapeutic approaches to glaucoma management. A. Mauri et al. theoretically analyzed new aspects of electro-fluid dynamics of aqueous humor production. The connection between HCO3, Na+ and topical medications in the regulation of aqueous humor production is still controversial and difficult to study experimentally by trying to isolate the role of a single electrolyte in regulating aqueous humor production. The use of a mathematical model appeared to be a promising approach to help unravel such a connection through simulation and comparison of different predicted scenarios. Groups of authors from Indianapolis and Milan universities contributed to glaucoma progression analysis. K. Hutchins et al paper on clinical evaluation of baseline characteristics predictive of structural and functional progression in open angle glaucoma patients with different demographic characteristics aimed to examine ocular blood flow parameters that may predict structural and functional disease progression in open angle glaucoma patients of different diabetic status, gender, ethnicity, and body mass index. D. Messenio et al. evaluated the variations of IOP, morphometric papillary characteristics, perimetric indices and electrophysiological parameters before and after topical IOP lowering therapy in patients with suspect normal tension glaucoma. They showed that electrophysiological tests could provide a more sensitive measure of retinal ganglion cell integrity and help distinguish between suspect normal-pressure glaucoma patients before perimetric alterations are evident and normal subjects with apparent larger disc cupping. Over the past decades, color Doppler imaging (CDI) has gained popularity as a reliable tool to measure blood flow in a variety of vascular beds throughout the body. The use of CDI to measure blood flow parameters in retrobulbar vessels has become very common. L. Carichino et al introduced a computer-aided identification of novel ophthalmic artery waveform parameters. The computed-aided analysis of ophthalmic artery velocity waveforms obtained via CDI were able to distinguish arterial waveform parameters values between healthy subjects and glaucoma patients, as well as between gender. Authors foresee further studies investigating the potential to predict severity and progression of glaucoma. An interesting contribution by S. Cassani et al on theoretical predictions of metabolic flow regulation in the retina aims to better understand the regulating mechanisms in health and disease. This study used a theoretical model to investigate the response of retinal blood flow to changes in tissue oxygen demand. The increase in blood flow predicted by the model due to an increase in oxygen demand was not in the same proportion as the change in blood flow observed with the same decrease in oxygen demand, suggesting that vascular regulatory mechanisms may respond differently to different levels of oxygen demand. Several studies have suggested an association between vascular factors and glaucoma7-11. Several epidemiological studies demonstrated the influence of ocular perfusion pressure on the prevalence, incidence and progression of glaucoma12. Ocular perfusion pressure refers to the pressure available to drive blood through the intraocular vasculature, with the degree of perfusion being influenced by the resistance to flow, which is a function of the vessel caliber or the vessel tone 13. While it seems a very complex parameter, A. Guglielmi et al utilized statistical techniques and analysis to show that it is the joint effect of IOP, ocular perfusion pressure and blood pressure, or, more precisely, of all the covariates in the selected logistic model, that determines the probability of disease, rather than the value of an individual covariate. Importantly, the main statistical interest should be the prediction of disease probabilities for new patients entering the study, presenting specific values of the covariates included in the model, rather than the estimated individual effect of a single predictor. It has been shown that glaucoma, proliferative vitreoretinopathy, posterior capsule opacification, diabetic retinopathy, age-related macular degeneration, pterygium and keratoconus have been associated with modulation of Transforming Growth Factor beta (TGF-β) protein expression14-20. Therapeutic intervention targeting TGF-β2 protein expression may have multifold effects on relevant intraocular tissues such as trabecular meshwork (cell invasion/migration), retina (scarring and wound-healing processes) and/or optic nerve head (neuroprotection), and warrant further evaluation in patients suffering advanced glaucoma and undergoing trabeculectomy. Hasenbach K et al. used a murine model of glaucoma filtration surgery to evaluate the effect of intraocular ISTH0036 administration. They showed that treatment with ISTH0036 resulted in prolonged bleb survival and decreased scarring (downregulation of collagen 1 and 3 fibers) in a murine glaucoma filtration surgery model. Initial results rose a strong rationale that patients with glaucoma or other ocular diseases may benefit from treatment with TGF-β2 antisense oligonucleotides. D.Paulaviciute-Baikstiene et al. performed a prospective 12 month study aiming to find the correlation between anterior segment OCT and functional outcomes of trabeculectomy by describing morphological features of successful and limited success filtering blebs. The detection of early postoperative scarring and the continuing development of surgical measures to reduce this risk represent a major challenge of filtering surgery. Authors suggest that larger internal fluid filled cavity, total bleb height, bigger bleb wall thickness and multiform bleb wall reflectivity are good indicators of successful bleb function. The 2nd Issue of the Journal for Modeling in Ophthalmology uniquely combines and balances clinical and mathematical aspects in the study of glaucoma and we believe that both ophthalmologists and modeling experts will find in it interesting aspects and new information on glaucoma and its risk factors. Enjoy your reading!

