Journal articles on the topic 'David kramer'

This article discusses the representation of animals and nature in selected lyrics from the oeuvre of singer, songwriter and producer David Kramer and considers his engagement with historical and contemporary discourses about human-animal and human-nature interaction in relation to ecological awareness within a South African context. I trace the socio-political commentary voiced through his depiction of animals in the folksongs he wrote during apartheid, especially in lyrics from the album “Baboondogs” (Kramer, 1986). Kramer also employs intertextual references to traditional South African folksongs and tales in his music. Furthermore, the social and environmental significance of Kramer’s representations of nature in a selection of his postapartheid lyrics is investigated. I argue that the pedagogical value of Kramer’s cultural commentary can contribute significantly to the challenge of teaching animal studies and ecocriticism in South African context.

Although the elaboration of bacteriocins by streptococci has been described previously (Brock & David, 1963; Kuttner, 1966; Kelstrup & Gibbons, 1969; Overturf & Mortimer, 1970; Kramer & Brandis, 1972), few attempts have been made to purify and characterize these bactericidal factors (Kramer & Brandis, 1972). Streptococcus sanguis (strain Challis) produces a streptocin which is lethal for Streptococcus sanguis (strain Wicky) and can be purified by ammonium sulphate fractionation and Sephadex G-100 column chromatography. We exposed sensitive strain Wicky cells to Challis streptocin and observed macromolecular synthesis and membrane permeability.

Douglas Hensley has been an active chamber musician ever since he took up serious study of the classical guitar. He received bachelor and master's degrees under the direction of David Tanenbaum from the San Francisco Conservatory of Music and he has studied with many other musicians in private lessons and master classes. Over the past ten years he has premiered close to fifty new compositions, performed numerous U.S. premieres and the West Coast premiere of Elliott Carter's “Changes” for solo guitar. For Opus One Records in New York he has recorded Larry Polansky's “Hensley Variations” and David Loeb's “Trois Cansos” with flautist Kenneth Kramer and violist John Casten. He has also recorded a collection of duets with Japanese shakuhachi master Masayuka Koga, “Autumn Mist,” for Fortuna Records of Novato, California. His principal activities are as cofounder (with violist/violinist John Casten) and guitarist of the San Francisco-based contemporary performance ensemble ISKRA, which is made up of flute, clarinet, guitar, violin/viola, doublebass and soprano voice. Anyone with additional information about flute, viola, guitar trios (or other chamber music with guitar), or queries, is urged to contact him at 607-A Frederick St., San Francisco, CA 94117.

AbstractRecent scholarship has taken the leap from documenting cyclic form in Shostakovich's Seventh String Quartet to its interpretation. David Fanning, Judith Kuhn, and Sarah Reichardt, for instance, endorse a belief in the quartet's satisfactory closure. I propose an alternative reading that qualifies such resolution as merely apparent. I posit a musical ‘persona’ (Edward T. Cone) that achieves comfort in denial. I support my claim by analysing shifting hypermetre, metrical insertions, motif, and cyclic form, then weave my observations into a narrative interpretation. While acknowledging the limitations of the narrative analogy (following Carolyn Abbate, Lawrence Kramer, and Jean-Jacques Nattiez), I rely on its principal strength: the ability to help construct a compelling interpretation of the elusive ‘meaning’ of a piece of absolute music (Cone, Fred Maus, Anthony Newcomb, Leo Treitler). I conclude that the peculiar arrangement of shifting metrical identities and the DSCH-motto-related fragments tell a psychological story: of a musical persona's thwarted search for self.

I hold this truth to be self-evident: that an art form consisting of a literary text, a dramatic stage performance, and music should be studied in all its multimedia and “multimediated” dimensions (Kramer, Opera 25). Today I can make this statement with confidence because the academic study of opera indeed covers all those aesthetic bases, but that has not always been the case. So long as opera fell primarily within the domain of musicology, it was studied first and foremost as music alone. The fact that the music was written for a specific dramatic text was not deemed particularly significant. The very name given to that text betrayed a belief in its secondariness: the diminutive libretto. But things have been changing: in recent years, some musicologists have challenged the dominant positivistic historicism and formalism of their discipline; some have even looked to literary theory for inspiration, bringing new approaches to the music of opera through narratology (e.g., Abbate) or semiotics (e.g., Nattiez). But just as important for opening up the study of opera as an aesthetic and cultural form has been the attention of scholars working in other disciplines. To take but one example, Peter Rabinowitz's rhetorical narrative theory introduced new ways of thinking about opera as narrative, not only as drama and, more pointedly, not only as drama with the composer in the role of dramatist (Kerman). It was opera, not dance, for example, that became a focus for interdisciplinary studies; already multimediated, it attracted diverse lines of inquiry. To cite the title of David Levin's groundbreaking 1994 volume, we can now see “opera through other eyes.” (Musical theater too has been seen through other—especially literary—eyes, but that is not the focus of this piece [see, e.g., Most; Miller; Rabinowitz].)

Peter Harman and Simon Mitton (eds.), Cambridge Scientific Minds and David Millar, Ian Millar, John Millar and Margaret Millar, The Cambridge Dictionary of Scientists. By Maria Yamalidou 466Maria Michela Sassi, The Science of Man in Ancient Greece. By Laurence M. V. Totelin 467H. L. L. Busard, Johannes de Tinemue's Redaction of Euclid's Elements, the So-called Adelard III Version. Volume I: Introduction, Sigla and Descriptions of the Manuscripts, Editorial Remarks, Euclides, Elementa. Volume II: Conspectus Siglorum, Apparatus Criticus, Addenda. By Jackie Stedall 468Gerhard W. Kramer, The Firework Book: Gunpowder in Medieval Germany. By Simon Werrett 469Robert Crocker (ed.), Religion, Reason and Nature in Early Modern Europe. By Scott Mandelbrote 470Rienk Vermij, The Calvinist Copernicans: The Reception of the New Astronomy in the Dutch Republic, 1575–1750. By Owen Gingerich 471Rina Knoeff, Herman Boerhaave (1668–1738): Calvinist Chemist and Physician. By Georgette Ironside 472J. Christiaan Boudri, What was Mechanical about Mechanics: The Concept of Force between Metaphysics and Mechanics from Newton to Lagrange. By Niccolò Guicciardini 473Ken Alder, The Measure of All Things: The Seven-Year Odyssey that Transformed the World. By Graeme Gooday 474Berit Pedersen (ed.), A Guide to the Archives of the Royal Entomological Society. By J. F. M. Clark 476Richard Yeo, Science in the Public Sphere: Natural Knowledge in British Culture 1800–1860. By Leigh D. Bregman 477Louise Purbrick (ed.), The Great Exhibition of 1851: New Interdisciplinary Essays. By Nick Fisher 478Hermione Hobhouse, The Crystal Palace and the Great Exhibition: Art, Science and Productive Industry. A History of the Royal Commission for the Exhibition of 1851. By Sophie Forgan 479Michael Worboys, Spreading Germs: Disease Theories and Medical Practice in Britain, 1865–1900. By Kenneth F. Kiple 480Greta Jones, ‘Captain of All these Men of Death’: The History of Tuberculosis in Nineteenth and Twentieth Century Ireland. By Juliana Adelman 481Christopher Herbert, Victorian Relativity: Radical Thought and Scientific Discovery. By Hazel Hutchison 482Paul Ziche (ed.), Monismus um 1900: Wissenschaftskultur und Weltanschauung. By Peter Zigman 484Maggie Mort, Building the Trident Network: A Study of the Enrollment of People, Knowledge, and Machines. By Sean Johnston 485A. M. Moulin and A. Cambrosio (eds.), Singular Selves: Historical Issues and Contemporary Debates in Immunology/Dialogues entre soi: Questions historiques et débats contemporains en immunologie. By Pauline M. H. Mazumdar 486Ioan James, Remarkable Mathematicians: From Euler to von Neutmann. By Claire Jones 487Joseph W. Dauben and Christoph J. Scriba (eds.), Writing the History of Mathematics: Its Historical Development. By Adrian Rice 488Jill Ker Conway, Kenneth Keniston and Leo Marx (eds.), Earth, Air, Fire, Water: Humanistic Studies of the Environment. By Leigh Clayton 490Steven Weinberg, Facing Up: Science and Its Cultural Adversaries. By Steven French 491

‘Pierrot Dreaming’. MUSGRAVE: Canta! Canta!; Ring Out Wild Bells; Threnody; Pierrot; Chamber Concerto No. 2. Victoria Soames Samek (cl), Gabrielle Byam-Grounds (fl), David Le Page (vn/va), Matthew Sharp (vc), Mark Troop (pno). Clarinet Classics CC0038.‘The Fall of Narcissus’. MUSGRAVE: Serenade; Narcissus; Impromptu for flute and cello; Wind Quintet; Impromptu No. 2 for flute, oboe and clarinet; Four Portraits for baritone, clarinet and piano. Victoria Soames Samek (cl), Members of English Serenata, David Le Page (va), Matthew Sharp (vc), Stephen Varcoe (bar), Rachel Masters (hp). Clarinet Classics CC0039.MUSGRAVE: Memento Vitae; Helios; Night Music; The Seasons. Nicholas Daniel (ob), Scottish Chamber Orchestra c. Nicholas Kraemer; BBC Symphony Orchestra c. Jac van Steen. NMC (ANCORA+) D074.‘Oriental Landscapes’. MUSGRAVE: Journey Through a Japanese Landscape. CHEN YI: Percussion Concerto. ZHOU LONG: Out of Tang Court. HOVHANESS: Fantasy on Japanese Wood Prints. Evelyn Glennie (perc), Singapore Symphony Orchestra c. Lan Shui. BIS CD 1222.

IntroductionSEGT has been found to be a valuable manualised model of therapy for reducing emotional distress facilitating the person’s management of the disease-related symptoms and improving quality of life in cancer populations (Butler et al. 2009; Classen et al. 2001; Lemieux et al. 2007). The fundamental domains covered by this model include promoting emotional expression confronting existential issues and optimising social support (Classen et al. 2001; Spiegel Bloom and Yalom 1981). Despite trials there are to our knowledge no systematic reviews that have sought to critic and pool evidence from all Randomised Controlled Trials (RCTs) on SEGT for people with advanced disease.AimsTo critique and pool the evidence from RCTs on the effectiveness of SEGT as a palliative care intervention for patients with advanced disease.MethodsFour databases (Pubmed Medline CINAHL PsycINFO) conference proceedings and grey literature were searched for relevant studies in April 2018. A combination of MeSH and free-text terms on SEGT and end-of-life were used. Key review processes will be undertaken in duplicate. If appropriate meta-analysis will be considered.ResultsThe search identified unique 2291 citations. Screening these identified 27 potential relevant studies. Following full text review and contact with the authors of not-available full text papers five RCTs on SEGT met our inclusion criteria.ConclusionsThis review is at data extraction phase it will be completed by September. Further understanding of the quality of evidence impact of SEGT on health-related outcomes and social support will allow conclusion to be made for clinical practice.References. Butler LD, Koopman C, Neri E, Giese-Davis J, Palesh O, Thorne-Yocam KA, Dimiceli S, Chen X, Fobair P, Kraemer HC, Spiegel D. Effects of supportive-expressive group therapy on pain in women with metastatic breast cancer. Health Psychology2009;28(5):579–587.. Classen C, Butler LD, Koopman C, Miller E, DiMiceli S, Giese- Davis J, Fobair P, Carlson RW, Kraemer EC, Spiegel D. Supportive-expressive group therapy and distress in patients with metastatic breast cancer: A randomized clinical intervention trial. Archives of General Psychiatry2001;58:494–495.. Lemieux J, Beaton ED, Hogg-Johnson S, Bordeleau JL, Hunter J, Goodwin PJ. Responsiveness to change to change due to supportive-expressive group therapy improvement in mood and disease progression in women with metastatic breast cancer. Qual Life Res2007;16:1007–1017.. Spiegel D, Bloom JR, Yalom I. Group support for patients with metastatic cancer. A randomized outcome study. Archives of General Psychiatry1981;38:527–533.

Ever since Leopold Zunz inaugurated the critical study of rabbinic literature in 1818, scholars of the school of midrash known asTanhuma-Yelammedenu(TY) have given priority to analyzing questions of textual history, dating, aesthetics, form-critical issues, and the literary qualities of these texts. This scholarship has focused on questions of form rather than content; for the most part, the distinctive ideas of these texts, their values and theologies, have yet to be explored. In an article devoted to form-literary issues in aggadah, Yonah Fraenkel argues that “indeed there were also changes in the [Tanhuma's] ideas, like their ethical and social values and their overall world view . . . these types of issues need further research.” Unfortunately, very few scholars have responded to Fraenkel's call. In fact, two excellent scholarly works on rabbinic thought have ignored the content of theTYaltogether: neither David Kraemer'sResponses to Suffering in Classical Rabbinic Literaturenor Ishay Rosen-Zvi's recent work,Demonic Desires, engageTYtexts. While Kraemer and Rosen-Zvi extensively discuss sixth- and seventh-century Babylonian texts, such as the Babylonian Talmud, they do not do the same with sixth- and seventh-century Palestinian texts, such as manyTYtexts. These two important studies exemplify how, in a more general sense, late Palestinian midrashim have been conspicuously neglected by scholars of rabbinic literature working on content-based projects.

Ralph Lee Woodward, Jr., Central America: A Nation Divided. New York: Oxford University Press, 1985. Pp. 390. Cloth, $22.50; Paper $8.95. Second Edition. Review by Donald J. Mabry of Mississippi State University. Edward M. Anson. A Civilization Primer. San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1985. Pp. 121. Spiral bound, $5.95. Review by Gordon R. Mork of Purdue University. Stephen J. Lee. Aspects of European History, 1494-1789. Second edition. London & New York: Methuen, 1984. Pp. viii, 312. Paper, $11.95. Review by Michael W. Howell of The School of the Ozarks. Roland N. Stromberg. European Intellectual History Since 1789. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1986. Fourth edition. Pp. x, 340. Paper, $18.95. Review by Irby C. Nichols, Jr. of North Texas State University. R. W. Southern. Medieval Humanism and Other Studies. New York: Basil Blackwell, 1985. Pp. 261. Cloth, $24.95; Paper, $10.95. Review by Benjamin F. Taggie of Central Michigan University. H. T. Dickinson. British Radicalism and the French Revolution, 1789-1815. New York: Basil Blackwell, 1985. Pp. 88. Paper, $6.95; F. D. Dow. Radicalism in the English Revolution, 1640-1660. New York: Basil Blackwell, 1985. Pp. 90. Paper, $6.95. Review by Harry E. Wade of East Texas State University. H. R. Kedward. Occupied France: Collaboration and Resistance 1940-1944. New York: Basil Blackwell, 1985. Pp. 88. $6.95; M. E. Chamberlain. Decolonization: The Fall of the European Empire. New York: Basil Blackwell, 1985. Pp. 86. $6.95. Review by Steven Philip Kramer of the University of New Mexico. Harriet Ward. World Powers in the Twentieth Century. London: British Broadcasting Corporation and the Heinemann Educational Books, 1985. Second edition. Pp. xvii, 333. Paper, $12.00. Review by Gerald H. Davis of Georgia State University. Paul Preston, ed. Revolution and War in Spain, 1931-1939. London and New York: Methuen, 1984. Pp. xi, 299. Cloth, $29.95: Paper, $12.95. Review by Robert Kern of the University of New Mexico. Glenn Blackburn. The West and the World Since 1945. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1985. Pp. vi, 152. Paper, $9.95. Review by Victoria L. Enders of Northern Arizona University. M. K. Dziewanowski. A History of Soviet Russia. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1985. Second edition. Pp. x, 406. Paper, $22.95. Review by Elizabeth J. Wilcoxson of Northern Essex Community College. Peter L. Steinberg. The Great "Red Menace": United States Prosecution of American Communists, 1947-1952. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1984. Pp. xiv, 311. Cloth, $35.00. Review by Kenneth G. Alfers of Mountain View College. Winthrop D. Jordan, Leon F. Litwack, Richard Hoftstadter, William Miller, Daniel Aaron. The United States: Brief Edition. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1985. Second Edition. Pp. xiv, 513. Paper, $19.95. Review by Richard A. Diem of The University of Texas at San Antonio. Edwin J. Perkins and Gary M. Walton. A Prosperous People: The Growth of the American Economy. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1985. Pp. xiii, 240. Paper, $14.95. Review by Larry Madaras of Howard Community College.