There are different apprehensions regarding the contemporary assessment system. Often, I listen to my colleagues saying that multiple-choice questions are seen as easier to score. Why can’t all assessments be multiple-choice tests? Some others would say, whether the tests given reflect what students will need to know as competent professionals? What evidence can be collected to make sure that test content is relevant? Others come up with concerns that there is a perception amongst students that some examiners are harsher than others and some tasks are easier than others. What can be done to evaluate whether this is the case? Sometimes, the students come up with queries that they are concerned about being observed when interacting with patients. They are not sure why this is needed. What rationale is there for using workplace-based assessment? Some of the students worry if the pass marks for the assessments are ‘correct’, and what is the evidence for the cut-off scores? All these questions are important, and I would deliberate upon them with evidence from the literature. Deliberating on the first query of using multiple-choice questions for everything, we know that assessment of a medical student is a complex process as there are multiple domains of learning such as cognition, skills, and behaviors (Norcini and McKinley, 2007)(Boulet and Raymond, 2018). Each of the domains further has multiple levels from simple to complex tasks (Norcini and McKinley, 2007). For example, the cognition is further divided into six levels, starting from recall (Cognition level 1 or C1) up to creativity (Cognition level 6 or C6) (Norcini and McKinley, 2007). Similarly, the skills and behaviors also have levels starting from observation up to performance and practice (Norcini and McKinley, 2007). Moreover, there are different competencies within each domain that further complicates our task as an assessor to appropriately assess a student (Boulet and Raymond, 2018). For instance, within the cognitive domain, it is not just making the learning objectives based on Bloom’s Taxonomy that would simplify our task because the literature suggests that individuals have different thinking mechanisms, such as fast and slow thinking to perform a task (Kahneman, 2011). We as educationalists do not know what sort of cognitive mechanism have we triggered through our exam items (Swanson and Case, 1998). Multiple Choice Questions is one of the assessment instruments to measure competencies related to the cognitive domain. This means that we cannot use multiple-choice questions to measure the skills and behaviors domains, so clearly multiple-choice questions cannot assess all domains of learning (Vleuten et al, 2010). Within the cognitive domain, there are multiple levels and different ways of thinking mechanisms (Kahneman, 2011). Each assessment instrument has its strength and limitations. Multiple-choice questions may be able to assess a few of the competencies, also with some added benefits in terms of marking but there always are limitations. The multiple-choice question is no different when it comes to the strengths and limitations profile of an assessment instrument (Swanson and Case, 1998). There are certain competencies that can be easily assessed using multiple-choice questions (Swanson and Case, 1998). For example, content that requires recall, application, and analysis can be assessed with the help of multiple-choice questions. However, creativity or synthesis which is cognition level six (C6) as per Blooms’ Taxonomy, cannot be assessed with closed-ended questions such as a multiple-choice question. This means that we need some additional assessment instruments to measure the higher levels of cognition within the cognitive domain. For example, asking students to explore an open-ended question as a research project can assess the higher levels of cognition because the students would be gathering information from different sources of literature, and then synthesizing it to answer the question. It is reported that marking and reading the essay questions would be time-consuming for the teachers (McLean and Gale, 2018). Hence, the teacher to student’s ratio in assessing the higher levels of cognition needs to be monitored so that teachers or assessors can give appropriate time to assess the higher levels of cognition of their students. Hence, we have to use other forms of assessment instruments along with multiple-choice questions to assess the cognitive domain. This will help to assess the different levels of cognition and will also incite the different thinking mechanisms. Regarding the concerns, whether the tests given reflect what students will need to know as competent professionals? What evidence can be collected to make sure that test content is relevant? It is one of an important issue for medical education and assessment directors whether the tests that they are taking are reflective of the students being competent practitioners? It is also quite challenging as some of the competencies such as professionalism or professional identity formation are difficult to be measured quantitatively with the traditional assessment instruments (Cruess, Cruess, & Steinert, 2016). Moreover, there is also a question if all the competencies that are required for a medical graduate can be assessed with the assessment instruments presently available? Hence, we as educationalists have to provide evidence for the assessment of required competencies and relevant content. One of the ways that we can opt is to carefully align the required content with their relevant assessment instruments. This can be done with the help of assessment blueprints, or also known as the table of specifications in some of the literature (Norcini and McKinley, 2013). An assessment blueprint enables us to demonstrate our planned curriculum, that is, what are our planned