En los últimos años, INNOVAR ha venido trabajando en el mantenimiento y fortalecimiento de su calidad académica y editorial. Fruto de todo ello, la revista es reconocida como una publicación líder en el campo de las ciencias sociales y de gestión que estudian a las organizaciones. En este momento, según el monitoreo que realiza el laboratorio SCIMAGO a las revistas indexadas en SCOPUS®, INNOVAR es la revista líder en Latinoamérica en estos campos del conocimiento1. Otras fuentes confirman este reconocimiento por parte de la comunidad académica y científica en Colombia (clasificación A1 en Publindex desde 2010 y hasta la actualidad) e iberoamérica. Por todo ello, es necesario reconocer y agradecer el trabajo comprometido y riguroso de autores, revisores, colaboradores administrativos, equipo editorial, comités de la revista y de quienes han estado a cargo de su dirección. La revista está comprometida con el pluralismo epistemológico y metodológico, en el marco de la excelencia académica.En la presente edición de INNOVAR, se publican nueve (9) artículos de investigación que reflejan la diversidad y la amplia red de colaboración internacional que participa en la revista. También publicamos la reseña de un libro resultado de investigación en el contexto colombiano.En la sección Estrategia y Organizaciones de este número se recogen tres (3) artículos producto de investigación.Desde la Universidad Tecnológica de Warsaw, Polonia, la profesora Anna Sankowska, aporta el trabajo titulado How Organizational Trust Affects the Market Position: The Mediating Role of Innovativeness and Operational Efficiency. Empirical Results. Esta investigación se enfoca en mostrar cómo un impacto combinado de la eficiencia operacional y la innovación transmite los efectos de la confianza organizacional en la posición de mercado de las empresas. El trabajo empírico, por medio de entrevistas a 202 empresas cotizadas en la Bolsa de Valores de Varsovia, fue realizado en el año 2010. El resultado más remarcable de la investigación es que existe una influencia significativa de la confianza en la posición de mercado de la empresa, antes que en la eficiencia operacional.Los profesores españoles Calvo-Bernardino, Mingorance-Arnáiz y Bermejillo-Ibáñez, vinculados a la Universidad CEU San Pablo, son autores del artículo ¿Pueden aplicarse las mismas políticas en las Comunidades Autónomas espaholas? Análisis empírico a partir del patrón de crecimiento potencial en Comunidades Autónomas con estructuras productivas similares. Esta es una investigación en el campo de la estrategia de organizaciones públicas o gubernamentales. El trabajo se preocupa por identificar si existen diferencias entre las estructuras económicas de las diecisiete (17) Comunidades Autónomas españolas y en evaluar la tendencia o patrón de crecimiento potencial para las mismas. Para ello, se toman como referentes datos estadísticos de los últimos cincuenta años, que son analizados por medio de diferentes metodologías estadísticas. Se concluye que desde los 90, se identifican estructuras productivas y tendencias en la productividad del trabajo similares y se enfatiza en la necesidad de fortalecer el capital humano.El profesor Mariano García-Fernández, de la Universidad de Alicante, España, contribuye en este número con la investigación Influencia de la gestión de la calidad en los resultados de innovación a través de la gestión del conocimiento. Un estudio de casos. Este trabajo tuvo como objetivo identificar la influencia de la gestión de la calidad en la innovación, por medio de la gestión del conocimiento. Metodológicamente, el estudio se realiza en cinco (5) empresas del sector servicios en España, aplicando entrevistas a profundidad y observación directa. Los resultados aportan información sobre el papel de mediación que juega la gestión del conocimiento en la relación entre la gestión de la calidad y la innovación.La segunda sección del número 61 de INNOVAR es Emprendimiento y Gestión Empresarial, donde se presentan dos (2) artículos.Fruto de una colaboración internacional, los profesores David Ernesto Wong, de la Universidad del Pacífico, Perú, y Miguel Victor Chirinos, de la Universidad Nacional de Colombia, presentan la investigación titulada ¿Los modelos basados en el CAPM valoran adecuadamente los emprendimientos familiares? La investigación buscó evaluar la pertinencia del valor presente neto, que toma la tasa de descuento según el CAPM, para valorar los emprendimientos familiares. A partir de una rigurosa revisión de la literatura, los autores caracterizan los emprendimientos familiares y los limites y problemas del modelo CAPM, por los supuestos que adopta para valorar estas empresas en los países emergentes, para luego realizar la evaluación de 147 emprendimientos iniciados entre 1983 y 1993 en la ciudad de Lima. Los resultados del trabajo muestran que no existe un procedimiento adecuado para valorar los emprendimientos familiares, puesto que el modelo de valor presente neto, según el CAPM, desestima las características y las condiciones de los emprendimientos.Desde la Universidad de las Palmas de Gran Canaria, España, las profesoras Batista-Canino, Bolívar-Cruz y Medina-Brito publican el artículo Monitorización del proceso emprendedor a través del modelo de negocio. El trabajo pretende evidenciar cómo el modelo de negocio podría operar como una herramienta de prospección y evaluación del proceso emprendedor. Se plantean adaptaciones al marco teórico de los modelos de negocio y se desarrolla una metodología para el análisis longitudinal del emprendimiento, que luego se aplica en un caso concreto. El trabajo aporta una herramienta metodológica concreta y la caracterización de un caso, presentando la acción de los emprendedores en su proceso de interpretación y adaptación al entorno.Organizaciones y Cultura es la tercera sección de INNOVAR para el presente número, constituida por dos (2) artículos fruto de procesos de investigación.Las investigadoras Elena Navarro-Astor, Marisa Román-Onsalo y Margarita Infante-Perea nos presentan el trabajo Revisión internacional de estudios de barreras de carrera bajo la perspectiva de género en la industria de la construcción. El artículo tiene como objetivo conocer el estado de la investigación sobre las barreras de carrera existentes en el sector de la construcción, bajo la perspectiva de género, a nivel internacional. La investigación sistematiza las barreras identificadas en la investigación existente hasta el momento, diferenciando las barreras reales y las percibidas. Con base en un análisis exhaustivo de la literatura publicada en el periodo 2000-2014, la investigación concluye que el tema en el sector de la construcción no ha sido adecuadamente investigado (infra-investigado), tanto en España como en América Latina. Se identifica que entre las barreras reales está la dificultad del equilibro entre la vida profesional y la laboral, así como los problemas de profesionalidad en los procesos de gestión de recursos humanos, que generan segregación. En cuanto a barreras percibidas, se encuentran la cultura machista y la existencia de redes sociales de masculinidad en el sector de la construcción.De la Universidad Católica de Norte, Chile, las investigadoras Paulina Irene Salinas y Camila Fernanda Cordero son las autoras del artículo Transformación de los liderazgos en la minería: gestión estratégica para incorporar mujeres a la industria. El trabajo busca analizar el papel de los jefes o gerentes en el proceso de reversión de la baja participación de las mujeres en la industria minera. A partir de un estudio de caso en un gran empresa minera en Chile, se caracteriza el liderazgo transformacional que debería jugar la gerencia para facilitar la adaptación y proyección de las mujeres en el sector. Aspectos clave, según los resultados de la investigación, serían otorgar cargos de responsabilidad y liderazgo a las propias mujeres en esta industria y transformar la gestión del recurso humano.Nuestra cuarta sección es Aportes a la Investigación y a la Docencia, donde se publican dos (2) artículos.Desde Brasil, los profesores Portugal, Ribeiro y Kramer, de la Universidade Nove de Julho, y Almeida, de la University of São Paulo, aportan la investigación titulada A Bibliometric Study of the Resource-based View (RBV) in International Business Research Using Barney (1991) as a Key Marker. Este estudio bibliométrico analiza la incorporación de la teoría de los recursos y capacidades en el campo de la investigación en negocios internacionales en los últimos veinte años. A partir de la selección de revistas de impacto indexadas en el Social Science Citation Index, se identifica la red de categorías, citación y co-citación que se ha generado, con base en el trabajo pionero que introdujo la teoría de los recursos y capacidades. Se concluye que esta teoría ha tenido una importante influencia en el desarrollo del campo de los negocios internacionales y se identifican algunas áreas de investigación futura, que cuentan con alto potencial.Por otra parte, en una colaboración interinstitucional, los investigadores Magali Cárdenas y Luis Arturo Rivas, del Instituto Politécnico Nacional de México, Fernando Ramírez, de la Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México, y Nadima Simón, de la Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, nos presentan el trabajo titulado Análisis de una Red Científica en México. Este artículo presenta el estudio de la Red Ambiental, surgida en el Instituto Politécnico Nacional de México y que articula a 231 investigadores. La comprensión de la manera como operan las redes científicas resulta relevante para la generación, gestión y evaluación de la creación de conocimiento. Con base en la producción académica de los investigadores, se pudo desarrollar una caracterización de la Red Ambiental. Se concluye que en la conformación de esta red, los investigadores aún operan como islas, lo que implica poco trabajo colaborativo y la prevalencia de esfuerzos de producción intelectual individuales. Se plantean algunos elementos de política para la gestión de los recursos de investigación, que incentiven el trabajo colaborativo y la generación real de una red.Finalmente, en este número de INNOVAR publicamos la reseña del libro Conocimiento gerencial. El caso de una empresa multinegocios: Suramericana S.A., realizada por el profesor Hugo A. Macías de la Universidad de Medellín, Colombia. Esta reseña es una invitación a conocer el libro, que resulta de un trabajo de investigación de una tesis doctoral y que, con rigor, aborda el estudio de caso de un importante grupo empresarial colombiano.Nota1 http://www.scirnagojr.corn/journalsearch.php?q=11600153630&tip=sid&clean=0.

<p><strong>List of abstracts and authors:</strong></p><p><strong>1. Antipsychotics in anxiety disorders</strong></p><p>Christer Allgulander</p><p><strong>2. Anxiety in somatic disorders</strong></p><p>Christer Allgulander</p><p><strong>3. Community rehabilitation of the schizophrenic patient</strong></p><p>Orlando Alonso Betancourt, Maricela Morales Herrera</p><p><strong>4. Dual diagnosis: A theory-driven multidisciplinary approach for integrative care</strong></p><p>David Blackbeard</p><p><strong>5. The emotional language of the gut - when 'psyche' meets 'soma'</strong></p><p>Helen Clark</p><p><strong>6. The Psychotherapy of bipolar disorder</strong></p><p>Franco Colin</p><p><strong>7. The Psychotherapy of bipolar disorder</strong></p><p>Franco Colin</p><p><strong>8. Developing and adopting mental health policies and plans in Africa: Lessons from South Africa, Uganda and Zambia</strong></p><p>Sara Cooper, Sharon Kleintjes, Cynthia Isaacs, Fred Kigozi, Sheila Ndyanabangi, Augustus Kapungwe, John Mayeya, Michelle Funk, Natalie Drew, Crick Lund</p><p><strong>9. The importance of relapse prevention in schizophrenia</strong></p><p>Robin Emsley</p><p><strong>10. Mental Health care act: Fact or fiction?</strong></p><p>Helmut Erlacher, M Nagdee</p><p><strong>11. Does a dedicated 72-hour observation facility in a district hospital reduce the need for involuntary admissions to a psychiatric hospital?</strong></p><p>Lennart Eriksson</p><p><strong>12. The incidence and risk factors for dementia in the Ibadan study of ageing</strong></p><p>Oye Gureje, Lola Kola, Adesola Ogunniyi, Taiwo Abiona</p><p><strong>13. Is depression a disease of inflammation?</strong></p><p><strong></strong>Angelos Halaris</p><p><strong>14. Paediatric bipolar disorder: More heat than light?</strong></p><p>Sue Hawkridge</p><p><strong>15. EBM: Anova Conundrum</strong></p><p>Elizabeth L (Hoepie) Howell</p><p><strong>16. Tracking the legal status of a cohort of inpatients on discharge from a 72-hour assessment unit</strong></p><p>Bernard Janse van Rensburg</p><p><strong>17. Dual diagnosis units in psychiatric facilities: Opportunities and challenges</strong></p><p>Yasmien Jeenah</p><p><strong>18. Alcohol-induced psychotic disorder: A comparative study on the clinical characteristics of patients with alcohol dependence and schizophrenia</strong></p><p>Gerhard Jordaan, D G Nel, R Hewlett, R Emsley</p><p><strong>19. Anxiety disorders: the first evidence for a role in preventive psychiatry</strong></p><p>Andre F Joubert</p><p><strong>20. The end of risk assessment and the beginning of start</strong></p><p>Sean Kaliski</p><p><strong>21. Psychiatric disorders abd psychosocial correlates of high HIV risk sexual behaviour in war-effected Eatern Uganda</strong></p><p>E Kinyada, H A Weiss, M Mungherera, P Onyango Mangen, E Ngabirano, R Kajungu, J Kagugube, W Muhwezi, J Muron, V Patel</p><p><strong>22. One year of Forensic Psychiatric assessment in the Northern Cape: A comparison with an established assessment service in the Eastern Cape</strong></p><p>N K Kirimi, C Visser</p><p><strong>23. Mental Health service user priorities for service delivery in South Africa</strong></p><p>Sharon Kleintjes, Crick Lund, Leslie Swartz, Alan Flisher and MHaPP Research Programme Consortium</p><p><strong>24. The nature and extent of over-the-counter and prescription drug abuse in cape town</strong></p><p>Liezl Kramer</p><p><strong>25. Physical health issues in long-term psychiatric inpatients: An audit of nursing statistics and clinical files at Weskoppies Hospital</strong></p><p>Christa Kruger</p><p><strong>26. Suicide risk in Schizophrenia - 20 Years later, a cohort study</strong></p><p>Gian Lippi, Ean Smit, Joyce Jordaan, Louw Roos</p><p><strong>27.Developing mental health information systems in South Africa: Lessons from pilot projects in Northern Cape and KwaZulu-Natal</strong></p><p>Crick Lund, S Skeen, N Mapena, C Isaacs, T Mirozev and the Mental Health and Poverty Research Programme Consortium Institution</p><p><strong>28. Mental health aspects of South African emigration</strong></p><p>Maria Marchetti-Mercer</p><p><strong>29. What services SADAG can offer your patients</strong></p><p>Elizabeth Matare</p><p><strong>30. Culture and language in psychiatry</strong></p><p>Dan Mkize</p><p><strong>31. Latest psychotic episode</strong></p><p>Povl Munk-Jorgensen</p><p><strong>32. The Forensic profile of female offenders</strong></p><p>Mo Nagdee, Helmut Fletcher</p><p><strong>33. The intra-personal emotional impact of practising psychiatry</strong></p><p>Margaret Nair</p><p><strong>34. Highly sensitive persons (HSPs) and implications for treatment</strong></p><p>Margaret Nair</p><p><strong>35. Task shifting in mental health - The Kenyan experience</strong></p><p>David M Ndetei</p><p><strong>36. Bridging the gap between traditional healers and mental health in todya's modern psychiatry</strong></p><p>David M Ndetei</p><p><strong>37. Integrating to achieve modern psychiatry</strong></p><p>David M Ndetei</p><p><strong>38. Non-medical prescribing: Outcomes from a pharmacist-led post-traumatic stress disorder clinic</strong></p><p>A Parkinson</p><p><strong>39. Is there a causal relationship between alcohol and HIV? Implications for policy, practice and future research</strong></p><p>Charles Parry</p><p><strong>40. Global mental health - A new global health discipline comes of age</strong></p><p>Vikram Patel</p><p><strong>41. Integrating mental health into primary health care: Lessons from pilot District demonstration sites in Uganda and South Africa</strong></p><p>Inge Petersen, Arvin Bhana, K Baillie and MhaPP Research Programme Consortium</p><p><strong>42. Personality disorders -The orphan child in axis I - Axis II Dichotomy</strong></p><p><strong></strong>Willie Pienaar</p><p><strong>43. Case Studies in Psychiatric Ethics</strong></p><p>Willie Pienaar</p><p><strong>44. Coronary artery disease and depression: Insights into pathogenesis and clinical implications</strong></p><p>Janus Pretorius</p><p><strong>45. Impact of the Mental Health Care Act No. 17 of 2002 on designated hospitals in KwaZulu-Natal: Triumphs and trials</strong></p><p>Suvira Ramlall, Jennifer Chipps</p><p><strong>46. Biological basis of addication</strong></p><p>Solomon Rataemane</p><p><strong>47. Genetics of Schizophrenia</strong></p><p>Louw Roos</p><p><strong>48. Management of delirium - Recent advances</strong></p><p>Shaquir Salduker</p><p><strong>49. Social neuroscience: Brain research on social issues</strong></p><p>Manfred Spitzer</p><p><strong>50. Experiments on the unconscious</strong></p><p>Manfred Spitzer</p><p><strong>51. The Psychology and neuroscience of music</strong></p><p>Manfred Spitzer</p><p><strong>52. Mental disorders in DSM-V</strong></p><p>Dan Stein</p><p><strong>53. Personality, trauma exposure, PTSD and depression in a cohort of SA Metro policemen: A longitudinal study</strong></p><p>Ugashvaree Subramaney</p><p><strong>54. Eating disorders: An African perspective</strong></p><p>Christopher Szabo</p><p><strong>55. An evaluation of the WHO African Regional strategy for mental health 2001-2010</strong></p><p>Thandi van Heyningen, M Majavu, C Lund</p><p><strong>56. A unitary model for the motor origin of bipolar mood disorders and schizophrenia</strong></p><p>Jacques J M van Hoof</p><p><strong>57. The origin of mentalisation and the treatment of personality disorders</strong></p><p>Jacques J M Hoof</p><p><strong>58. How to account practically for 'The Cause' in psychiatric diagnostic classification</strong></p><p>C W (Werdie) van Staden</p><p><strong>POSTER PRESENTATIONS</strong></p><p><strong>59. Problem drinking and physical and sexual abuse at WSU Faculty of Health Sciences, Mthatha, 2009</strong></p><p>Orlando Alonso Betancourt, Maricela Morales Herrera, E, N Kwizera, J L Bernal Munoz</p><p><strong>60. Prevalence of alcohol drinking problems and other substances at WSU Faculty of Health Sciences, Mthatha, 2009</strong></p><p>Orlando Alonso Betancourt, Maricela Morales Herrera, E, N Kwizera, J L Bernal Munoz</p><p><strong>61. Lessons learnt from a modified assertive community-based treatment programme in a developing country</strong></p><p>Ulla Botha, Liezl Koen, John Joska, Linda Hering, Piet Ooosthuizen</p><p><strong>62. Perceptions of psychologists regarding the use of religion and spirituality in therapy</strong></p><p>Ottilia Brown, Diane Elkonin</p><p><strong>63. Resilience in families where a member is living with schizophreni</strong></p><p>Ottilia Brown, Jason Haddad, Greg Howcroft</p><p><strong>64. Fusion and grandiosity - The mastersonian approach to the narcissistic disorder of the self</strong></p><p>William Griffiths, D Macklin, Loray Daws</p><p><strong>65. Not being allowed to exist - The mastersonian approach to the Schizoid disorder of the self</strong></p><p>William Griffiths, D Macklin, Loray Daws</p><p><strong>66. Risky drug-injecting behaviours in Cape Town and the need for a needle exchange programme</strong></p><p>Volker Hitzeroth</p><p><strong>67. Neuroleptic malignant syndrome in adolescents in the Western Cape: A case series</strong></p><p>Terri Henderson</p><p><strong>68. Experience and view of local academic psychiatrists on the role of spirituality in South African specialist psychiatry, compared with a qualitative analysis of the medical literature</strong></p><p>Bernard Janse van Rensburg</p><p><strong>69. The role of defined spirituality in local specialist psychiatric practice and training: A model and operational guidelines for South African clinical care scenarios</strong></p><p>Bernard Janse van Rensburg</p><p><strong>70. Handedness in schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorder in an Afrikaner founder population</strong></p><p>Marinda Joubert, J L Roos, J Jordaan</p><p><strong>71. A role for structural equation modelling in subtyping schizophrenia in an African population</strong></p><p>Liezl Koen, Dana Niehaus, Esme Jordaan, Robin Emsley</p><p><strong>72. Caregivers of disabled elderly persons in Nigeria</strong></p><p>Lola Kola, Oye Gureje, Adesola Ogunniyi, Dapo Olley</p><p><strong>73. HIV Seropositivity in recently admitted and long-term psychiatric inpatients: Prevalence and diagnostic profile</strong></p><p>Christina Kruger, M P Henning, L Fletcher</p><p><strong>74. Syphilis seropisitivity in recently admitted longterm psychiatry inpatients: Prevalence and diagnostic profile</strong></p><p>Christina Kruger, M P Henning, L Fletcher</p><p><strong>75. 'The Great Suppression'</strong></p><p>Sarah Lamont, Joel Shapiro, Thandi Groves, Lindsey Bowes</p><p><strong>76. Not being allowed to grow up - The Mastersonian approach to the borderline personality</strong></p><p>Daleen Macklin, W Griffiths</p><p><strong>77. Exploring the internal confirguration of the cycloid personality: A Rorschach comprehensive system study</strong></p><p>Daleen Macklin, Loray Daws, M Aronstam</p><p><strong>78. A survey to determine the level of HIV related knowledge among adult psychiatric patients admitted to Weskoppies Hospital</strong></p><p><strong></strong> T G Magagula, M M Mamabolo, C Kruger, L Fletcher</p><p><strong>79. A survey of risk behaviour for contracting HIV among adult psychiatric patients admitted to Weskoppies Hospital</strong></p><p>M M Mamabolo, T G Magagula, C Kruger, L Fletcher</p><p><strong>80. A retrospective review of state sector outpatients (Tara Hospital) prescribed Olanzapine: Adherence to metabolic and cardiovascular screening and monitoring guidelines</strong></p><p>Carina Marsay, C P Szabo</p><p><strong>81. Reported rapes at a hospital rape centre: Demographic and clinical profiles</strong></p><p>Lindi Martin, Kees Lammers, Donavan Andrews, Soraya Seedat</p><p><strong>82. Exit examination in Final-Year medical students: Measurement validity of oral examinations in psychiatry</strong></p><p>Mpogisheng Mashile, D J H Niehaus, L Koen, E Jordaan</p><p><strong>83. Trends of suicide in the Transkei region of South Africa</strong></p><p>Banwari Meel</p><p><strong>84. Functional neuro-imaging in survivors of torture</strong></p><p>Thriya Ramasar, U Subramaney, M D T H W Vangu, N S Perumal</p><p><strong>85. Newly diagnosed HIV+ in South Africa: Do men and women enroll in care?</strong></p><p>Dinesh Singh, S Hoffman, E A Kelvin, K Blanchard, N Lince, J E Mantell, G Ramjee, T M Exner</p><p><strong>86. Diagnostic utitlity of the International HIC Dementia scale for Asymptomatic HIV-Associated neurocognitive impairment and HIV-Associated neurocognitive disorder in South Africa</strong></p><p>Dinesh Singh, K Goodkin, D J Hardy, E Lopez, G Morales</p><p><strong>87. The Psychological sequelae of first trimester termination of pregnancy (TOP): The impact of resilience</strong></p><p>Ugashvaree Subramaney</p><p><strong>88. Drugs and other therapies under investigation for PTSD: An international database</strong></p><p>Sharain Suliman, Soraya Seedat</p><p><strong>89. Frequency and correlates of HIV Testing in patients with severe mental illness</strong></p><p>Hendrik Temmingh, Leanne Parasram, John Joska, Tania Timmermans, Pete Milligan, Helen van der Plas, Henk Temmingh</p><p><strong>90. A proposed mental health service and personnel organogram for the Elizabeth Donkin psychiatric Hospital</strong></p><p>Stephan van Wyk, Zukiswa Zingela</p><p><strong>91. A brief report on the current state of mental health care services in the Eastern Cape</strong></p><p>Stephan van Wyk, Zukiswa Zingela, Kiran Sukeri, Heloise Uys, Mo Nagdee, Maricela Morales, Helmut Erlacher, Orlando Alonso</p><p><strong>92. An integrated mental health care service model for the Nelson Mandela Bay Metro</strong></p><p>Stephan van Wyk, Zukiswa Zingela, Kiran Sukeri</p><p><strong>93. Traditional and alternative healers: Prevalence of use in psychiatric patients</strong></p><p>Zukiswa Zingela, S van Wyk, W Esterhuysen, E Carr, L Gaauche</p>