objectives, and how are we going to teach and assess them (Boulet and Raymond, 2018). We can also use the validity construct in addition to the assessment blueprints to provide evidence for testing the relevant content. Validity means that the test is able to measure what it is supposed to measure (Boulet and Raymond, 2018). There are different types of validity but one of the validity that is required in this situation to establish the appropriateness of the content is the Content Validity. Content validity is established by a number of subject experts who comment on the appropriateness and relevance of the content (Lawshe, 1975). The third method by which the relevance of content can be established is through standard-setting. A standard is a single cut-off score to qualitatively declare a student competent or incompetent based on the judgment of subject experts (Norcini and McKinley, 2013). There are different ways of standard-setting for example Angoff, Ebel, Borderline method, etc. (Norcini and McKinley, 2013). Although the main purpose is the establishment and decides the cut-off score during the process, the experts also debate on the appropriateness and relevance of the content. This means that the standard-setting methods also have validity procedures that are in-built in their process of establishing the cut-off score. These are some of the methods by which we can provide evidence of the relevance of the content that is required to produce a competent practitioner. The next issue is the perception amongst students that some examiners are harsher than others and some tasks are easier than others. Both these observations have quite a lot of truth in them and can be evaluated following the contemporary medical education evaluation techniques. The first issue reported is that some examiners are harsher than others. In terms of assessment, it has been reported in the literature as ‘hawk dove effect’ (McManus et al, 2006, Murphy et al, 2009). There are different reasons identified in the literature for some of the examiners to be more stringent than others such as age, ethnic background, behavioral reasons, educational background, and experience in a number of years (McManus et al, 2006). Specifically, those examiners who are from ethnic minorities and have more experience show more stringency (McManus et al, 2006). Interestingly, it has been reported elsewhere how the glucose levels affect the decision making of the pass-fail judgments (Kahneman, 2011). There are psychometric methods reported in the literature, such as Rasch modeling that can help determine the ‘hawk dove effect’ of different examiners, and whether it is too extreme or within a zone of normal deviation (McManus et al, 2006, Murphy, et al, 2009). Moreover, the literature also suggests ways to minimize the hawk-dove effect by identifying and paring such examiners so the strictness of one can be compensated by the leniency of the other examiner (McManus et al, 2006). The other issue in this situation is that the students find some tasks easier than others. This is dependent on the complexity of tasks and also on the competence level of students. For example, a medical student may achieve independent measuring of blood pressure in his/her first year but even a consultant surgeon may not be able to perform complex surgery such as a Whipple procedure. This means that while developing tasks we as educationalists have to consider both the competence level of our students and the complexity of the tasks. One way to theoretically understand it is by taking help from the cognitive load theory (Merrienboer 2013). The cognitive load theory suggests that there are three types of cognitive loads; namely, the Intrinsic, Extraneous, and Germane loads (Merrienboer 2013). The intrinsic load is associated with the complexity of the task. The extraneous load is added to the working memory of students due to a teacher who does not plan his/her teaching session as per students' needs (Merrienboer 2013). The third load is the germane or the good load that helps the student to understand the task and is added by using teaching methods that helps students understand the task (Merrienboer 2013). The teachers can use different instructional designs such as the 4CID model to plan their teaching session of the complex tasks (Merrienboer 2013). One of the ways to understand the difficulty of the task can be to pilot test the task with few students or junior colleagues. Another way to determine the complexity of the task can be through standard-setting methods where a cut-off score is established after the experts discuss each task and determine its cut-off score based on their judgments (Norcini and McKinley, 2013). However, it is important that the experts who have been called for setting standards have relevant experience so as to make credible judgments (Norcini and McKinley, 2013). A third way to evaluate the complexity of tasks is by applying the post-exam item analysis techniques. The difficulty of the task is evaluated after the performance of students in the exam. Each item’s difficulty in the exam can be measured. The items can be placed from extremely easy (100% students correctly answered the item) to extremely difficult (100% students failed on that specific item). The item analysis enables the teachers to determine which tasks were easier in exams as compared to more difficult tasks. Another concern that comes from students is about their observation when interacting with patients. Health professions training programs require the interaction of students with patients. The student-patient interaction is not very often in initial years of student’s training due to the issues of patient safety, and due to the heavy workload on clinical faculty. However, with the passage of time in the training program, these student patient interactions increase. There is also a strong theoretical basis for better learning when the students are put in a context or a given situation (Wenger, 1998). For example, infection control can be taught through a lecture however the learning can be more effective if the students practically learn it in an operation theatre. Moreover, the undergraduate students or foundation year house job doctors are yet not competent enough to practice independently and require supervision for the obvious reasons of patient safety. Although, some of the students may not like being observed it is one of the requirements for their training. The examiners observing them can give them constructive feedback to further improve their performance (Etheridge and Boursicot, 2013). Feedback is one of the essential components of workplace-based assessments, and it is suggested in the literature that the time for feedback to the student should be almost equal to one-third of the procedure or task time (Etheridge and Boursicot, 2013), that is, for a fifteen minutes tasks, there should be at least five minutes for the feedback hence having a total of twenty minutes time on the whole. Further, it is important for the examiners and senior colleagues to establish trust in the competence of their students or trainees. The ‘trust’ is one of the behavioral constructs that also starts initially with an observation (Etheridge and Boursicot, 2013). Hence, observation of students or house officers by senior colleagues or teachers during clinical encounters is important to establish trust in student’s competence levels. Additionally, in the workplace, there are different skills that are required by the students to demonstrate, and each skill is quite different to others. There are different workplace-based assessment instruments and each of them assesses only certain aspects of student’s performance during clinical practice. For instance, the Mini Clinical Evaluation Exercise (Mini-CEX) can primarily assess the history taking and physical examination skills of students (Etheridge and Boursicot, 2013). Similarly, the Directly Observed Procedural Skills (DOPS) is required to assess the technical and procedural skills of students (Etheridge and Boursicot, 2013). More so, the Case-based Discussion (CBD) is required to assess clinical reasoning skills, decision-making skills, ethics, and professionalism (Etheridge and Boursicot, 2013). Further, multi-source feedback (MSF) or 360-degree assessment collects feedback about a student on their performance from multiple sources such as patients, senior and junior colleagues, nursing staff, and administrative staff (Etheridge and Boursicot, 2013). All these workplace-based assessments require observation of students so they can be given appropriate feedback on their technical and nontechnical skills (Etheridge and Boursicot, 2013). Hence, clinical encounters at the workplace are quite complex and require training of students from different aspects to fully train them that cannot be accomplished without observation. Some students also worry whether the pass marks for the assessments are ‘correct’, and what is the evidence for the cut-off score in their exams? A standard is a single cut-off score that determines the competence of a student in a particular exam (Norcini and McKinley, 2013). The cut-off score is decided by experts who make a qualitative judgment (Norcini and McKinley, 2013). The purpose is not to establish an absolute truth but to demonstrate the creditability of pass-fail decisions in an exam (Norcini and McKinley, 2013). There are certain variables related to standard setters that may affect the creditability of the standard-setting process; such as age, gender, ethnicity, their understanding of the learners, their educational qualification, and their place of work. Moreover, the definition of competence varies with time, place and person (Norcini and McKinley, 2013). Hence, it is important that the standard setters must know the learners and the competence level expected from them and the standard setters must be called from different places. This is one of the first requirements to have the profile of the standard setters to establish their credibility. Moreover, the selection of the method of standard setting is important, and how familiar are the standard setters with the method of standard-setting. There are many standard-setting methods for different assessment instruments and types of exams (Norcini and McKinley, 2013). It is essential to use the appropriate standard-setting method, and also to train the standard setters on that method of standard setting so they know the procedure. The training can be done by providing them certain data to solve it following the steps of the standard-setting procedure. The record of these exercises is important and can be required at later stages to show the experience of the standard setters. Further, every standard-setter writes a cut-off score for each item (Norcini and McKinley, 2013). The mean score of all the standard setters is calculated to determine the cut-off score for each item (Norcini and McKinley, 2013). The total cut-off score is calculated by adding the pass marks of each individual item (Norcini and McKinley, 2013). The cut-off scores for items would also help in differentiating the hawks from doves, that is, those examiners who are quite strict from those who are lenient (McManus et al, 2006). Hence, it is important to keep the record of these cut-off scores of each item for future records and to have a balanced standard-setting team for future exams (Norcini and McKinley, 2013). Additionally, the meeting minutes is an important document to keep the record for the decisions made during the meeting. Lastly, the exam results and post-exam item analysis is an important document to see the performance of students on each item and to make comparisons with the standard-setting