<p><strong>1. How can we maintain a sustainable private practice in the current political and economic climate?</strong></p><p>Eugene Allers</p><p><strong>2. SASOP Clinical guidelines, protocols and algorithms: Development of treatment guidelines for bipolar mood disorder and major depression</strong></p><p> Eugene Allers, Margaret Nair, Gerhard Grobler</p><p><strong>3. The revolving door phenomenon in psychiatry: Comparing low-frequency and high-frequency users of psychiatric inpatient services in a developing country</strong></p><p>U A Botha, P Oosthuien, L Koen, J A Joska, J Parker, N Horn</p><p><strong>4. Neurophysiology of emotion and senses - The interface between psyche and soma</strong></p><p>Eugene Allers</p><p><strong>5. Suicide prevention: From and beyond the psychiatrist's hands</strong></p><p>O Alonso Betanourt, M Morales Herrera</p><p><strong>6. Treatment of first-episod psychosis: Efficacy and toleabilty of a long-acting typical antipsychotic </strong></p><p>B Chiliza, R Schoeman, R Emsey, P Oosthuizen, L KOen, D Niehaus, S Hawkridge</p><p><strong>7. Treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in the young child</strong></p><p>Helen Clark</p><p><strong>8. Holistic/ Alternative treatment in psychiatry: The value of indigenous knowledge systems in cllaboration with moral, ethical and religious approaches in the military services</strong></p><p>J Dill</p><p><strong>9. Treating Schizophrenia: Have we got it wrong?</strong></p><p>Robin Emsley</p><p><strong>10.Terminal questions in the elderly</strong></p><p>Mike Ewart Smith</p><p><strong>11. Mental Health Policy development and implementation in Ghana, South Africa, Uganda and Zambia</strong></p><p>Alan J Flisher, Crick Lund, Michelle Frank, Arvin Bhana, Victor Doku, Natalie Drew, Fred N Kigozi, Martin Knapp, Mayeh Omar, Inge Petersen, Andrew Green andthe MHaPP Research Programme Consortium</p><p><strong>12. What indicators should be used to monitor progress in scaling uo services for people with mental disorders?</strong></p><p>Lancet Global Mental Health Group (Alan J Flisher, Dan Chisholm, Crick Lund, Vikram Patel, Shokhar Saxena, Graham Thornicroft, Mark Tomlinson)</p><p><strong>13. Does unipolar mania merit research in South Africa? A look at the literature</strong></p><p>Christoffel Grobler</p><p><strong>14. Revisiting the Cartesian duality of mind and body</strong></p><p>Oye Gureje</p><p><strong>15. Child and adolescent psychopharmacology: Current trends and complexities</strong></p><p>S M Hawkridge</p><p><strong>16. Integrating mental illness, suicide and religion</strong></p><p>Volker Hitzeroth</p><p><strong>17. Cost of acute inpatient mental health care in a 72-hour assessment uniy</strong></p><p>A B R Janse van Rensburg, W Jassat</p><p><strong>18. Management of Schizophrenia according to South African standard treatment guidelines</strong></p><p>A B R Janse van Rensburg</p><p><strong>19. Structural brain imaging in the clinical management of psychiatric illness</strong></p><p>F Y Jeenah</p><p><strong>20. ADHD: Change in symptoms from child to adulthood</strong></p><p>S A Jeeva, A Turgay</p><p><strong>21. HIV-Positive psychiatric patients in antiretrovirals</strong></p><p>G Jonsson, F Y Jeenah, M Y H Moosa</p><p><strong>22. A one year review of patients admitted to tertiary HIV/Neuropsychiatry beds in the Western Cape</strong></p><p>John Joska, Paul Carey, Ian Lewis, Paul Magni, Don Wilson, Dan J Stein</p><p><strong>23. Star'd - Critical review and treatment implications</strong></p><p>Andre Joubert</p><p><strong>24. Options for treatment-resistent depression: Lessons from Star'd; an interactive session</strong></p><p>Andre Joubert</p><p><strong>25. My brain made me do it: How Neuroscience may change the insanity defence</strong></p><p>Sean Kaliski</p><p><strong>26. Child andadolescent mental health services in four African countries</strong></p><p>Sharon Kleintjies, Alan Flisher, Victoruia Campbell-Hall, Arvin Bhana, Phillippa Bird, Victor Doku, Natalie, Drew, Michelle Funk, Andrew Green, Fred Kigozi, Crick Lund, Angela Ofori-Atta, Mayeh Omar, Inge Petersen, Mental Health and Poverty Research Programme Consortium</p><p><strong>27. Individualistic theories of risk behaviour</strong></p><p>Liezl Kramer, Volker Hitzeroth</p><p><strong>28. Development and implementation of mental health poliy and law in South Africa: What is the impact of stigma?</strong></p><p>Ritsuko Kakuma, Sharon Kleintjes, Crick Lund, Alan J Flisher, Paula Goering, MHaPP Research Programme Consortium</p><p><strong>29. Factors contributing to community reintegration of long-term mental health crae users of Weskoppies Hospital</strong></p><p>Carri Lewis, Christa Kruger</p><p><strong>30. Mental health and poverty: A systematic review of the research in low- and middle-income countries</strong></p><p>Crick Lund, Allison Breen, Allan J Flisher, Ritsuko Kakuma, Leslie Swartz, John Joska, Joanne Corrigall, Vikram Patel, MHaPP Research Programe Consortium</p><p><strong>31. The cost of scaling up mental health care in low- and middle-income countries</strong></p><p>Crick Lund, Dan Chishlom, Shekhar Saxena</p><p><strong>32. 'Tikking'Clock: The impact of a methamphetamine epidemic at a psychiatric hospital in the Western Cape</strong></p><p>P Milligan, J S Parker</p><p><strong>33. Durban youth healh-sk behaviour: Prevalence f Violence-related behaviour</strong></p><p>D L Mkize</p><p><strong>34. Profile of morality of patients amitted Weskoppies Psychiatric Hospital in Sout frican over a 5-Year period (2001-2005)</strong></p><p>N M Moola, N Khamker, J L Roos, P Rheeder</p><p><strong>35. One flew over Psychiatry nest</strong></p><p>Leverne Mountany</p><p><strong>36. The ethical relationship betwe psychiatrists and the pharmaceutical indutry</strong></p><p>Margaret G Nair</p><p><strong>37. Developing the frameor of a postgraduate da programme in mental health</strong></p><p>R J Nichol, B de Klerk, M M Nel, G van Zyl, J Hay</p><p><strong>38. An unfolding story: The experience with HIV-ve patients at a Psychiatric Hospital</strong></p><p>J S Parker, P Milligan</p><p><strong>39. Task shifting: A practical strategy for scalingup mental health care in developing countries</strong></p><p>Vikram Patel</p><p><strong>40. Ethics: Informed consent and competency in the elderly</strong></p><p>Willie Pienaar</p><p><strong>41. Confronting ommonmoral dilemmas. Celebrating uncertainty, while in search patient good</strong></p><p>Willie Pienaar</p><p><strong>42. Moral dilemmas in the treatment and repatriation of patients with psychtorders while visiting our country</strong></p><p>Duncan Ian Rodseth</p><p><strong>43. Geriatrics workshop (Psegal symposium): Medico-legal issuess in geriatric psyhiatry</strong></p><p>Felix Potocnik</p><p><strong>44. Brain stimulation techniques - update on recent research</strong></p><p>P J Pretorius</p><p><strong>45. Holistic/Alternative treatments in psychiatry</strong></p><p>T Rangaka, J Dill</p><p><strong>46. Cognitive behaviour therapy and other brief interventions for management of substances</strong></p><p>Solomon Rataemane</p><p><strong>47. A Transtheoretical view of change</strong></p><p>Nathan P Rogerson</p><p><strong>48. Profile of security breaches in longerm mental health care users at Weskoppies Hospital over a 6-month period</strong></p><p>Deleyn Rema, Lindiwe Mthethwa, Christa Kruger</p><p><strong>49. Management of psychogenic and chronic pain - A novel approach</strong></p><p>M S Salduker</p><p><strong>50. Childhood ADHD and bipolar mood disorders: Differences and similarities</strong></p><p>L Scribante</p><p><strong>51. The choice of antipsychotic in HIV-infected patients and psychopharmacocal responses to antipsychotic medication</strong></p><p>Dinesh Singh, Karl Goodkin</p><p><strong>52. Pearls in clinical neuroscience: A teaching column in CNS Spectrums</strong></p><p><strong></strong>Dan J Stein</p><p><strong>53. Urinary Cortisol secretion and traumatics in a cohort of SA Metro policemen A longitudinal study</strong></p><p>Ugash Subramaney</p><p><strong>54. Canabis use in Psychiatric inpatients</strong></p><p><strong></strong>M Talatala, G M Nair, D L Mkize</p><p><strong>55. Pathways to care and treatmt in first and multi-episodepsychosis: Findings fm a developing country</strong></p><p>H S Teh, P P Oosthuizen</p><p><strong>56. Mental disorders in HIV-infected indivat various HIV Treatment sites in South Africa</strong></p><p>Rita Thom</p><p><strong>57. Attendanc ile of long-term mental health care users at ocupational therapy group sessions at Weskoppies Hospital</strong></p><p>Ronel van der Westhuizen, Christa Kruger</p><p><strong>58. Epidemiological patterns of extra-medical drug use in South Africa: Results from the South African stress and health study</strong></p><p>Margaretha S van Heerden, Anna Grimsrud, David Williams, Dan Stein</p><p><strong>59. Persocentred diagnosis: Where d ps and mental disorders fit in the International classificaton of diseases (ICD)?</strong></p><p>Werdie van Staden</p><p><strong>60. What every psychiatrist needs to know about scans</strong></p><p>Herman van Vuuren</p><p><strong>61. Psychiatric morbidity in health care workers withle drug-resistant erulosis (MDR-TB) A case series</strong></p><p>Urvashi Vasant, Dinesh Singh</p><p><strong>62. Association between uetrine artery pulsatility index and antenatal maternal psychological stress</strong></p><p>Bavanisha Vythilingum, Lut Geerts, Annerine Roos, Sheila Faure, Dan J Stein</p><p><strong>63. Approaching the dual diagnosis dilemma</strong></p><p>Lize Weich</p><p><strong>64. Women's mental health: Onset of mood disturbance in midlife - Fact or fiction</strong></p><p>Denise White</p><p><strong>65. Failing or faking: Isses in the fiagnosis and treatment of adult ADHD</strong></p><p>Dora Wynchank</p>