meeting (Norcini and McKinley, 2013). It would be important to document the items that behaved as predicted by the standard setters and those items that would show unexpected responses; for example, the majority of the borderline students either secured quite high marks than the cut-off score or vice versa (Norcini and McKinley, 2013). All the documents mentioned above would ensure the creditability of the standard-setting process and would also improve the quality of exam items. There are many other aspects that could not be discussed in this debate on the contemporary assessment system in medical education. Another area that needs deliberations is the futuristic assessment system and how it would address the limitations of the current system? Disclaimer: This work is derived from one of the assignments of the author submitted for his certificate from Keele University. -------------------------------------------------------------------------- References Boulet, J. and Raymond, M. (2018) ‘Blueprinting: Planning your tests. FAIMER-Keele Master’s in Health Professions Education: Accreditation and Assessment. Module 1, Unit 2.’, FAIMER Centre for Distance Learning, CenMEDIC. 6th edn. London, pp. 7–90. Cruess, R. L., Cruess, S. R., & Steinert, Y. (2016). ‘Amending Miller’s pyramid to include professional identity formation’. Acad Med, 91(2), pp. 180–185. Etheridge, L. and Boursicot, K. (2013) ‘Performance and workplace assessment’, in Dent, J. A. and Harden, R. M. (eds) A practical guide for medical teachers. 4th edn. London: Elsevier Limited. Kahneman, D. (2011) Thinking, fast and slow. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. Lawshe, CH. (1975) A quantitative approach to content validity. Pers Psychol, 28(4), pp. 563–75. McLean, M. and Gale, R. (2018) Essays and short answer questions. FAIMER-Keele Master’s in Health Professions Education: Accreditation and Assessment. Module 1, Unit 5, 5th edition. FAIMER Centre for Distance Learning, CenMEDIC, London. McManus, IC. Thompson, M. and Mollon, J. (2006) ‘ Assessment of examiner leniency and stringency (‘hawk-dove effect’) in the MRCP(UK) clinical examination (PACES) using multi-facet Rasch modelling’ BMC Med Educ. 42(6) doi:10.1186/1472- 6920-6-42 Merrienboer, J.J.G. (2013) ‘Instructional Design’, in Dent, J. A. and Harden, R. M. (eds) A practical guide for medical teachers. 4th edn. London: Elsevier Limited. Murphy, JM. Seneviratne, R. Remers, O and Davis, M. (2009) ‘Hawks’ and ‘doves’: effect of feedback on grades awarded by supervisors of student selected components, Med Teach, 31(10), e484-e488, DOI: 10.3109/01421590903258670 Norcini, J. and McKinley, D. W. (2007) ‘Assessment methods in medical education’, Teaching and Teacher Education, 23(3), pp. 239–250. doi: 10.1016/j.tate.2006.12.021. Norcini, J. and Troncon, L. (2018) Foundations of assessment. FAIMER-Keele Master’s in Health Professions Education: Accreditation and Assessment. Module 1, Unit 1. 6th edn. London: FAIMER Centre for Distance Learning CenMEDIC. Norcini, J. and McKinley, D. W. (2013) ‘Standard Setting’, in Dent, J. A. and Harden, R. M. (eds) A practical guide for medical teachers. 4th edn. London: Elsevier Limited. Swanson, D. and Case, S. (1998) Constructing written test questions for the basic and clincial sciences. 3rd Ed. National Board of Medical Examiners. 3750 Market Street Philadelphia, PA 19104. Van Der Vleuten, C. Schuwirth, L. Scheele, F. Driessen, E. and Hodges, B. (2010) ‘The assessment of professional competence: building blocks for theory development’, Best Practice & Research Clinical Obstetrics and Gynecology, pp. 1-17. doi:10.1016/j. bpobgyn.2010.04.001 Wenger, E. (1998). Communities of practice: Learning, meaning, and identity. Cambridge university press.

Although there are several approaches and strategies for teaching foreign languages, the Total Physical Response (TPR) approach is the most suitable for young learners. TPR is a way of teaching language that is based on the synchronization of speech and behaviour, or in other words, teaching language through movement. This study aims to develop English learning media for children through the Total Physical Response (TPR) method. This study uses a Research and Development (R & D) approach. The development model used is the ADDIE development model (analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation). Data collection techniques in this study were based on the results of expert validation tests, media practicality tests, and media effectiveness tests on children aged 5-6 years in Kindergarten. The results showed that the validity test of developing interactive media for children's English learning through the TPR method by media expert was declared valid with the result of 93%. The validity test on the material aspect shows the result is 98%. In the language aspect, the language expert gave the results of the feasibility of the language used in the media with a value of 96%. Likewise, with the practicality test, the results showed that the media had an average value of practicality with a percentage of 94%. The most important result in media development is determined by the results of the effectiveness test, and this media gets an average percentage score of 77.8% on the media tested on children. Therefore, interactive media for children's English learning through the Total Physical Response method deserves to be used as interactive and quality learning media that is practical and effective for early childhood. Intervention in introducing how to develop interactive media for learning English to teachers can be carried out in further research. Keywords: Early Childhood, English Learning Media, Total Physical Response (TPR) method References: Amri, S. (2013). Pengembangan & Model Pembelajaran Dalam Kurikulum. Prestasi Pustakarya. Andi. (2013). Kupas Tuntas Adobe Flash CS6. Gramedia. Ariani, N. & H. (2010). Pembelajaran Multimedia di Sekolah Pedoman Pembelajaran Inspiratif, Konstruktif, dan Prospektif. Prestasi Pustakarya. Arsyad, A. (2011). Media Pembelajaran. Raja Grafindo Persada. Asher, J. J. (1969). The Total Physical Response Approach to Second Language Learning. The Modern Language Journal, 53(1), 3. https://doi.org/10.2307/322091 Astutik, Y., & Aulina Choirun, N. (2017). Total Physical Response (Tpr) Pada Pengajaran Bahasa Inggris Siswa Taman Kanak-Kanak. Jurnal Pendidikan Bahasa Dan Sastra, 17(2), 196–2017. Chaer, A. (2009). Psikolinguistik Kajian Teoretik. Rineka Cipta. Cheng, G. (2009). Using Game Making Pedagogy to Facilitate Student Learning of Interactive Multimedia. Australasian Journal Educational Technology, Vol. 25 (2, 204–220. Danim. (2008). Media Komunikasi Pendidikan. Bumi Aksara. Dardjowidjojo, S. (2010). Psikolinguistik: Pengantar Pemahaman Manusia Edisi Kedua. Yayasan Obor Indonesia Unika Atma Jaya. Darmawan, D. (2012). Inovasi Pendidikan. Remaja Rosdakarya. Daryanto. (2011). Media Pembelajaran. PT. Sarana Tutorial Nurani Sejahtera. Depdiknas. (2009). Peraturan Menteri Pendidikan Nasional Republik Indonesia Nomor 58 Tahun 2009 tentang Standar Pendidikan Anak Usia dini. Er, S. (2013). Using Total Physical Response Method in Early Childhood Foreign Language Teaching Environments. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 93, 1766–1768. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.10.113 Fauzi, C., & Basikin. (2020). The Impact of the Whole Language Approach Towards Children Early Reading and Writing in English. JPUD - Jurnal Pendidikan Usia Dini, 14(1), 87–101. https://doi.org/10.21009/jpud.141.07 Hanafiah, Nanang & Cucu, S. (2010). Konsep Strategi Pembelajaran. Refika Aditama. Jackman Hilda, L. (2010). Childhood Education Curriculum: A Child’s Connection to The world. Nelson Education Ltd. Jared, K., & Grace, O. (2009). Technology Interaction Profeesional Development Model for Practicing Teachers. Journal Technology and Early Childhood Education, 37, 209–218. Komalasari, K. (2010). Pembelajaran Kontekstual: Konsep dan Aplikasi. Refika Aditama. Larsen-Freeman, D., & Anderson, M. (2011). Techniques and principles in language teaching (3rd ed). Oxford University Press. Lase, F. (2017). Hakikat Pendidikan Berdasarkan Kebutuhan Usia. . . Jurnal PPKn & Hukum, 12(1). Mayesky. (2012). Creative Activities for Young Children. Nelson Education. Mohamad Syarif Sumantri. (2015). Strategi Pembelajaran: Teori dan Praktik di Tingkat Pendidikan Dasar. PT Raja Grafindo Persada. Ghani, N. H. H. M. G. (2014). The Effectiveness of Total Physical Response (TPR ) Approach in Helping Slow Young Learners With Low. International Journal of Research in Social Sciences, 4(6). Mulia Dewi. (2016). Thesis the Role of Play in Teaching English as A Foreign Language in Early Childhood Settings in Indonesia. Australia: Deakin University. Munir. (2009). Multimedia Konsep dan Aplikasi dalam Pendidikan. Alfabeta. Munir. (2012). Multimedia Konsep dan Aplikasi dalam Pendidikan. Alfabeta. Nuraeni, C. (2019). Using Total Physical Response (TPR) Method on Young Learners English Language Teaching. Metathesis: Journal of English Language, Literature, and Teaching, 3(1), 26. https://doi.org/10.31002/metathesis.v3i1.1223 Paturan Menteri Pendidikan Repuberlik Indonesia Nomor 137. (2014). Tentang Standar PAUD. Peraturan Menteri Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan RI No. 146 Tahun 2014 Tentang Implementasi Kurikulum 2013 PAUD. (2014). Pinter, A. (2006). Teaching young language learners. Oxford University Press. Pranowo, G. (2011). Kreasi Animasi Interaktif dengan Action Script 3.0 pada Flash CS6. Graha Ilmu. Priscilla, C. (2009). Supporting Children Learning English as Second Language in the Early Years (Birth to Six Years). Australia: Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority. Purwanti, R. (2020). Pembelajaran Bahasa Inggris Untuk Anak Usia Dini Melalui Metode Gerak dan Lagu. Potensia, Jurnal Ilmiah, 5(2), 91–105. Putro, W. E. (2013). Teknik Penyusunan Instrumen Penelitian. Pustaka Pelajar. Rahmat, A. (2010). Implementasi Kurikulum Bahasa Asing di Taman-Kanak (TK) DKI Jakarta. Jurnal Kajian Linguistik Dan Sastra, 22(77–10), 1. Richards, J. C., & Rodgers, T. S. (2001). Approaches and methods in language teaching. Cambridge University Press. Riduwan. (2012). Skala Pengukuran Variabel-Variabel Penelitian. Alfabeta. Sanjaya, W. (2009). Strategi Pembelajaran. Kencana. Santrock, Jhon. W. (2011). - Span Development: Perkembangan Masa Hidup. Erlangga. Sari, N. E., & Suryana, D. (2019). Thematic Pop-Up Book as a Learning Media for Early Childhood Language Development. JPUD - Jurnal Pendidikan Usia Dini, 13(1), 43–57. https://doi.org/10.21009/10.21009/jpud.131.04 Savic, V. (2014). Total Physical Response Activities in Teaching English to Young Learners. Journal of Physical Culture and Modern Society, 17, 447–454. Setiawan Deni dkk. (2017). Pengaruh Media Pembelajaran Dan Motivasi Belajar Terhadap Hasil Belajar Desain Sistem Instruksional Pendekatan Tpack. Jurnal Teknologi Dan Informasi Dalam Pendidikan, Vol 4 No 2, 141–146. Stakanova E., & Tolstikhina, E. (2014). Different Approaches to Teaching English As A Foreign Language to Young Learner. . . Journal of Procedia Social and Behaviour Science, Vol. 146, 456–460. Suryana, D. (2016). Stimulasi dan Aspek Perkembangan Anak. Kencana. Suyadi. (2013). Konsep Dasar PAUD. Rosdakarya. Suyanto. (2008). Evolutionary Computation. Informatika. Tarigan, H. G. (2009). Pengajaran kedwibahasaan. Angkasa. Wijayatiningsih, & Mulyadi. (2014). Pemanfaatan model total physical response dan repetition untuk pengembangan pembelajaran bahasa Inggris anak usia dini / TK. Jurnal Penelitian Pendidikan, 31(1), 63–66. Wiyani, N. A. (2014). Perkembangan Anak Usia Dini: Panduan Orang Tua dan Pendidik PAUD Dalam Memahami serta mendidik Anak Usia Dini. Gava Media.