<p><strong>List of abstracts and authors:</strong></p><p><strong>1. Bipolar disorder not otherwise specified -overdiagnosed or underdiagnosed?</strong></p><p>E Allers</p><p><strong>2. The prognosis of major depression untreated and treated: Does the data reflect the true picture of the prognosis of this very common disorder?</strong></p><p>E Allers</p><p><strong>3. Can we prolong our patients' life expectancy? Providing a better quality of life for patients with severe mental illness</strong></p><p>O A Betencourt</p><p><strong>4. The scope of ECT practice in South Africa</strong></p><p>J Benson-Martin, P Milligan</p><p><strong>5. Biomarkers for schizophrenia: Can we evolve like cancer therapeutics?</strong></p><p>P Buckley<strong></strong></p><p><strong>6. Relapse in schizophrenis: Major challenges in prediction and prevention</strong></p><p>P Buckley</p><p><strong>7. Informed consent in biological treatments: The right to know the duty to inform</strong></p><p><strong></strong>I Chetty</p><p><strong>8. Effectiveness of a long-acting injectable antipsychotic plus an assertive monitoring programme in first-episode schizophrenia</strong></p><p><strong></strong>B Chiliza, L Asmal, O Esan, A Ojagbemi, O Gureje, R Emsley</p><p><strong>9. Name, shame, fame</strong></p><p>P Cilliers</p><p><strong>10. Can we manage the increasing incidence of violent raging children? We have to!</strong></p><p>H Clark</p><p><strong>11. Serotonin, depression and antidepressant action</strong></p><p>P Cowen</p><p><strong>12. Prevalence and correlates of comorbid psychiatris illness in patients with heroin use disorder admitted to Stikland Opioid Detoxification Unit</strong></p><p>L Dannatt, K J Cloete, M Kidd, L Weich</p><p><strong>13. Investigating the association between diabetes mellitus, depression and psychological distress in a cohort of South African teachers</strong></p><p>A K Domingo, S Seedat, T M Esterhuizen, C Laurence, J Volmink, L Asmal</p><p><strong>14. Neuropeptide S -emerging evidence for a role in anxiety</strong></p><p>K Domschke</p><p><strong>15. Pathogenetics of anxiety</strong></p><p>K Domschke</p><p><strong>16. The effects of HIV on the fronto-striatal system</strong></p><p>S du Plessis, M Vink, J Joska, E Koutsilieri, C Scheller, B Spottiswoode, D Stein, R Emsley</p><p><strong>17. Effects of acute antipsychotic treatment on brain morphology in schizophrenia</strong></p><p>R Emsley, L Asmal, B Chiliza, S du Plessis, J Carr, A Goosen, M Kidd, M Vink, R Kahn</p><p><strong>18. Development of a genetic database resource for monitoring of breast cancer patients at risk of physical and psychological complications</strong></p><p>K Grant, F J Cronje, K Botha, J P Apffelstaedt, M J Kotze</p><p><strong>19. Unipolar mania reconsidered: Evidence from a South African study</strong></p><p><strong></strong>C Grobler</p><p><strong>20. Antipsychotic-induced movement disorders: Occurence and management</strong></p><p>P Haddad</p><p><strong>21. The place of observational studies in assessing the effectiveness of long-acting injectable antipsychotics</strong></p><p>P Haddad</p><p><strong>22. Molecular mechanisms of d-cycloserine in fear extinction: Insights from RNS sequencing</strong></p><p>S Hemmings, S Malan-Muller, L Fairbairn, M Jalali, E J Oakeley, J Gamieldien, M Kidd, S Seedat</p><p><strong>23. Schizophrenia: The role of inflammation</strong></p><p>DC Henderson</p><p><strong>24. Addictions: Emergent trends and innovations</strong></p><p>V Hitzeroth</p><p><strong>25. The socio-cultural-religious context of biological psychiatric practice</strong></p><p>B Janse van Rensburg</p><p><strong>26. Biochemical markers for identifying risk factors for disability progression in multiple sclerosis</strong></p><p><strong></strong>S Janse van Rensburg, M J Kotze, F J Cronje, W Davis, K Moremi, M Jalali Sefid Dashti, J Gamieldien, D Geiger, M Rensburg, R van Toorn, M J de Klerk, G M Hon, T Matsha, S Hassan, R T Erasmus</p><p><strong>27. Alcohol-induced psychotic disorder: Brain perfusion and psychopathology - before and after antipsychotic treatment</strong></p><p>G Jordaan, J M Warwick, D G Nel, R Hewlett, R Emsley</p><p><strong>28.'Pump and dump': Harm reduction strategies for breastfeeding while using substances</strong></p><p>L Kramer</p><p><strong>29. Adolescent neuropsychiatry - an emerging field in South African adolescent psychiatric services</strong></p><p>A Lachman</p><p><strong>30. Recovery versus remission, or what it means to be healthy for a psychiatric patient?</strong></p><p>B Latecki</p><p><strong>31. Holistic methods utilised to normalise behaviours in youth diagnosed with neuro-biochemical disorders</strong></p><p>P Macqueen</p><p><strong>32. Candidate genes and novel polymorphisms for anxiety disorder in a South African cohort</strong></p><p>N McGregor, J Dimatelis, S M J Hemmings, C J Kinnear, D Stein, V Russel, C Lochner</p><p><strong>33. Higher visual functioning</strong></p><p>A Moodley</p><p><strong>34. The effects of prenatal methylmercury exposure on trace element and antioxidant levels in rat offspring following 6-hydroxydopamine-induced neuronal insult</strong></p><p>Z M Moosa, W M U Daniels, M V Mabandla</p><p><strong>35. Paediatric neuropsychiatric movement disorders</strong></p><p>L Mubaiwa</p><p><strong>36. The South African national female offenders study</strong></p><p>M Nagdee, L Artz, C de Clercq, P de Wet, H Erlacher, S Kaliski, C Kotze, L Kowalski, J Naidoo, S Naidoo, J Pretorius, M Roffey, F Sokudela, U Subramaney</p><p><strong>37. Neurobiological consequences of child abuse</strong></p><p>C Nemeroff</p><p><strong>38. What do Stellenbosch Unviversity medical students think about psychiatry - and why should we care?</strong></p><p>G Nortje, S Suliman, K Seed, G Lydall, S Seedat</p><p><strong>39. Neurological soft skins in Nigerian Africans with first episode schizophrenia: Factor structure and clinical correlates</strong></p><p><strong></strong>A Ojagbemi, O Esan, O Gureje, R Emsley</p><p><strong>40. Should psychiatric patients know their MTHFR status?</strong></p><p>E Peter</p><p><strong>41. Clinical and functional outcome of treatment refractory first-episode schizophrenia</strong></p><p>L Phahladira, R Emsley, L Asmal, B Chiliza</p><p><strong>42. Bioethics by case discussion</strong></p><p>W Pienaar</p><p><strong>43. Reviewing our social contract pertaining to psychiatric research in children, research in developing countries and distributive justice in pharmacy</strong></p><p>W Pienaar</p><p><strong>44. The performance of the MMSE in a heterogenous elderly South African population</strong></p><p>S Ramlall, J Chipps, A I Bhigjee, B J Pillay</p><p><strong>45. Biological basis addiction (alocohol and drug addiction)</strong></p><p>S Rataemane</p><p><strong>46. Volumetric brain changes in prenatal methamphetamine-exposed children compared with healthy unexposed controls</strong></p><p><strong></strong>A Roos, K Donald, G Jones, D J Stein</p><p><strong>47. Single voxel proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy of the amygdala in social anxiety disorder in the context of early developmental trauma</strong></p><p>D Rosenstein, A Hess, S Seedat, E Meintjies</p><p><strong>48. Discussion of HDAC inhibitors, with specific reference to supliride and its use during breastfeeding</strong></p><p>J Roux</p><p><strong>49. Prevalence and clinical correlates of police contact prior to a first diagnosis of schizophrenia</strong></p><p>C Schumann, L Asmal, K Cloete, B Chiliza, R Emsley</p><p><strong>50. Are dreams meaningless?</strong></p><p>M Solms</p><p><strong>51. The conscious id</strong></p><p>M Solms<strong></strong></p><p><strong>52. Depression and resilience in HIV-infected women with early life stress: Does trauma play a mediating role?</strong></p><p>G Spies, S Seedat</p><p><strong>53. State of affairs analysis for forensic psychiatry in SA</strong></p><p>U Subramaney</p><p><strong>54. Escitalopram in the prevention of post-traumatic stress disorder: A pilot randomised controlled trial</strong></p><p>S Suliman, S Seedat, J Pingo, T Sutherland, J Zohar, D J Stein</p><p><strong>55. Epigenetic consequences of adverse early social experiences in primates</strong></p><p>S Suomi</p><p><strong>56. Risk, resilience, and gene x environment interactions in primates</strong></p><p>S Suomi</p><p><strong>57. Biological aspects of anorexia nervosa</strong></p><p>C Szabo</p><p><strong>58. Agents used and profiles of non-fatal suicidal behaviour in East London</strong></p><p>H Uys</p><p><strong>59. The contributions of G-protein coupled receptor signalling to opioid dependence</strong></p><p>J van Tonder</p><p><strong>60. Emerging trend and innovation in PTSD and OCD</strong></p><p>J Zohar</p><p><strong>61. Making the SASOP treatment guidelines operational</strong></p><p>E Allers</p><p><strong>Poster Presentations</strong></p><p><strong>62. Neuropsychological deficits in social anxiety disorder in the context of early developmental trauma</strong></p><p><strong></strong>S Bakelaar, D Rosenstein, S Seedat</p><p><strong>63.Social anxiety disorder in patients with or without early childhood trauma: Relationship to behavioral inhibition and activation and quality of life</strong></p><p><strong></strong>S Bakelaar, C Bruijnen, A Sambeth, S Seedat</p><p><strong>64. Exploring altered affective processing in obssessive compulsive disorder symptom subtypes</strong></p><p>E Breet, J Ipser, D Stein, C Lochner<strong><br /></strong></p><p><strong>65. To investigate the bias toward recognising the facial expression of disgust in obsessive compulsive disorder as well as the effect of escitalopram</strong></p><p>E Breet, J Ipser, D Stein, C Lochner</p><p><strong>66. A fatal-case of nevirapine-induced Stevens-Johnson's syndrome in HIV mania</strong></p><p>A Bronkhorst, Z Zingela, W M Qwesha, B P Magigaba<strong></strong></p><p><strong>67. Association of the COMT G472A (met/met) genotype with lower disability in people diagnosed with multiple sclerosis</strong></p><p>W Davis, S J van Rensburg, L Fisher, F J Cronje, D Geiger, M J Kotze</p><p><strong>68. Homocycsteine levels are associated with the fat mass and obesity associated gene FTO(intron 1 T&gt;A) polymorphism in MS patients</strong></p><p>W Davis, S J Van Rensburg, M J Kotze, L Fisher, M Jalali, F J Cronje, K Moremi, J Gamieldien, D Geiger, M Rensburg, R van Toorn, M J de Klerk, G M Hon, T Matsha, S Hassan, R T Erasmus</p><p><strong>69. Analysis of the COMT 472 G&gt;A (rs4680) polymorphism in relation to environmental influences as contributing factors in patients with schizophrenia</strong></p><p>D de Klerk, S J van Rensburg, R A Emsley, D Geiger, M Rensburg, R T Erasmus, M J Kotze</p><p><strong>70. Dietary folate intake, homocysteine levels and MTHFR mutation detection in South African patients with depression: Test development for clinical application </strong></p><p>D Delport, N vand der Merwe, R Schoeman, M J Kotze</p><p><strong>71. The use ofexome sequencing for antipsychotic pharmacogenomic applications in South African schizophrenia patients</strong></p><p>B Drogmoller, D Niehaus, G Wright, B Chiliza, L Asmal, R Emsley, L Warnich</p><p><strong>72. The effects of HIV on the ventral-striatal reward system</strong></p><p>S du Plessis, M Vink, J Joska, E Koutsilieri, C Scheller, B Spottiswoode, D Stein, R Emsley</p><p><strong>73. Xenomelia relates to asymmetrical insular activity: A case study of fMRI</strong></p><p>S du Plessis, M Vink, L Asmal</p><p><strong>74. Maternal mental helath: A prospective naturalistic study of the outcome of pregancy in women with major psychiatric disorders in an African country</strong></p><p>E du Toit, L Koen, D Niehaus, B Vythilingum, E Jordaan, J Leppanen</p><p><strong>75. Prefrontal cortical thinning and subcortical volume decrease in HIV-positive children with encephalopathy</strong></p><p>J P Fouche, B Spottiswoode, K Donald, D Stein, J Hoare</p><p><strong>76. H-magnetic resonance spectroscopy metabolites in schizophrenia</strong></p><p>F Howells, J Hsieh, H Temmingh, D J Stein</p><p><strong>77. Hypothesis for the development of persistent methamphetamine-induced psychosis</strong></p><p><strong></strong> J Hsieh, D J Stein, F M Howells</p><p><strong>78. Culture, religion, spirituality and psychiatric practice: The SASOP Spirituality and Psychiatry Special Interest Group Action Plan for 2012-2014</strong></p><p>B Janse van Rensburg</p><p><strong>79. Cocaine reduces the efficiency of dopamine uptake in a rodent model of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: An <em>in vivo</em> electrochemical study</strong></p><p><strong></strong>L Kellaway, J S Womersley, D J Stein, G A Gerhardt, V A Russell</p><p><strong>80. Kleine-Levin syndrome: Case in an adolescent psychiatric unit</strong></p><p>A Lachman</p><p><strong>81. Increased inflammatory stress specific clinical, lifestyle and therapeutic variables in patients receiving treatment for stress, anxiety or depressive symptoms</strong></p><p>H Luckhoff, M Kotze, S Janse van Rensburg, D Geiger</p><p><strong>82. Catatonia: An eight-case series report</strong></p><p>M Mabenge, Z Zingela, S van Wyk</p><p><strong>83. Relationship between anxiety sensitivity and childhood trauma in a random sample of adolescents from secondary schools in Cape Town</strong></p><p>L Martin, M Viljoen, S Seedat</p><p><strong>84. 'Making ethics real'. An overview of an ethics course presented by Fraser Health Ethics Services, BC, Canada</strong></p><p>JJ McCallaghan</p><p><strong>85. Clozapine discontinuation rates in a public healthcare setting</strong></p><p>M Moolman, W Esterhuysen, R Joubert, J C Lamprecht, M S Lubbe</p><p><strong>86. Retrospective review of clozapine monitoring in a publica sector psychiatric hospital and associated clinics</strong></p><p>M Moolman, W Esterhuysen, R Joubert, J C Lamprecht, M S Lubbe</p><p><strong>87. Association of an iron-related TMPRSS6 genetic variant c.2007 C&gt;7 (rs855791) with functional iron deficiency and its effect on multiple sclerosis risk in the South African population</strong></p><p>K Moremi, S J van Rensburg, L R Fisher, W Davis, F J Cronje, M Jalali Sefid Dashti, J Gamieldien, D Geiger, M Rensburg, R van Toorn, M J de Klerk, G M Hon, T Matsha, S Hassan, R T Erasmus, M Kidd, M J Kotze</p><p><strong>88. Identifying molecular mechanisms of apormophine-induced addictive behaviours</strong></p><p>Z Ndlazi, W Daniels, M Mabandla</p><p><strong>89. Effects of lifestyle factors and biochemistry on the major neck blood vessels in patients with mutiple sclerosis</strong></p><p>M Nelson, S J van Rensburg, M J Kotze, F Isaacs, S Hassan</p><p><strong>90. Nicotine protects against dopamine neurodegenration and improves motor deficits in a Parkinsonian rat model</strong></p><p>N Ngema, P Ngema, M Mabandla, W Daniels</p><p><strong>91. Cognition: Probing anatomical substrates</strong></p><p>H Nowbath</p><p><strong>92. Chronic exposure to light reverses the effects of maternal separation on the rat prefrontal cortex</strong></p><p>V Russel, J Dimatelis</p><p><strong>93. Evaluating a new drug to combat Alzheimer's disease</strong></p><p>S Sibiya, W M U Daniels, M V Mabandla</p><p><strong>94. Structural brain changes in HIV-infected women with and without childhood trauma</strong></p><p>G Spies, F Ahmed, C Fennema-Notestine, S Archibald, S Seedat</p><p><strong>95. Nicotine-stimulated release of hippocampal norepinephrine is reduced in an animal model of attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder: the spontaneously hypertensive rat</strong></p><p>T Sterley</p><p><strong>96. Brain-derive neurotrophic factor (BDNF) protein levels in anxiety disorders: Systematic review and meta-regression analysis</strong></p><p>S Suliman, S M J Hemmings, S Seedat</p><p><strong>97. A 12-month retrospective audit of the demographic and clinical profile of mental healthcare users admitted to a district level hospital in the Western Cape, South Africa</strong></p><p>E Thomas, K J Cloete, M Kidd, H Lategan</p><p><strong>98. Magnesium recurarization: A comparison between reversal of neuromuscular block with sugammadex v. neostigmine/ glycopyrrolate in an <em>in vivo</em> rat model</strong></p><p><strong></strong>M van den Berg, M F M James, L A Kellaway</p><p><strong>99. Identification of breast cancer patients at increased risk of 'chemobrain': Case study and review of the literature</strong></p><p>N van der Merwe, R Pienaar, S J van Rensburg, J Bezuidenhout, M J Kotze</p><p><strong>100. The protective role of HAART and NAZA in HIV Tat protein-induced hippocampal cell death</strong></p><p>S Zulu, W M U Daniels, M V Mabandla</p>

Book reviews: Adam, Barbara, Ulrich Beck and Joost van Loon (eds), The Risk Society and Beyond: Critical Issues for Social Theory (reviewed by Charlotte Augst); Mansell, Wade, Belinda Meteyard and Alan Thompson, A Critical Introduction to Law (reviewed by Ralph Sandland); Rowe, Michael, The Racialisation of Disorder in Twentieth Century Britain (reviewed by Preet Nijhar); Boland, Faye, Anglo-American Insanity Defence Reform: The War Between Law and Medicine (reviewed by Victor Tadros); Kauzlarich, David and Ronald C Kramer, Crimes of the American Nuclear State at Home and Abroad (reviewed by Roger S. Clark); Lippens, Ronnie, Chaohybrids: Five Uneasy Peaces (reviewed by Bruce A. Arrigo); Basu, Srimati, She Comes to Take Her Rights: Indian Women, Property and Propriety (reviewed by Saira Rahman)

This article examines the approaches that historians, beginning in the mid 20th century and into the early 21st century, used to write about the Winnipeg General Strike of 1919. It focuses on five major works: The Winnipeg General Strike by D.C. Masters; Confrontation at Winnipeg by David J. Bercuson; The Workers' Revolt in Canada, 1917-1925 edited by Craig Heron; and When the State Trembled: How A.J. Andrews and the Citizens' Committee Broke the Winnipeg General Strike by Tom Mitchell and Reinhold Kramer. It identifies where the monographs depart from one another in interpretation; as well as where they remain the same. Given the layers of complexity, the interpretation of the event becomes especially salient in the 21st century as its 100th anniversary steadfastly approaches and the question of how should it be publicly presented in 2019 requires an answer soon (which the paper also addresses)

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(Mathias Schmoeckel, Bonn) Ceglia, Francesco Paolo de (Hrsg.), The Body of Evidence. Corpses and Proofs in Early Modern European Medicine (Medieval and Early Modern Philosophy and Science, 30), Leiden / Boston 2020, Brill, X u. 355 S., € 154,00. (Robert Jütte, Stuttgart) Río Parra, Elena del, Exceptional Crime in Early Modern Spain. Taxonomic and Intellectual Perspectives (The Medieval and Early Modern Iberian World, 68), Leiden / Boston 2019, Brill, XI u. 218 S. / Abb., € 95,00. (Ralf-Peter Fuchs, Essen) Moreno, Doris (Hrsg.), The Complexity of Hispanic Religious Life in the 16th–18th Centuries (The Iberian Religious World, 6), Leiden / Boston 2020, Brill, 225 S. / Abb., € 165,00. (Joël Graf, Bern) Kaplan, Benjamin J., Reformation and the Practice of Toleration. Dutch Religious History in the Early Modern Era (St Andrews Studies in Reformation History), Leiden / Boston 2019, Brill, IX u. 371 S. / Abb., € 128,00. (Olaf Mörke, Kiel) Cecere, Domenico / Chiara De Caprio / Lorenza Gianfrancesco / Pasquale Palmieri (Hrsg.), Disaster Narratives in Early Modern Naples. Politics, Communication and Culture, Rom 2018, Viella, 257 S. / Abb., € 45,00. (Cornel Zwierlein, Berlin) Prak, Maarten / Patrick Wallis (Hrsg.), Apprenticeship in Early Modern Europe, Cambridge [u. a.] 2020, Cambridge University Press, XII u. 322 S. / Abb., £ 75,00. (Patrick Schmidt, Rostock) Bracht, Johannes / Ulrich Pfister, Landpacht, Marktgesellschaft und agrarische Entwicklung. Fünf Adelsgüter zwischen Rhein und Weser, 16. bis 19. Jahrhundert (Vierteljahrschrift für Sozial- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte. Beihefte, 247), Stuttgart 2020, Steiner, 364 S. / Abb., € 59,00. (Nicolas Rügge, Hannover) Kenny, Neil, Born to Write. Literary Families and Social History in Early Modern France, Oxford / New York 2020, Oxford University Press, XII u. 407 S. / Abb., £ 65,00. (Markus Friedrich, Hamburg) Capp, Bernard, The Ties That Bind. Siblings, Family, and Society in Early Modern England, Oxford / New York 2018, Oxford University Press, 222 S., £ 60,00. (Margareth Lanzinger, Wien) Huber, Vitus, Die Konquistadoren. Cortés, Pizarro und die Eroberung Amerikas (C. H. Beck Wissen, 2890), München 2019, Beck, 128 S. / Abb., € 9,95. (Horst Pietschmann, Hamburg) Stolberg, Michael, Gelehrte Medizin und ärztlicher Alltag in der Renaissance, Berlin / Boston 2021, de Gruyter Oldenbourg, VIII u. 580 S. / Abb., € 89,95. (Robert Jütte, Stuttgart) Lüneburg, Marie von, Tyrannei und Teufel. Die Wahrnehmung der Inquisition in deutschsprachigen Druckmedien im 16. Jahrhundert, Wien / Köln / Weimar 2020, Böhlau, 234 S. / Abb., € 45,00. (Wolfgang Reinhard, Freiburg i. Br.) Krey, Alexander, Wirtschaftstätigkeit, Verwaltung und Lebensverhältnisse des Mainzer Domkapitels im 16. Jahrhundert. Eine Untersuchung zu Wirtschaftsstil und Wirtschaftskultur einer geistlichen Gemeinschaft (Schriften zur Sozial- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte, 35), Hamburg 2020, Dr. Kovaç, 530 S. / graph. Darst., € 139,80. (Maria Weber, München) Fuchs, Gero, Gewinn als Umbruch der Ordnung? Der Fall des Siegburger Töpfers Peter Knütgen im 16. Jahrhundert (Rechtsordnung und Wirtschaftsgeschichte, 19), Tübingen 2019, Mohr Siebeck, XIII u. 195 S. / Abb., € 59,00. (Anke Sczesny, Augsburg) Lotito, Mark A., The Reformation of Historical Thought (St Andrews Studies in Reformation History), Leiden / Boston 2019, Brill, XX u. 542 S. / Abb., € 160,00. (Andreas Bihrer, Kiel) Georg III. von Anhalt, Abendmahlsschriften, hrsg. v. Tobias Jammerthal / David B. Janssen (Anhalt‍[er]‌kenntnisse), Leipzig 2019, Evangelische Verlagsanstalt, 440 S., € 48,00. (Eike Wolgast, Heidelberg) Bauer, Stefan, The Invention of Papal History. Onofrio Panvinio between Renaissance and Catholic Reform (Oxford-Warburg Studies), Oxford 2020, Oxford University Press, VIII u. 262 S. / Abb., £ 70,00. (Marco Cavarzere, Venedig) Murphy, Neil, The Tudor Occupation of Boulogne. Conquest, Colonisation and Imperial Monarchy, 1544 – 1550, Cambridge [u. a.] 2019, Cambridge University Press, XVIII u. 296 S. / Abb., £ 75,00. (Martin Foerster, Hamburg) Mills, Simon, A Commerce of Knowledge. Trade, Religion, and Scholarship between England and the Ottoman Empire, c. 1600 – 1760, Oxford 2020, Oxford University Press, XII u. 332 S. / Abb., £ 65,00. (Stefano Saracino, Jena / München) Karner, Herbert / Elisabeth Loinig / Martin Scheutz (Hrsg.), Die Jesuiten in Krems – die Ankunft eines neuen Ordens in einer protestantischen Stadt im Jahr 1616. Die Vorträge der Tagung des Instituts für kunst- und musikhistorische Forschungen der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, des Niederösterreichischen Instituts für Landeskunde und des Instituts für Österreichische Geschichtsforschung der Universität Wien, Krems, 28. bis 29. Oktober 2016 (Studien und Forschungen aus dem Niederösterreichischen Institut für Landeskunde, 71), St. Pölten 2018, Verlag Niederösterreichisches Institut für Landeskunde, 432 S. / Abb., € 25,00. (Markus Friedrich, Hamburg) Die „litterae annuae“ der Gesellschaft Jesu von Otterndorf (1713 bis 1730) und von Stade (1629 bis 1631), hrsg. v. Christoph Flucke / Martin J. Schröter, Münster 2020, Aschendorff, 154 S. / Abb., € 24,90. (Markus Friedrich, Hamburg) Como, David R., Radical Parliamentarians and the English Civil War, Oxford 2018, Oxford University Press, XV u. 457 S. / Abb., £ 85,00. (Torsten Riotte, Frankfurt a. M.) Corens, Liesbeth, Confessional Mobility and English Catholics in Counter-Reformation Europe, Oxford / New York 2019, Oxford University Press, XII u. 240 S. / Abb., £ 60,00. (Ulrich Niggemann, Augsburg) Asche, Matthias / Marco Kollenberg / Antje Zeiger (Hrsg.), Halb Europa in Brandenburg. Der Dreißigjährige Krieg und seine Folgen, Berlin 2020, Lukas, 244 S. / Abb., € 20,00. (Michael Rohrschneider, Bonn) Fiedler, Beate-Christine / Christine van den Heuvel (Hrsg.), Friedensordnung und machtpolitische Rivalitäten. Die schwedischen Besitzungen in Niedersachsen im europäischen Kontext zwischen 1648 und 1721 (Veröffentlichungen des Niedersächsischen Landesarchivs, 3), Göttingen 2019, Wallstein, 375 S. / Abb., € 29,90. (Niels Petersen, Göttingen) Prokosch, Michael, Das älteste Bürgerbuch der Stadt Linz (1658 – 1707). Edition und Auswertung (Quelleneditionen des Instituts für Österreichische Geschichtsforschung, 18), Wien / Köln / Weimar 2019, Böhlau, 308 S. / Abb., € 50,00. (Beate Kusche, Leipzig) Häberlein, Mark / Helmut Glück (Hrsg.), Matthias Kramer. Ein Nürnberger Sprachmeister der Barockzeit mit gesamteuropäischer Wirkung (Schriften der Matthias-Kramer-Gesellschaft zur Erforschung der Geschichte des Fremdsprachenerwerbs und der Mehrsprachigkeit, 3), Bamberg 2019, University of Bamberg Press, 221 S. / Abb., € 22,00. (Helga Meise, Reims) Herz, Silke, Königin Christiane Eberhardine – Pracht im Dienste der Staatsraison. Kunst, Raum und Zeremoniell am Hof der Frau Augusts des Starken (Schriften zur Residenzkultur 12), Berlin 2020, Lukas Verlag, 669 S. / Abb., € 70,00. (Katrin Keller, Wien) Schaad, Martin, Der Hochverrat des Amtmanns Povel Juel. Ein mikrohistorischer Streifzug durch Europas Norden der Frühen Neuzeit (Histoire, 176), Bielefeld 2020, transcript, 249 S., € 39,00. (Olaf Mörke, Kiel) Overhoff, Jürgen, Johann Bernhard Basedow (1724 – 1790). Aufklärer, Pädagoge, Menschenfreund. Eine Biografie (Hamburgische Lebensbilder, 25), Göttingen 2020, Wallstein, 200 S. / Abb., € 16,00. (Mark-Georg Dehrmann, Berlin) Augustynowicz, Christoph / Johannes Frimmel (Hrsg.), Der Buchdrucker Maria Theresias. Johann Thomas Trattner (1719 – 1798) und sein Medienimperium (Buchforschung, 10), Wiesbaden 2019, Harrassowitz, 173 S. / Abb., € 54,00. (Mona Garloff, Innsbruck) Beckus, Paul, Land ohne Herr – Fürst ohne Hof? Friedrich August von Anhalt-Zerbst und sein Fürstentum (Quellen und Forschungen zur Geschichte Sachsen-Anhalts, 15), Halle 2018, Mitteldeutscher Verlag, 604 S. / Abb., € 54,00. (Michael Hecht, Halle) Whatmore, Richard, Terrorists, Anarchists and Republicans. The Genevans and the Irish in Time of Revolution, Princeton / Oxford, Princeton University Press 2019, XXIX u. 478 S. / Abb., £ 34,00. (Ronald G. Asch, Freiburg i. Br.) Elster, Jon, France before 1789. The Unraveling of an Absolutist Regime, Princeton / Oxford 2020, Princeton University Press, XI u. 263 S. / graph. Darst., £ 34,00. (Lars Behrisch, Utrecht) Hellmann, Johanna, Marie Antoinette in Versailles. Politik, Patronage und Projektionen, Münster 2020, Aschendorff, X u. 402 S. / Abb., € 57,00. (Pauline Puppel, Berlin) Müchler, Günter, Napoleon. Revolutionär auf dem Kaiserthron, Darmstadt 2019, wbg Theiss, 622 S. / Abb., € 24,00. (Hans-Ulrich Thamer, Münster) Prietzel, Sven, Friedensvollziehung und Souveränitätswahrung. Preußen und die Folgen des Tilsiter Friedens 1807 – 1810 (Quellen und Forschungen zur Brandenburgischen und Preußischen Geschichte, 53), Berlin 2020, Duncker &amp; Humblot, 408 S., € 99,90. (Nadja Ackermann, Bern) Christoph, Andreas (Hrsg.), Kartieren um 1800 (Laboratorium Aufklärung, 19), Paderborn 2019, Fink, 191 S. / Abb., € 69,00. (Michael Busch, Rostock / Schwerin)