Reading is the most important skill that every child needs to develop at school. Children who do not have good reading skills at elementary level are more likely to have limited educational progress, limited economic opportunities, and poor development in the future.Traditional tests and assessments are lacking in this respect, because they grade pupils, based on overall score, rather than identifying the areas for improvement in order to assist teachers in more efficient planning of teaching curriculum. There is a need for a simple tool to provide pupils with various components of reading at their level. In this, the first steps are recognition of the letters of alphabet, reading of simple words, and understanding the structure of sentences and paragraphs.This present work uses the Research in Action method to analyze the subject of using assessment for improving reading instructions for early grade pupils. The EGRA instrument, which does not provide a total result, assesses various skills and treats each skill separately. There are no overall results for EGRA, as it tests individuals. Testing of a child takes approximately 10-12 minutes. The teacher can administer various combinations of subtests, depending on their judgement on pupils’ needs. Results of every task are characterized, based on the findings related to the pupil’s needs. This depends on whether the pupil is a “good reader”, progressing well, or is “at risk” of failing in reading.Research was conducted in the city of Prizren, Republic of Kosova, at the Primary and Lower Secondary School (PLSS) of “Emin Duraku”, class II-3. Five pupils were involved, led by the author, as teacher of this class.The research was conducted in cooperation with school management, teachers, and parents of the pupils involved. The collection of data was implemented within three weeks.It is expected that this research will have positive effects on improving the results of children that find reading difficult, as well as the professional development of teachers.This research was carried out for use in professional and scientific literature, and from the field of assessment and reading, and applying adequate scientific methods.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Oregon, 2000.
Typescript. Includes vita and abstract. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 125-134). Also available for download via the World Wide Web; free to University of Oregon users. Address: http://wwwlib.umi.com/cr/uoregon/fullcit?p9963452.

For generations--and certainly for the last 30 years--proponents of traditional and progressive philosophies have argued over how best to educate our children. Although this debate is often carried out in the political and academic spheres, the difficulties created by not being able to resolve the differences between the two belief systems become blatantly clear in the pedagogy of early literacy. On the one hand, traditionalists argue for a direct and explicit instructional methodology, and on the other hand, progressives advocate for Whole Language or Balanced Literacy instruction. The classroom often becomes a battlefield as advocates of these opposing schooling paradigms struggle with each other. Differences emerge about which skills and what knowledge are the most important for students to master. Conflicts arise over which methodology is most effective in ensuring that students gain access to bodies of knowledge. The result is that the real world of classroom instruction often becomes a mish-mash of content and strategies that derive from both philosophies. Student assessments frequently contribute to the confusion because they are not aligned with the knowledge and skills students are expected to acquire as well as with the strategies teachers use. Without assessments that are tightly coupled with the underlying philosophy of an instructional program, with classroom practice, and with high-stakes summative assessments, it is extremely difficult for both teachers and administrators to have confidence that they are offering their students the best possible learning opportunities. Interim/benchmark assessments are vital tools for linking classroom instruction with year-end assessments and an essential element of any comprehensive assessment system. Currently, the Dynamic Indicator of Beginning Early Literacy Skills, commonly referred to as DIBELS, is a widely used interim/benchmark assessment. It serves many districts and schools quite well. However, many progressive educators believe that the DIBELS assessment is not well-aligned with a Balanced Literacy approach. In this dissertation the author examines the following essential question about early literacy interim/benchmark assessments: (a) Is the relationship between the assessed level on the Developmental Reading Assessment (DRA), which fits within a Balanced Literacy framework, and student's performance on high stakes accountability test as strong as the relationship of DIBELS to these same tests; and (b) does the DRA have a degree of predictive validity comparable to DIBELS? The study demonstrated a strong relationship between the DRA and performance on OAKS and that the DRA has a degree of predictive validity that is comparable to DIBELS. The results from the study support the claim that a curriculum-based measure, such as the DRA, can be used as a literacy screening assessment to detect potential reading difficulties. These results give support to progressive educators who wish to have a viable alternative DIBELS.

Curriculum-based measurement (CBM) tools are used widely to assess students’ progress within different stages of the Response to Intervention (RTI) process. Despite the wide-spread use, little research has identified the efficacy of reading CBMs in predicting secondary student outcomes on high-stakes assessments. High-stakes assessments are being utilized to determine outcomes for not just students, but teachers, administrators, and districts. More research is needed to determine if reading CBMs are useful tools for the populations of struggling secondary readers. The current study was a secondary analysis of existing data, which attempted to gain an understanding of this through examining the predictive validity of CBMs and high-stakes pre-assessments on end-of-year outcomes. The population included struggling, seventh grade readers who had not demonstrated proficiency on previous state tests and who attended urban schools representing low socio-economic status and high ethnic diversity. Results identified previous year state tests and norm-referenced tests as significant predictors of end-of-year outcomes, both individually and in combination. Though the reading fluency CBMs accounted for some variance in the regression equation, the amount was negligible. Student ethnicity and group status (i.e., whether received intervention) were not significant predictors of end-of year outcomes. These results indicate that CBMs may not provide additional valuable information in the prediction of student outcomes for secondary struggling readers. This finding is important for educators to weigh with other concerns, such as ease of use and time constraints, as existing pre-assessments (i.e., state tests, norm-referenced screening tools) may provide enough information without the additional use of CBMs.