To Rodica, who died first / To Mircea, who continues me [I]In his book Picturing Health and Illness: Images of Identity and Difference, Sander L. Gilman argues that during the nineteenth century the healthy norm perceived as ugly not only those who were deformed, but also those who were ill, ageing, and/or experienced different bodily “loss of function” (53). In the nineteenth century, how much was medicine responsible for defining ugly as ill, deformed, and getting old, versus beautiful as healthy, and then, for the sake of the community’s health, firmly promoting these ideas? Furthermore, with the rise of photographic art, medicine was able to manipulate and control these ideas even more efficiently. According to Deborah Lupton, “The new technology of photography that developed from the mid-nineteenth century became a valuable strategy in the documentation of patterns of disease and illness, and the construction of the sites of dirtiness and contagion” (30). This essay focuses on the skin’s narrative as it presents its story when photographed. William Yang takes photos of his good friend, Allan, who is dying of AIDS. Of interests here is to discuss/approach the photographic art not from its scopophilic angle, that is, not from its perverse and pleasurable voyeuristic angle, but to analyze it side-by-side with Drew Leder’s notion of the “the remaining body.” He believes that in states of severe pain, one’s body “dys-appears,” “from the Greek prefix signifying ‘bad,’ ‘hard,’ or ‘ill,’” and he gives as example the English word “dysfunctional” (84). Yang’s photos offer variations of the “body that remains,” and, as we shall see, of the body that gradually did not remain. Through his work, Yang approaches visually the theme of the ars moriendi of the entropic body in pain as reminder of its mortal, gradually disabling fabric. [II] In the section of his work dedicated to AIDS, Gilman discusses only a collection of posters that have circulated in mass-media, which he researched at the National Library of Medicine at Bethesda, Maryland. Gilman thinks these posters function as the “still images of illness” (174). In other words, he believes these posters may have had an impact on the lay community, although not the intensified, urgent one, as he would have hoped. Because Gilman did not include a single photo of a patient dying of AIDS — although he understood this lack — I juxtapose one of the posters from his book with Yang’s photos taken of his dying friend, Allan, from his project entitled Sadness: A Monologue with Slides. Here I discuss the impact of Allan’s increasingly emaciated body versus the static, almost ineffective quality of the poster in order to consider the idea according to which “AIDS victims are living sculptures. … Both subject and object of art … they combine with their disease to overcome the narcissism of human consciousness. … It is an art of continuous transformation of subject into object and object into subject” (Siebers 220-21). Yang is an Australian artist with Chinese parentage. The images presented in this section originally appeared in print in Thomas W. Sokolowski’s and Rosalind Solomon’s collection of essays entitled Portraits in the Time of AIDS. According to the editors, Yang presented them as “monologues with slide projection in the theatre” (34) because the main actor of this one-man show is dying of AIDS. Yang’s work consists of seventeen slides with short texts written underneath them. In an attempt to respect the body that is dying, the texts are not recited, but the readers/spectators read them subvocally. The brilliance of this piece resides in its hushed tone, which parallels the act of dying when the patient’s body and mind become more and more tacit and lifeless. From one photo to another, and from one text to another, we discover Allan, although we never quite get to know him. The minitexts relate Allan’s story: how he was hospitalized at St. Vincent’s, known as “the AIDS ward” (35); how he decided to return home, into a studio shared with a dealer; how AIDS first attacked his lungs, and so he had to keep next to him “a large cylinder of oxygen as he was often out of breath” (37); how AIDS then affected his sight, and he developed a condition known as “CytoMegalo Virus — C.M.V. Retinctus” that gradually “destroyed the retina” of his eyes (39); how he decided “to go off medication” (46); and, how, finally “he went into a coma. I saw a nurse give him a glass of water but the water just ran out of his mouth” (50). To look at these photos time and time again is to be reminded of Albert Einstein’s vision of the passenger trapped in the train running with the speed of light. That passenger could not sense all that was happening in the train, and especially outside of it, because time moves in its cosmic, non-human, slippery dimension, and thus sensation could not profusely permeate his body. Juxtaposing Einstein’s vision with Allan’s decaying body, I read the latter’s body as if it were coiled up inside his mind just like a snail covers a part of its body under its hard shell. The photos are presented rapidly with no entr-acte in between; in a matter of minutes, time and space seem to collapse. There is no time for a prolonged reminiscence of Allan’s spent life. Allan is dying now, and he does not have time to remember his life. He barely has time to feel his body, a touch, or a kiss on his face, which seems to Yang “to have caved in” (47). Through this work, not only does Yang capture the disturbing moments of a friend dying, but he also touches on the “epidermis” of despair. This “epidermis” is both endotopic and exotopic, meaning that it starts within the patient and then it radiates/extends to his relatives and friends. Yang’s images of Allan dying give the impression that his body levitates, jutting out into space — but unfortunately without much meaning. On the other hand, the posters advertised for AIDS are simple, if not quite embarrassing and disrespectful given the gravity of this illness. They rarely touch on any aspects related to the illness itself, as they allude more to the immorality of homosexual acts. Gilman explains part of the rationale involved in the process of not presenting people dying of AIDS as follows: The image of the ‘positive’ body or the body with AIDS is strictly controlled in the world of the public health poster. Nowhere is an image of the ‘ugly’ or diseased body evoked directly, for any such evocation would refer back to the initial sense as a ‘gay’ disease. … Mens non sana in corpore insano cannot be the motto. For representing the ill body as a dying body is not possible. Such a body would point to ‘deviance from the norm’ in the form of illness. And this association with homosexuality and addiction labeled as illness must be suppressed. … All these images are images not of educating, but of control. (162) The poster chosen for illustration reads “LOVE AIDS PEOPLE,” with AIDS used as a verb and not as a noun; nonetheless, the construction’s subtlety is rather counterproductive. To a certain extent, this poster can be related to Michelangelo Merisi Caravaggio’s The Incredulity of Saint Thomas (1601-02). There, the Apostle touches the actual wound because he needs tactile proof to accept its existence. The act of touching, as well as the skin open by the wound, reveal the fact that “Skin lacks the depth, the interiority we want it to give us. … The flesh we crave as confirmation of our forms cannot do anything but turn us forever out even as we burrow into the holes we find there” (Phelan 42). But the poster presented below brings into focus verbally (therefore propagandistically) how one’s body might be destroyed because of AIDS. Furthermore, the symbol of the arrow is a recurrent motif in the art representing AIDS, especially in light of its religious association with the martyrdom of Saint Sebastian (see for example David Wojnarowicz art works which offer a personal interpretation of the martyrdom of Saint Sebastian). But if LOVE AIDS PEOPLE, and if gay men identify themselves with a martyr, then they might easily fall target to this twisted logic and think of themselves as victims. As Larry Kramer notes, gay men are tragic people partly because they feel responsible for an illness that has been affecting both the homosexual and heterosexual communities: “The continuing existence of HIV is essential for the functioning of the totalitarianism under which gay people now live. It works like this: HIV allows ‘them’ to sell us as sick. And that kills off our usefulness, both in our minds — their thinking we are sick — and in the eyes of the world — everyone thinking we are sick” (65).Gay men have always been a target since, allegedly, they are a menace to the institution of marriage, procreation, and to morality in general. Endocrinology studies have been conducted on gay men, but their results have not been able to say with certainty why some people prefer to engage in homosexual rather than heterosexual acts. According to Jennifer Terry, earlier studies from the 1930s aimed at determining distinct somatic features of homosexuals for the most part failed to produce any such evidence. Most of them focused on the overall physical structure of bodies, measuring skeletal features, pelvic angles and things like muscle density and hair distribution. (144) (Another useful resource is Holt N. Parker’s 2001 article “The Myth of the Heterosexual: Anthropology and Sexuality for Classicists.”) How and by whom are our sexual identities created? Does the presence of one specific anatomical organ delimit one person’s sexual identity? We have been trained into believing that there are only two genders, male and female, partly because of our binary way of thinking. Needless to say, just as in one color there are degrees of its intensity and saturation, so there are in us verbal, behavioral, and sexual tendencies that could make us look and act more or less masculine or feminine. Even more productive is to note the importance of power (control) and the erotic in our lives considering that the photos (and the minitexts) presenting Allan seem insufficient to initiate a dialogue by themselves. Because the eroticized body is what dies, that is, what is put at risk or could become powerless because of AIDS. The body that cannot touch and be touched anymore; the body that cannot control its needs and desires; and, ultimately, the body that is deprived of its pleasures and thus loses its erotic self. Therefore, AIDS is not only a way to redefine our erotic life, but also becomes a reason to question our hygiene practices. Elizabeth Grosz points out that “erotic pleasures are evanescent, they are forgotten almost as they occur” (195). But when erotic pleasures are controlled, as seems to be the case because of AIDS, have we intervened in such a manner as to program our intercourse? Admittedly, AIDS is predominantly linked with one’s sexuality and, hence, it could make one feel too self-aware about one’s needs, as well as rigid and self-conscious in an (intimate) act which, in essence, is all about losing oneself, being uninhibited. In the end, Allan’s sense of identity seems to be imprinted only in the camera’s objective lens. After he died, as Yang remembers, “I read his diaries […]. AIDS was a tragedy that was for sure, but as well he had an addictive personality and his day to day life was full of desperation. I hadn’t realize the extent of this and it came as a shock. Yet there were moments of clarity when his fresh test for life shone” (51). Yang does not say more about Allan’s intimate writings and, as he suggests, it was quite surprising for him to discover a richer, more intimate dimension of his friend. Still, until Allan’s diaries will be released to the public to offer us a more palpable view on his life, we rely exclusively on the selections of photos and minitexts accomplished by Yang, thus being aware that, no matter how exquisite they are, they could only say a few things about this enigmatic patient.[III] After exposing Allan’s gradually collapsing body, we may want to analyze to which extent is dying/death something that reveals our self-centricity. It is by now a truism to say that death is the final moment of our embodiment to which we are denied access. Nonetheless, we cannot stop thinking about (our) death, and the last passage of this essay proposes its own reflection on this subject. Norbert Elias argues that each one of us is a homo clausus (Latin for “closed, self-sufficient being”). He believes that this condition is a consequence of our living an advanced phase in our individualized life. Surprisingly, he relates this self-sufficiency to the ritual of dying. He believes that in highly industrialized societies, a patient may benefit from the most recent technical and medical equipment, but that that person usually dies alone, meaning without his family/relatives around him. On the other hand, as he goes on to argue, “families in less developed states … often go hand in hand with far greater inequalities of power between men and women. [The dying] take leave of the world publicly, within a circle of people most of whom have strong emotive value for them, and for whom they themselves have a such a value. They die unhygienically, but not alone” (87). Elias does not explore this idea in depth, so we are left to wonder what he meant by dying unhygienically, or if he thought that method was better in coping with death. Also, he never mentioned the exact countries/regions he had in mind when he made that remark; therefore, we are left unsatisfied by his comment. Nonetheless, as Elias reminds us, it is important to remember that the traditional death rituals were and are intimate moments (and they should remain like this). The homo clausus idea may be linked with a body that is reaching its final embodiment, and hence becoming a closing-in-itself body. However, how does a body transact and/or negotiate the moments of its final embodiment? The process of sinking in one’s body, to which I refer, is not a visually, aurally, or especially olfactorily pleasant experience. Our deceitful memory misdirects our emotional brains by indicating which subsystem is still functional and open and which has become useless, that is, closed. In this light, we should redefine Elias’s idea by saying that what appears to be a monolithic structure — a body: closed, sealed, and/or self-contained — is in fact a very fluid body; that death does not reveal our self-centricity because that reasoning may generate an absurd idea, namely, we die alone because we have spent a life alone. Consequently, the dying body becomes the margin par excellence, which, because it is completely out of control, does not stop from leaking and/or emitting smells. This theory is confirmed by a study conducted on dying patients, Dying Process: Patients' Experiences of Palliative Care (2000), where Julia Lawton notes that “on a number of occasions, staff kept aromatherapy oil burners running throughout the day and night in an attempt to veil the odour of excretia, vomit and rotting flesh. … I observed that smell created a boundary around a patient, repelling others away” (135). One has to close one’s eyes to vaguely imagine what it must feel like for the medical personnel to keep the vigil of the dying bodies. Nonetheless, the lay community is exposed to photographs of the dying only on rare occasions. According to Gilman, these images are not made public because “The classical model of ‘healthy/beauty’ and ‘illness/ugliness’ is part of a cultural baggage that accompanies any representation of the ill or healthy body” (118-19). While the skin is endowed with the capacity of regenerating itself after it has been wounded, thus effacing time, a photograph of a dying body seems to efface one’s memory of one’s accumulated experiences. Such a photograph makes its contents (that is, the time, location, personal context of the shooting) disappear since its details will eventually fade away. As a corollary, the absent body effaces its photographed version, leaving it few chances to be remembered. The theme of the ars moriendi, as presented in this essay, has demonstrated that what dies is not only one’s body, but also the echoed memory of its erotic self. ReferencesElias, Norbert. The Loneliness of Dying. New York: Blackwell, 1985. Gilman, Sander. Picturing Health and Illness: Images of Identity and Difference. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP, 1995. Grosz, Elizabeth. Space, Time, and Perversion: Essays on the Politics of Bodies.New York: Routledge, 1995. Kramer, Larry. The Tragedy of Today’s Gay. New York: Penguin Group, 2005. Lawton, Julia. Dying Process: Patients' Experiences of Palliative Care. New York: Routledge, 2000. Leder, Drew. The Absent Body. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990. Lupton, Deborah. The Imperative of Health: Public Health and the Regulated Body. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications, 1995. Peggy Phelan. Mourning Sex: Performing Public Memories. New York: Routledge, 1997. Siebers, Tobin. The Body Aesthetic: From Fine Art to Body Modification. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2000. Jennifer Terry. “The Seductive Power of Science in the Making of Deviant Subjectivity.” Posthuman Bodies. Eds. Judith Halberstam and Ira Livingston. Bloomington : Indiana University Press, 1995: 135-162. Yang, William. “Allan from Sadness: A Monologue with Slides.” Portraits in the Time of AIDS. Eds. Thomas W. Sokolowski and Rosalind Solomon. New York: Grey Art Gallery & Study Center, 1988: 34-51.

Since the mid-eighties, personality and mood have undergone vigorous surveillance and repair across new populations in the United States. While government and the psy-complexes 1 have always had a stake in promoting citizen health, it is unique that, today, State, industry, and non-governmental organisations recruit consumers to act upon their own mental health. And while citizen behaviours in public spaces have long been fodder for diagnosis, the scope of behaviours and the breadth of the surveyed population has expanded significantly over the past twenty years. How has the notion of behavioural illness been successfully spun to recruit new populations to behavioural diagnosis and repair? Why is it a reasonable proposition that our personalities might be sick, our moods ill? This essay investigates the cultural promotion of a 'script' that assumes sick moods are possible, encourages the self-assessment of risk and self-management of dysfunctional mood, and has thus helped to create a new, adjustable subject. Michel Foucault (1976, 1988) contended that in order for subjects to act upon their selves -- for example, assess themselves via the behavioural health script -- we must view the Self as a construction, a work in progress that is alterable and in need of alteration in order for psychiatric action to seem appropriate. This conception of the self constitutes an extreme theoretical shift from the early modern belief (of Rousseau or Kant) that a core soul inhabited and shaped being, or the moral self.2 Foucault (1976) insisted that subjects are 'not born but made' through formal and informal social discourses that construct knowledge of the 'normal' self. Throughout the 19th century and the modern era, as medical, juridical, and psychiatric institutions gained increasing cultural capital, the normal self became allegedly 'knowable' through science. In turn, the citizen became 'professionalised' (Funicello 1993) -- answerable to these constructed standards, or subject to what Foucault termed biopower. In order to avoid punishments wrested upon the 'deviant' such as being placed in asylum or criminalised, citizens capitulated to social norms, and thus helped the State to achieve social order. 3 While 'technologies of power' or domination determined the conduct of individuals in the premodern era, 'technologies of the self' became prominent in the modern era.4 (Foucault, 'Technologies of the Self') These, explained Foucault, permit individuals to act upon their 'bodies, souls, thoughts, conduct and ways of being' to transform them, to attain happiness, or perfection, among other things (18). Contemporary psychiatric discourses, for example, call upon citizens to transform via self-regulation, and thus lessened the State's disciplinary burden. Since the mid-twentieth century, biopsychiatry has been embraced nationally, and played a key role in propagating self-disciplining citizens. Biopsychiatric logic is viewed culturally as common sense due to a number of occurrences. The dominant media have enthusiastically celebrated so-called biotechnical successes, such as sheep cloning and the development of better drugs to treat Schizophrenia. Hype has also surrounded newer drugs to treat depression (i.e. Prozac) and anxiety (i.e. Paxil), as well as the 'cosmetic' use of antidepressants to allegedly improve personality.5 Citizens, then, are enlisted to trust in psychiatric science to repair mood dysfunction, but also to reveal the 'true' self, occluded by biologically impaired mood. Suggesting that biopsychiatry's 'knowledge' of the human brain has revealed the human condition and can repair sick selves, these discourses have helped to launch the behavioural health script into the national psyche. The successful marketing of the script was also achieved by the diagnostic philosophy encouraged by revisions of Diagnostic and Statistical Manual or Mental Disorders(the DSM; these renovations increased the number of affective (mood) and personality diagnoses and broadened diagnostic criteria. The new DSMs 6 institutionalised the pathologisation of common personality and mood distresses as biological or genetic disorders. The texts constitute 'knowledge' of normal personality and behaviour, and press consumers toward biotechnical tools to repair the defunct self. Ian Hacking (1995) suggests that new moral concepts emerge when old ones acquire new connotations, thereby affecting our sense of who we are. The once moral self, known through introspection, is thus transformed via biopsychiatry into a self that is constructed in accordance with scientific 'knowledge'. The State and various private industries have a stake in promoting this Sick Self script. Promoting Diagnosis of the Sick Self Employing the DSM's broad criteria, research by the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH), contends that a significant percentage of the population is behaviourally ill. The most recent Surgeon General report on Mental Health (from 1999) which also employed broad criteria, argues that a striking 50 million Americans are afflicted with a mental illness each year, most of which were non-major disorders affecting behaviour, personality and mood.7 Additionally, studies suggest that behavioural illness results in lost work days and increases demand for health services, thus constituting a severe financial burden to the State. Such studies consequently provide the State with ample reason to promote behavioural illness. In predicting an epidemic in behavioural illness and a huge increase in mental health service needs, the State has constructed health policy in accordance with the behavioural sickness script. Health policy embraces DSM diagnostic tools that sweep in a wide population by diagnosing risk as illness and links diagnosis with biotechnical recovery methods. Because criteria for these disorders have expanded and diagnoses have become more vague, however, over-diagnosis of the population has become common . 8 Depression, for example, is broadly defined to include moods ranging from the blues to suicidal ideation. Yet, the Sick Self script is ubiquitously embraced by NGO, industry, and State discourses, calling for consumer self-scrutiny and strongly promoting psychopharmaceuticals. These activities has been most successful; to wit: personality disorders were among the most common diagnoses of the 80's, and depression, which was a rare disorder thirty-five years ago, became the most common mental illness in the late 90's (Healy). Consumer Health Groups & Industry Promotions Health institutions and drug industries promote mood illness and market drug remedies as a means of profit maximisation. Broad spectrum diagnoses are, by definition, easy to sell to a wide population and create a vast market for recovery products. Pharmaceutical and insurance companies (each multibillion dollar industries), an expanding variety of self-help industries, consumer health web sites, and an array of psy-complex workers all have a stake in promoting the broad diagnosis of mood and behavioural disorders. 9 In so doing, consumer groups and the health and pharmaceutical industries not only encourage self-discipline (aligning themselves with State productivity goals), but create a vast, ongoing market for recovery products. Promoting Illness and Recovery So strong is the linkage between illness and recovery that pharmaceutical company Eli Lilly sells Prozac by promoting the broad notion of depression, rather than the drug itself. It does so through depression brochures (advertised on TV) and a web page that discusses depression symptoms and offers a depression quiz, instead of product information. Likewise, Psych Central, a typical informational health site, provides consumers standard DSM depression definitions and information (from the biopsychiatric-driven American Psychiatric Association (APA) or the NIMH, and liberal behavioural illness quizzes that typically over-diagnose consumers. 10The Psych Central site also lists a broad range of depression symptoms, while its FAQ link promotes the self-management of mood ailments. For example, the site directs those who believe that they are depressed and want help to contact a physician, obtain a diagnosis, and initiate antidepressant treatment. Such web sites, viewed as a whole, appear to deliver certified knowledge that a 'normal' mood exists, that mood disorders are common, and that abiding citizens should diagnosis and treat their mood ailment. Another essential component of the behavioural script is the suggestion that the modern self's mood is interminably sick. Because common mood distresses are fodder for diagnosis, the self is always at risk of illness, and requires vigilant self-scrutiny. The self is never a finished product. Moreover, mood sickness is insidious and quickly spirals from risk to full-blown disorder. 11 As such, behavioural illness requires on-going self-assessment. Finally, because mood sickness threatens social productivity and State financial solvency, a moral overtone is added to the mix -- good citizens are encouraged to treat their mood dysfunctions promptly, for the common good. The script thus constructs citizenship as a motive for behavioural self-scrutiny; as such, it can naturally recommend that individuals, rather than experts, take charge of the surveillance process. The recommendation of self-determined illness is also a sales feature of the script, appealing to the American ethic of individualism -- even, paradoxically, as the script proposes that science best directs us to our selves. Self-Managed Recovery Health institutions and industries that deploy this script recommend not only self-diagnosis, but also self-managed treatment as the ideal treatment. Health information web sites, for example, tend to displace the expert by encouraging consumers to pre-diagnose their selves (often via on-line quizzes) and to then consult an expert for formal diagnosis and to organise a treatment program. Like governmental heath organisation's web sites, these commonly link consumer-driven, broad-spectrum diagnosis to psycho-pharmaceutical treatment, primarily by listing drugs as the first line of treatment, and linking consumers to drug information. Unsurprisingly, pharmaceutical companies support or own many 'informational' sites. Depression-net.com, for example, is owned by Organon, maker of Remeron, an SSRI in competition with Prozac.12 Still, even sites that receive little or no funding tend to display drugs prominently; for example, Internet Mental Health, which accepts no drug funding lists drugs immediately after diagnosis on the sidebar. This trend illustrates the extent to which drugs are viewed by consumers as a first step in addressing all types of mood sicknesses. Consumer health sites, geared toward Internet users seeking health care information (estimated to be 43% of the 120 million users) promote the illness-recovery link more aggressively. Dr.koop.com, one of the most visited sites on the Internet, describes itself as 'consumer-focused' and 'interactive'. Yet, the homepage of this site tends to include 'news' stories that relay the success of drugs or report on new biopsychiatric studies in depression or mental health. Some consumer sites such as Consumer health sites, geared toward Internet users seeking health care information (estimated to be 43% of the 120 million users) promote the illness-recovery link more aggressively. Dr.koop.com, one of the most visited sites on the Internet, describes itself as 'consumer-focused' and 'interactive'. Yet, the homepage of this site tends to include 'news' stories that relay the success of drugs or report on new biopsychiatric studies in depression or mental health. Some consumer sites such as WebMD prominently display links to drugstores, (such as Drugstore.com), many of which are owned in part or entirely by pharmaceutical companies.13 Similar to the common practices of direct-to-consumer advertising, both informational and consumer sites by-pass the expert, promote recovery via drugs, and direct the consumer to a doctor in search of a prescription, rather than health care advice. State, informational and consumer web sites all help to construct certain populations as at-risk for behavioural sickness. The NIMH information page on depression -- uncanny in its likeness to consumer health and pharmaceutical sites -- utilises the DSM definition of depression and recommends the standard regime of diagnosis and biotechnical treatments (highlighting antidepressants) most appropriate for a diagnosis of major, rather than minor, depression. The site also elaborates the broad approach to mood illness, and recommends that women, children and seniors -- groups deemed at-risk by the broad criteria -- be especially scrutinised for depression. By articulating the broad DSM definition of depression, a generalisable 'self' -- anyone suffering common ailments including sadness, lethargy or weight change -- is deemed at risk of depression or other behavioural illness. At the same time, at-risk groups are constructed as populations in need of more urgent scrutiny, namely society's less powerful individuals, rather than middle-aged males. That is, society's decision-makers--psychiatric researchers, State policy-makers, pharmaceutical CEO's, (etc) are considered least at risk for having defunct selves and productivity functioning. Selling Mood Sickness These brief examples illustrate the standard presentation of behavioural illness information on the Web and from traditional resources such as mailings, brochures, and consumer manuals. Presenting the ideal self as knowable and achievable with the help of bio-psychiatric science, these discourses encourage citizens to self-scrutinise, self-define, and even self-manage the possibility of mood or behavioural dysfunction. Because the individual gathers information, determines her pre-diagnosis, and seeks out a recovery technology, the many choices involved in behavioural scrutiny make it appear to be a free and 'democratic' activity. Additionally, as individuals take on the role of the expert, self-diagnosing via questionnaires, the highly disciplinary nature of the behavioural diagnosis appears unthreatening to individual sovereignty. Thus, this technology of the self solves an age-old problem of capitalist democracy -- how to simultaneously instill citizen's faith in absolute individual liberty (as a source of good government), and, at the same time, the need to achieve the absolute governance of the individual (Miller). Foucault contended that citizens are brought into the social contract of citizenship not simply through social and governmental contracts but by processes of policing that become embedded in our notions of citizenship. The process of self-management recommended by the ubiquitous behavioural script functions smoothly as a technology of surveillance in this era, where the ideal self is known and repaired through biopsychiatric science, the democratic responsibility of a good citizen. The liberal contract has always entailed an exchange of rights for freedoms -- in Rousseau's terms 'making men free by making them subjects.' (Miller xviii) When we make ourselves subjects to ongoing behavioural scrutiny, the resulting Self is not freed, rather it is constrained by a perpetual sickness. Notes 1 This term is used in a Foucaultian sense, to refer to all those who work under and benefit or profit from the dominant biological model of psychiatry dominant since the 1950's in the U.S. 2 For more discussion, see Ian Hacking, Rewriting the Soul; Multiple Personality and the Sciences of Memory. (1995) 3 In his essay 'Technologies of the Self' (1988) Foucault outlines the four major types of technologies that function as practical reason and entice citizens to behave according to constructed social standards. Among these are technologies of production (that permit us to produce things), technologies of sign systems (permitting us to use symbols), and the technologies of power and self mentioned in the above text. Through these technologies, operations of individuals become highly regulated, some visible and some difficult to perceive. The less visible technologies of the self became essential to the smooth functioning of society in the modern era. 4 'Technologies' is used to refer to mechanisms and actions of institutions or simply social norms and habits, that work, ultimately, to govern the individual, or create behaviour that serves desires of the State and dominant social bodies. 5 Peter Kramer, author of the best-selling book Listening to Prozac (1995) contends that his patients using Prozac often credited the drug with helping their true personalities to surface. 6 The two revisions occurred in 1987 and 1994. 7 Of that group, only five percent of that group suffers a 'severe' form of mental illness (such as schizophrenia, or extreme form of bipolar or obsessive compulsive disorder), while the rest suffer less severe behavioural and mood disorders. Similar research (also based on broad criteria) was published throughout the 90's suggesting an American epidemic of behavioural illness; it was claimed that 17% of the population is neurotic, while 10-15% of the population (and 30-50% of those seeking care) was said to possess a personality disorder. (Hales and Hales, 1995) 8 The most widely assigned diagnoses in this category today are: depression, multiple personality, adjustment disorder, eating disorders and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), which have extremely broad criteria, and are easily assigned to a wide segment of the population. 9The quizzes offered at these sites are standard in psychiatry; the difference here is that these are consumer-conducted. Lilly uses the Zung Self-Assessment Tool, which asks 20 broad questions regarding mood, and overdiagnoses individuals with potential depression. By responding to vague questions such as 'Morning is when I feel the best', 'I notice that I am losing weight', and 'I feel downhearted, blue and sad' with the choice of 'sometimes', individuals are thereby pre-diagnosed with potential depression. (https://secure.prozac.com/Main/zung.jsp) Psych central uses the Goldberg Inventory that is similarly broad, consumer-operated, and also tends to overdiagnose. 10 The DSM and other psychiatric texts and consumer manuals commonly suggest that undiagnosed depression will lead, eventually, to full-blown major depression. While a minority of individuals who suffer ongoing episodes of major depression will eventually suffer chronic major depression, it has not been found that minor depression will snowball into major depression or chronic major depression. This in fact, is one of the many suspicions among researchers that is referred to as fact in psychiatric literature and consumer manuals. A similar case in point is the suggestion that depression is a brain disorder, when in fact, research has not determined biochemistry or genetics to be the 'cause' of major depression. 11 Increasingly, Pharmaceutical sites are indistinguishable from consumer sites, as in the case of Bristol-Meyers Squibb's depression page, (http://www.livinglifebetter.com/src/htdo...) offering a layperson's depression definition and, immediately thereafter, information on its antidepressant Serzone. 12 Like the informational and State sites, these also link consumers to depression information (generally NIMH, FDA or APA research), as well as questionnaires. References American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 4th ed. Washington, D.C: American Psychiatric Press, Inc., 1994. Cruikshank, Barbara. The Will to Empower: Democratic Citizens and Other Subjects. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1999. Foucault, Michel. 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The Well-Tempered Self; Citizenship, Culture and the Postmodern Subject. Baltimore: The John Hopkins University Press, 1993. - - - . Technologies of Truth: Cultural Citizenship and the Popular Media. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1998. Office of the Surgeon General. Mental Health: A Report of the Surgeon General. 1999. <http://www.surgeongeneral.gov/library/me...> Rose, Nickolas. Governing the Soul; The Shaping of the Private Self. London: Routledge, 1990. Links http://www.drugstore.com http://psychcentral.com/library/depression_faq.htm http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/DSM-IV http://www.nimh.nih.gov/publicat/depression.cfm http://www.livinglifebetter.com/src/htdocs/index.asp?keyword=depression_index http://my.webmd.com http://www.mentalhealth.com http://www.surgeongeneral.gov/library/mentalhealth/home.html http://www.prozac.com http://my.webmd.com/ http://www.a-silver-lining.org/BPNDepth/criteria_d.html#MDD http://psychcentral.com/depquiz.htm Citation reference for this article Substitute your date of access for Dn Month Year etc... MLA Style Gardner, Paula. "The Perpetually Sick Self" M/C: A Journal of Media and Culture 5.5 (2002). [your date of access] < http://www.media-culture.org.au/mc/0210/Gardner.html &gt. Chicago Style Gardner, Paula, "The Perpetually Sick Self" M/C: A Journal of Media and Culture 5, no. 5 (2002), < http://www.media-culture.org.au/mc/0210/Gardner.html &gt ([your date of access]). APA Style Gardner, Paula. (2002) The Perpetually Sick Self. M/C: A Journal of Media and Culture 5(5). < http://www.media-culture.org.au/mc/0210/Gardner.html &gt ([your date of access]).

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Les parcours sinueux qu’ont suivis l’anthropologie et l’archéologie en Amérique du Nord depuis une cinquantaine d’années démontrent des intérêts convergents pour la connaissance et l’explication du comportement humain et cela avec des méthodes de recherche de plus en plus divergentes. L’anthropologie qui a émergé des milieux intellectuels aux États-Unis au XIXe siècle avait pour origine l’intérêt pour la compréhension des populations autochtones de l’Amérique; de cet intérêt pour l’humain, se sont développés des outils pour comprendre le comportement qui se cachait derrière le geste posé. Dès le début, l’anthropologue s’intéressait aux comportements et l’archéologue documentait les traces du geste posé. De cette proximité entre l’anthropologie et l’archéologie qui s’est concrétisée par la création du Bureau of American Ethnology à la fin du XIXe siècle, il était naturel de placer la formation en archéologie au sein de départements d’anthropologie dans les universités aux États-Unis et au Canada. Malgré l’apparence initiale d’un champ unifié et d’un terrain partagé entre l’anthropologie et l’archéologie, la pratique s’est transformée pour devenir tout autre au fil des ans. Au milieu du XXe siècle, l’archéologie commence à remettre en question sa relation avec les interprétations fonctionnalistes des anthropologues (Trigger 2006 : 363-372). La première figure à souligner le problème de l’inéquation entre les résultats de la recherche archéologique et la théorie en anthropologie fut Walter Taylor (1948) dans son livre A Study of Archaeology. Taylor, le relativiste, exposa son penchant pour le particularisme historique dans une approche qu’il identifie comme étant conjonctive; pour ce chercheur iconoclaste, l’historiographie comptait pour beaucoup. L’approche conjonctive consistait à établir des corrélations entre différents types de données dans des contextes historiques et culturels spécifiques afin de faire le pont entre des particularités historiques (les collections archéologiques) et des données anthropologiques. La méthodologie qu’il proposait impliquait la vérification d’hypothèses par l’analyse de la composition et de la structure des collections archéologiques. L’objectif central de cette approche visait à mettre de l’avant des études contextuelles détaillées qui permettraient d’adapter des hypothèses générales sur la culture à des données spécifiques. Dans sa formulation de l’approche conjonctive en archéologie et la vérification d’hypothèses, Taylor reconnaissait qu’une réflexion critique était nécessaire puisque l'archéologue travaillait dans le présent. En dépit de la richesse des collections archéologiques et constatant le danger qui planait sur l’archéologie si nous avions continué à publier des listes d’attributs de nos objets au lieu d’interpréter la culture matérielle comme étant la trace du comportement humain, dans un geste de médiation entre l’anthropologie et l’archéologie, Binford (1962) publiait son article portant le titre Archaeology as Anthropology. Comme il le signale dans son introduction son article qui faisait suite à un ouvrage venant d’être publié par Willey et Phillips (1958) où l’on mentionne clairement que l’archéologie américaine « c’est de l’anthropologie ou rien du tout ». Ce geste d’éclat dans une période charnière de l’enseignement de l’archéologie dans les universités nord-américaines allait donner naissance à un nouveau paradigme que l’on appela la New Archaeology aussi connue sous le nom d’archéologie processuelle. Un tel changement de paradigme venait en contradiction avec les pratiques européennes en matière d’archéologie préhistorique, notamment celles de l’École de Bordeaux et de François Bordes, son membre le plus influent, qui avait réussi à imposer sa vision sur le sens de la variabilité des outils en pierre du paléolithique moyen (Bordes 1961; 1984). Dans sa thèse de doctorat intitulée The Bordes-Binford Debate: Transatlantic Interpretive Traditions in Paleolithic Archaeology, Melissa C. Wargo (2009) présente une analyse en profondeur des modes de pensée qui diffèrent entre l’Europe et l’Amérique du Nord. Essentiellement, le raisonnement traditionnel voulait que l’apparition d’une nouvelle culture archéologique (de nouveaux types) puisse signifier la manifestation d’un nouveau groupe de personnes, un groupe ethnique détectable avec les outils de l’archéologie. C’est ce que nous apprenions à la lecture des travaux de François Bordes sur les changements technologiques observés au paléolithique moyen. Lorsque Binford est parvenu à étudier les mêmes collections, il proposa des interprétations toutes autres. Ainsi, alors que pour Bordes, des outils différents représentent des groupes différents; si l’ensemble de l’assemblage ne peut être attribué à un groupe avoisinant, peut-être alors que certains éléments peuvent l’être. Et si de tels parallèles peuvent être établis, l’approche de Bordes a pour corollaire que c’est là le lieu d’origine de la population à l’étude et que nous serions en présence d’une diffusion de traits culturels à partir de la migration d’un groupe ethnique. Pour Binford, la différence dans la composition des assemblages devrait plutôt être interprétée comme étant le résultat d’adaptations; pour ce chercheur, les assemblages archéologiques sont des coffres d’outils adaptés pour une fonction particulière. Nonobstant la grande quantité de statistiques accumulées, Binford, de son propre aveu, admit qu’il fut incapable d’expliquer ce qu’elles signifiaient. En d’autres mots, il avait beaucoup d’information sur le présent mais ne pouvait l’expliquer par manque d’analogie avec le passé. En dépit de ces différences d’opinion, l’utilité de la typologie de Bordes réside dans le fait qu’elle fournissait un langage descriptif; cette typologie a cependant été par la suite rejetée par certains chercheurs qui considéraient que la définition des types de François Bordes était inadéquate parce que trop subjective. Pire encore, Bordes a été accusé d’incorporer dans ses interprétations des hypothèses non vérifiées sur les capacités cognitives des hominidés durant le paléolithique moyen. De nos jours, nos analyses de la technologie visent à remplacer cette approche typologique de Bordes par une méthode s’appuyant sur la combinaison d’attributs dont la description porte davantage sur le comportement. De toute évidence, le débat entre le promoteur de la New Archaeology et la figure de proue de l’archéologie française et son approche taxonomique en pierre a permis de mettre en évidence un malaise profond sur la façon dont le passé devrait être interprété. Ce débat est aussi emblématique de traditions scientifiques différentes entre l’Europe et l’Amérique du Nord. C’est dans ce contexte intellectuel que sont nés des départements d’anthropologie associant l’anthropologie culturelle, l’anthropologie biologique, la linguistique et l’archéologie. Ces quatre champs sont apparus à des moments bien précis de l’histoire des universités nord-américaines mais de nos jours, la réalité de l’anthropologie est devenue beaucoup plus complexe (Bruner 2010). Un étudiant en archéologie peut avoir des besoins de formation en géographie, en histoire, en géologie, en botanique, en biologie, en ethnohistoire, en systèmes d’information géographique, en informatique, etc. alors qu’un étudiant en anthropologie pour atteindre un niveau de compétence élevé pourrait avoir besoin de formation en histoire, en science politique, en sociologie, en art, en littérature, en théorie critique, etc. Malgré que les besoins aient grandement changé depuis la création des départements d’anthropologie, les structures académiques sont demeurées statiques. La protection des départements d’anthropologie dans leur configuration actuelle des quatre champs relève le plus souvent des politiques universitaires. Ainsi, même si les professeurs étaient d’accord qu’il serait intellectuellement plus profitable de scinder ces gros départements, la question de diviser les départements d’anthropologie en unités plus petites qui feraient la promotion de l’interdisciplinarité dans les sciences humaines et sociales n’est pas envisagée dans la plupart des universités nord-américaines (Smith 2011). Au milieu de cette tourmente, se sont développés un certain nombre de départements et de programmes d’archéologie en Amérique du Nord. De là est née une discipline émancipée du joug des structures trop rigides et se donnant un ensemble de méthodes de recherche qui lui étaient propres. La trajectoire conceptuelle empruntée par ceux-ci a permis de remonter au-delà du geste et de la parole en retenant une classe cohérente de concepts explicatifs développés, certes en anthropologie, mais raffinés et adaptés au contact de l’archéologie et d’autres disciplines en sciences humaine et sociales et sciences de la nature. Cette indépendance intellectuelle de l’anthropologie s’est notamment affirmée par des collaborations entre l’archéologie et la philosophie des sciences (Kelly et Hanen 1988; Salmon 1982; Wylie 2002; Wylie et Chapman 2015). La croissance de l’intérêt pour les explications processuelles des données archéologiques chez plusieurs archéologues nord-américains fut motivée par le fait que les néo-évolutionistes en anthropologie mettaient trop l'accent sur les régularités dans les cultures. Les concepts utilisés en archéologie processuelle exerçaient une influence significative sur notre discipline et l’adoption de cette approche théorique était d’autant plus attrayante car les variables proposées se présentaient comme des causes majeures de changements culturels et relativement accessibles à partir des vestiges archéologiques. Cette approche s'intensifia et donna de nouvelles directions aux tendances déjà présentes en archéologie préhistorique. Dans ce changement de paradigme qui donna naissance au courant de la Nouvelle Archéologie en Amérique du Nord et à un moindre degré au Royaume-Uni, l’accent était placé sur la vérification d’hypothèses sur les processus culturels comme outils d’explication du passé. De la position qu’elle occupait comme l’un des quatre sous-champs de l’anthropologie ou encore, de celle de servante de l’histoire, l’archéologie est devenue l’un des plus vastes champs du monde académique (Sabloff 2008 : 28). En plus d’avoir trouvé son ancrage théorique dans les sciences sociales et humaines, l’archéologie, attirée par les techniques et méthodes fraie régulièrement avec les sciences physiques et les sciences de la nature. En se donnant ses propres méthodes de collecte et d’analyse pour l’examen de cultures distinctes et en poursuivant avec des comparaisons interculturelles, la discipline cherchait à mieux comprendre les cultures qui se sont développées à travers le temps et l’espace. Puisque l’objet d’étude de l’archéologie porte sur les traces de groupes humains dans leur environnement naturel et leur univers social, les questions qu’elle se pose sont fondamentales à l’histoire de l’humanité et pour répondre à de telles questions elle s’est dotée de méthodologies d’enquête qui lui sont propres. L’utilisation d’équipements sophistiqués pour déterminer la composition chimique des résidus lipidiques incrustés sur un outil en pierre taillée ou encore, les recherches sur la composition physico-chimique de la pâte d’une céramique sont des techniques visant à répondre à des questions d’ordre anthropologique. Le quand et le comment du passé sont relativement faciles à identifier alors que pour découvrir le pourquoi l’archéologue fait souvent appel à l’analogie ethnographique, une méthodologie issue de l’insatisfaction des archéologues à l’endroit des travaux en anthropologie culturelle (David et Kramer 2001). Une autre méthodologie est celle de l’archéologie expérimentale qui s’intéresse à la fabrication et à l’usage des outils (Tringham 1978), méthode similaires à celle de l’ethnoarchéologie. L’expérimentation à partir d’outils fabriqués par le chercheur et les banques de données provenant d’expérimentations contrôlées servent alors d’éléments de comparaison pour interpréter la forme des assemblages archéologiques (Chabot et al. 2014) est au centre de la méthode préconissée. Le développement de l’ethnoarchéologie durant les années 1970 aurait inspiré Binford (1981) lorsqu’il mit de l’avant l’utilisation de théories de niveau intermédiaire pour établir un lien entre ses données archéologiques et les théories de niveau supérieur sur le comportement. Sa décision semble avoir reposé sur les développements de l’approche ethnoarchéologique et ses propres terrains ethnoarchéologiques chez les Nunamiut de l’Alaska (Binford 1978). D’autres orientations théoriques ont vu le jour au cours des années 1960–1970 et ont fait la distinction entre différentes approches matérialistes par rapport à des schémas évolutionnistes antérieurs. Par exemple, Leslie White (1975) adopta une forme de déterminisme technologique très étroit qui reflétait une croyance en la technologie comme source de progrès social. Julian Steward (1955) envisagea un déterminisme écologique moins restrictif alors que Marvin Harris (1968) y voyait un déterminisme économique encore plus large. Pour ces quelques positivistes le rôle que l’archéologie se devait de jouer était d’expliquer la culture matérielle du passé. Quant à l’archéologue Lewis Binford (1987), il soutenait que l’étude des relations entre le comportement humain et la culture matérielle ne devrait pas être le rôle central de l’archéologie puisque selon lui, les données ne contiendraient aucune information directe sur les relations entre le comportement humain et la culture matérielle. Dorénavant, les données archéologiques se devaient d’être comprises par elles-mêmes, sans avoir recours à des analogies ethnographiques. Cette dernière approche voulait clairement établir de la distance entre l’archéologie, l’anthropologie culturelle, l’ethnologie et peut-être les sciences sociales en général ; son mérite était peut-être, justement, d’éviter les réductionnismes et les analogies rapides entre explications anthropologiques et assemblages archéologiques. Dans la même veine, d’autres remises en question sont apparues durant les années 1980 avec les travaux d’Ian Hodder (1982; 1985) sur la validité des certitudes positivistes qui avaient été le fonds théorique et empirique des adeptes de la New Archaeology. Depuis cette réflexion sur l’essence même de l’archéologie, Hodder a reconnu qu’une position critique est fondamentale face à l’objet d’étude; naquit alors le courant théorique post-processuel en archéologie. Dans son cheminement pour découvrir la signification des vestiges qu’elle étudie, l’archéologie post-processuelle s’appuie sur des études détaillées permettant d’adapter des hypothèses générales sur la culture à des données spécifiques en exploitant la diversité des sources; cette direction du courant post-processuel en archéologie porte le nom d’archéologie contextuelle. Comme tout changement de paradigme apporte avec lui son lot de détracteurs, l’archéologie post-processuelle a été immédiatement accusée d’une trop grande subjectivité interprétative voire, de déconstructionisme. Les autres orientations placées sous le label archéologie post-processuelle incluent : le structuralisme, le néo-marxisme, l’archéologie cognitive, la phénoménologie, et d’autres encore Ainsi l’individu, l’agent ou l’acteur et son intentionnalité devrait être au centre des interprétations dans la théorie post-processuelle. Nous pouvons conclure que l’examen de la relation entre l’anthropologie et l’archéologie en Amérique du Nord a permis de constater que, depuis ses débuts, l’archéologie dans cette région du monde a vécu une liaison relativement tumultueuse avec l’anthropologie. Cette condition, souvent problématique, a vu naître, au Canada d’abord, des groupuscules d’archéologues avec des intérêts divergents qui se sont distanciés des paradigmes qui dominaient les départements d’anthropologie pour former des départements d’archéologie ou des programmes d’archéologie autonomes des programmes d’anthropologie. Sur les chemins empruntés ces nouveaux départements sont entrés en relation avec les départements de sciences naturelles, notamment, la géographie, avec laquelle les archéologues ont partagé un ensemble de concepts et de méthodes. Il en a résulté un enseignement de l’archéologie nettement interdisciplinaire et faisant appel à des méthodes quantitatives pour comprendre la culture matérielle dans son environnement naturel et expliquer son milieu culturel à partir de concepts empruntés aussi bien aux sciences humaines qu’aux sciences naturelles.