xv, 109 p. : col. ill.
The current study investigated variability in student performance on DIBELS Oral Reading Fluency (DORF) Progress Monitoring passages for third grade and sought to determine to what extent the variability in weekly progress monitoring scores is related to passage-level factors (e.g., type of passage [i.e., narrative or expository]), readability of the passage, reading rate for words in lists, passage specific comprehension, background knowledge, and interest in the topic of the passage) and student-level factors (e.g., the student's initial skill and variability across benchmark passages). In light of recent changes in IDEIA legislation allowing for the use of Response to Intervention models and formative assessment practices in the identification of specific learning disabilities, it was intent of this study to identify factors associated with oral reading fluency that, once identified, could potentially be altered or controlled during progress monitoring and decision-making to allow for more defensible educational decisions. The sample for analysis included 70 third grade students from one school in Iowa. Results of two-level HLM analyses indicated significant effects for background knowledge, interest in the passage, type of passage, retell fluency, readability, and word reading, with type of passage and readability demonstrating the largest magnitude effects. Magnitude of effect was based upon a calculation of proportion of reduction in level 1 residual variance. At level 2, initial risk status demonstrated a significant effect on a student's initial oral reading fluency score, while the benchmark variability demonstrated a significant effect on a student's growth over time. Results demonstrate support for readability as an indicator of passage difficulty as it relates to predicting oral reading fluency for students and suggest that consideration for the type of passage may be warranted when interpreting student ORF scores. Additionally, results indicated possible student-level effects of variables such as background knowledge and word list that were not investigated within the current study. Limitations of the study, considerations for future research, and implications for practice are discussed.
Committee in charge: Roland Good, Chairperson/Advisor; Laura Lee McIntyre, Member; Joe Stevens Member; Robert Davis, Outside Member; Scott Baker, Member

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Oregon, 1999.
Typescript. Includes vita and abstract. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 78-83). Also available for download via the World Wide Web; free to University of Oregon users. Address: http://wwwlib.umi.com/cr/uoregon/fullcit?p9957576.

Early literacy and reading skills are both important predictors of an individual's future success in school and employment settings (Moats, 1999). Moreover, poor reading performance in elementary school has been associated with future conduct problems and juvenile delinquency by age fifteen (Williams, 1994). Research supports the notion that scientifically-based instruction provides all students with the best opportunity to prevent future academic, behavioral, and vocational problems associated with poor reading skill acquisition. The current study investigated the reliability and validity of a curriculum-based measure developed by the current author named Phonics Curriculum-Based Measurement (P-CBM). Two hundred and twenty five first grade students (117 males, 103 females) from two partnering school districts in rural western New York State were included in the study. The results indicated strong alternate forms reliability, inter-rater reliability, and concurrent validity. Upon further validation, P-CBM could be helpful in making screening, progress monitoring, or instructional planning decisions as well as providing pre-referral data to school psychologists who are conducting special education eligibility evaluations for a specific learning disability in reading.

The relevance of our research is that for the successful development of the country in the nearest future, it is necessary to assess adequately the situation reflecting the level of knowledge of Ukrainian schoolchildren in comparison with other countries. The progress and economy of countries is very dependent on the quality of the educational system and the scientific complex. A competition in education began to exist among the traditional forms of competitions among the states. Developed countries make attempts to attract the best youth from other countries that’s why the purpose of the study is to investigate the problem of pedagogical measuring. The objective of our study is to analyze and compare students’ educational achievements in international measurements. There are many reasons to determine the importance of qualitative and quantitative measuring of educational systems and for this purpose, developed countries have organized the international testing of pupils of all ages. The article focuses on reading skills among pupils of elementary school (PIRLS testing), knowledge of pupils of the 4th and 8th forms in mathematics and sciences of nature (TIMSS testing), and a complex measuring of the «readiness for life – XXI» of 15-year-old students (PISA) – Programme for International Student Assessment). Ukraine took part for the first time in the international PISA-2018 test – a comprehensive measurement of the readiness for life of Generation-Z students born in 2002. We offer an analysis of the reaction of Ukrainian educational administrators and experts to the results of intensive two-hour measurements of knowledge and abilities of many hundreds of our adolescents from secondary and vocational schools posted on the Internet. We provide data for all tests 2000-2018 years for the first time in the pedagogical press of Ukraine. They will allow readers to evaluate their own evolution of the results of all tests. So you can find ways to improve their professional activities based on a combination of administratively recommended and own conclusions. We point to the beginning of changes in higher education and in the content of university quality ratings. The new rating (Impact Rankings 2020) also focuses on protecting humanity and environmental problems.