My thesis is that new media, starting with analog broadcast and going through digital convergence, blur the line between work time and free time. The technology that we are adopting has transformed free time into potential and actual labour time. At the dawn of the modern age, work shifted from tasked time to measured time. Previously, tasked time intermingled work and leisure according to the vagaries of nature. All this was banished when industrial capitalism instituted the work clock (Mumford 12-8). But now, many have noticed how post-industrial capitalism features a new intermingling captured in such expressions as "24/7" and "multi-tasking." Yet, we are only beginning to understand that media are driving a return to the pre-modern where the hour and the space are both ambiguous, available for either work or leisure. This may be the unfortunate side effect of the much vaunted "interactivity." Do you remember the old American TV show Dobie Gillis (1959-63) which featured the character Maynard G. Krebs? He always shuddered at the mention of the four-letter word "work." Now, American television shows makes it a point that everyone works (even if just barely). Seinfeld was a bold exception in featuring the work-free Kramer; a deliberate homage to the 1940s team of Abbott and Costello. Today, as welfare is turned into workfare, The New York Times scolds even the idle rich to adopt the work ethic (Yazigi). The Forms of Broadcast and Digital Media Are Driving the Merger of Work and Leisure More than the Content It is not just the content of television and other media that is undermining the leisured life; it is the social structure within which we use the media. Broadcast advertisements were the first mode/media combinations that began to recolonise free time for the new consumer economy. There had been a previous buildup in the volume and the ubiquity of advertising particularly in billboards and print. However, the attention of the reader to the printed commercial message could not be controlled and measured. Radio was the first to appropriate and measure its audience's time for the purposes of advertising. Nineteenth century media had promoted a middle class lifestyle based on spending money on home to create a refuge from work. Twentieth century broadcasting was now planting commercial messages within that refuge in the sacred moments of repose. Subsequent to broadcast, home video and cable facilitated flexible work by offering entertainment on a 24 hour basis. Finally, the computer, which juxtaposes image/sound/text within a single machine, offers the user the same proto-interactive blend of entertainment and commercial messages that broadcasting pioneered. It also fulfills the earlier promise of interactive TV by allowing us to work and to shop, in all parts of the day and night. We need to theorise this movement. The theory of media as work needs an institutional perspective. Therefore, I begin with Dallas Smythe's blindspot argument, which gave scholarly gravitas to the structural relationship of work and media (263-299). Horkheimer and Adorno had already noticed that capitalism was extending work into free time (137). Dallas Smythe went on to dissect the precise means by which late capitalism was extending work. Smythe restates the Marxist definition of capitalist labour as that human activity which creates exchange value. Then he considered the advertising industry, which currently approaches200 billion in the USA and realised that a great deal of exchange value has been created. The audience is one element of the labour that creates this exchange value. The appropriation of people's time creates advertising value. The time we spend listening to commercials on radio or viewing them on TV can be measured and is the unit of production for the value of advertising. Our viewing time ipso facto has been changed into work time. We may not experience it subjectively as work time although pundits such as Marie Winn and Jerry Mander suggest that TV viewing contributes to the same physical stresses as actual work. Nonetheless, Smythe sees commercial broadcasting as expanding the realm of capitalism into time that was otherwise set aside for private uses. Smythe's essay created a certain degree of excitement among political economists of media. Sut Jhally used Smythe to explain aspects of US broadcast history such as the innovations of William Paley in creating the CBS network (Jhally 70-9). In 1927, as Paley contemplated winning market share from his rival NBC, he realised that selling audience time was far more profitable than selling programs. Therefore, he paid affiliated stations to air his network's programs while NBC was still charging them for the privilege. It was more lucrative to Paley to turn around and sell the stations' guaranteed time to advertisers, than to collect direct payments for supplying programs. NBC switched to his business model within a year. Smythe/Jhally's model explains the superiority of Paley's model and is a historical proof of Smythe's thesis. Nonetheless, many economists and media theorists have responded with a "so what?" to Smythe's thesis that watching TV as work. Everyone knows that the basis of network television is the sale of "eyeballs" to the advertisers. However, Smythe's thesis remains suggestive. Perhaps he arrived at it after working at the U.S. Federal Communications Commission from 1943 to 1948 (Smythe 2). He was part of a team that made one last futile attempt to force radio to embrace public interest programming. This effort failed because the tide of consumerism was too strong. Radio and television were the leading edge of recapturing the home for work, setting the stage for the Internet and a postmodern replication of the cottage industries of pre and proto-industrial worlds. The consequences have been immense. The Depression and the crisis of over-production Cultural studies recognises that social values have shifted from production to consumption (Lash and Urry). The shift has a crystallising moment in the Great Depression of 1929 through 1940. One proposal at the time was to reduce individual work hours in order to create more jobs (see Hunnicut). This proposal of "share the work" was not adopted. From the point of view of the producer, sharing the work would make little difference to productivity. However, from the retailer's perspective each individual worker would accumulate less money to buy products. Overall sales would stagnate or decline. Prominent American economists at the time argued that sharing the work would mean sharing the unemployment. They warned the US government this was a fundamental threat to an economy based on consumption. Only a fully employed laborer could have enough money to buy down the national inventory. In 1932, N. A. Weston told the American Economic Association that: " ...[the labourers'] function in society as a consumer is of equal importance as the part he plays as a producer." (Weston 11). If the defeat of the share the work movement is the negative manifestation of consumerism, then the invasion by broadcast of our leisure time is its positive materialisation. We can trace this understanding by looking at Herbert Hoover. When he was the Secretary of Commerce in 1924 he warned station executives that: "I have never believed that it was possible to advertise through broadcasting without ruining the [radio] industry" (Radio's Big Issue). He had not recognised that broadcast advertising would be qualitatively more powerful for the economy than print advertising. By 1929, Hoover, now President Hoover, approved an economics committee recommendation in the traumatic year of 1929 that leisure time be made "consumable " (Committee on Recent Economic Changes xvi). His administration supported the growth of commercial radio because broadcasting was a new efficient answer to the economists' question of how to motivate consumption. Not so coincidentally network radio became a profitable industry during the great Depression. The economic power that pre-war radio hinted at flourished in the proliferation of post-war television. Advertisers switched their dollars from magazines to TV, causing the demise of such general interest magazines as Life, The Saturday Evening Postet al. Western Europe quickly followed the American broadcasting model. Great Britain was the first, allowing television to advertise the consumer revolution in 1955. Japan and many others started to permit advertising on television. During the era of television, the nature of work changed from manufacturing to servicing (Preston 148-9). Two working parents also became the norm as a greater percentage of the population took salaried employment, mostly women (International Labour Office). Many of the service jobs are to monitor the new global division of labour that allows industrialised nations to consume while emerging nations produce. (Chapter seven of Preston is the most current discussion of the shift of jobs within information economies and between industrialised and emerging nations.) Flexible Time/ Flexible Media Film and television has responded by depicting these shifts. The Mary Tyler Moore Show debuted in September of 1970 (see http://www.transparencynow.com/mary.htm). In this show nurturing and emotional attachments were centered in the work place, not in an actual biological family. It started a trend that continues to this day. However, media representations of the changing nature of work are merely symptomatic of the relationship between media and work. Broadcast advertising has a more causal relationship. As people worked more to buy more, they found that they wanted time-saving media. It is in this time period that the Internet started (1968), that the video cassette recorder was introduced (1975) and that the cable industry grew. Each of these ultimately enhanced the flexibility of work time. The VCR allowed time shifting programs. This is the media answer to the work concept of flexible time. The tired worker can now see her/his favourite TV show according to his/her own flex schedule (Wasser 2001). Cable programming, with its repeats and staggered starting times, also accommodates the new 24/7 work day. These machines, offering greater choice of programming and scheduling, are the first prototypes of interactivity. The Internet goes further in expanding flexible time by adding actual shopping to the vicarious enjoyment of consumerist products on television. The Internet user continues to perform the labour of watching advertising and, in addition, now has the opportunity to do actual work tasks at any time of the day or night. The computer enters the home as an all-purpose machine. Its purchase is motivated by several simultaneous factors. The rhetoric often stresses the recreational and work aspects of the computer in the same breath (Reed 173, Friedrich 16-7). Games drove the early computer programmers to find more "user-friendly" interfaces in order to entice young consumers. Entertainment continues to be the main driving force behind visual and audio improvements. This has been true ever since the introduction of the Apple II, Radio Shack's TRS 80 and Atari 400 personal computers in the 1977-1978 time frame (see http://www.atari-history.com/computers/8bits/400.html). The current ubiquity of colour monitors, and the standard package of speakers with PC computers are strong indications that entertainment and leisure pursuits continue to drive the marketing of computers. However, once the computer is in place in the study or bedroom, its uses fully integrates the user with world of work in both the sense of consuming and creating value. This is a specific instance of what Philip Graham calls the analytical convergence of production, consumption and circulation in hypercapitalism. The streaming video and audio not only captures the action of the game, they lend sensual appeal to the banner advertising and the power point downloads from work. In one regard, the advent of Internet advertising is a regression to the pre-broadcast era. The passive web site ad runs the same risk of being ignored as does print advertising. The measure of a successful web ad is interactivity that most often necessitates a click through on the part of the viewer. Ads often show up on separate windows that necessitate a click from the viewer if only to close down the program. In the words of Bolter and Grusin, click-through advertising is a hypermediation of television. In other words, it makes apparent the transparent relationship television forged between work and leisure. We do not sit passively through Internet advertising, we click to either eliminate them or to go on and buy the advertised products. Just as broadcasting facilitated consumable leisure, new media combines consumable leisure with flexible portable work. The new media landscape has had consequences, although the price of consumable leisure took awhile to become visible. The average work week declined from 1945 to 1982. After that point in the US, it has been edging up, continuously (United States Bureau of Labor Statistics). There is some question whether the computer has improved productivity (Kim), there is little question that the computer is colonising leisure time for multi-tasking. In a population that goes online from home almost twice as much as those who go online from work, almost half use their online time for work based activities other than email. Undoubtedly, email activity would account for even more work time (Horrigan). On the other side of the blur between work and leisure, the Pew Institute estimates that fifty percent use work Internet time for personal pleasure ("Wired Workers"). Media theory has to reengage the problem that Horkheimer/Adorno/Smythe raised. The contemporary problem of leisure is not so much the lack of leisure, but its fractured, non-contemplative, unfulfilling nature. A media critique will demonstrate the contribution of the TV and the Internet to this erosion of free time. References Bolter, Jay David, and Richard Grusin. Remediation: Understanding New Media. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2000. Committee on Recent Economic Changes. Recent Economic Changes. Vol. 1. New York: no publisher listed, 1929. Friedrich, Otto. "The Computer Moves In." Time 3 Jan. 1983: 14-24. Graham, Philip. Hypercapitalism: A Political Economy of Informational Idealism. In press for New Media and Society2.2 (2000). Horkheimer, Max, and Theodor W. Adorno. Dialectic of Enlightenment. New York: Continuum Publishing, 1944/1987. Horrigan, John B. "New Internet Users: What They Do Online, What They Don't and Implications for the 'Net's Future." Pew Internet and American Life Project. 25 Sep. 2000. 24 Oct. 2001 <http://www.pewinternet.org/reports/toc.asp?Report=22>. Hunnicutt, Benjamin Kline. Work without End: Abandoning Shorter Hours for the Right to Work. Philadelphia: Temple UP, 1988. International Labour Office. Economically Active Populations: Estimates and Projections 1950-2025. Geneva: ILO, 1995. Jhally, Sut. The Codes of Advertising. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1987. Kim, Jane. "Computers and the Digital Economy." Digital Economy 1999. 8 June 1999. October 24, 2001 <http://www.digitaleconomy.gov/powerpoint/triplett/index.htm>. Lash, Scott, and John Urry. Economies of Signs and Space. London: Sage Publications, 1994. Mander, Jerry. Four Arguments for the Elimination of Television. New York: Morrow Press, 1978. Mumford, Lewis. Technics and Civilization. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1934. Preston, Paschal. Reshaping Communication: Technology, Information and Social Change. London: Sage, 2001. "Radio's Big Issue Who Is to Pay the Artist?" The New York Times 18 May 1924: Section 8, 3. Reed, Lori. "Domesticating the Personal Computer." Critical Studies in Media Communication17 (2000): 159-85. Smythe, Dallas. Counterclockwise: Perspectives on Communication. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1993. United States Bureau of Labor Statistics. Unpublished Data from the Current Population Survey. 2001. Wasser, Frederick A. Veni, Vidi, Video: The Hollywood Empire and the VCR. Austin, TX: U of Texas P, 2001. Weston, N.A., T.N. Carver, J.P. Frey, E.H. Johnson, T.R. Snavely and F.D. Tyson. "Shorter Working Time and Unemployment." American Economic Review Supplement 22.1 (March 1932): 8-15. <http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0002-8282%28193203%2922%3C8%3ASWTAU%3E2.0.CO%3B2-3>. Winn, Marie. The Plug-in Drug. New York: Viking Press, 1977. "Wired Workers: Who They Are, What They're Doing Online." Pew Internet Life Report 3 Sep. 2000. 24 Oct. 2000 <http://www.pewinternet.org/reports/toc.asp?Report=20>. Yazigi, Monique P. "Shocking Visits to the Real World." The New York Times 21 Feb. 1990. Page unknown. Links http://www.pewinternet.org/reports/toc.asp?Report=20 http://www.pewinternet.org/reports/toc.asp?Report=22 http://www.atari-history.com/computers/8bits/400.html http://www.transparencynow.com/mary.htm http://www.digitaleconomy.gov/powerpoint/triplett/index.htm http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0002-8282%28193203%2922%3C8%3ASWTAU%3 E2.0.CO%3B2-3 Citation reference for this article MLA Style Wasser, Frederick. "Media Is Driving Work" M/C: A Journal of Media and Culture 4.5 (2001). [your date of access] < http://www.media-culture.org.au/0111/Wasser.xml >. Chicago Style Wasser, Frederick, "Media Is Driving Work" M/C: A Journal of Media and Culture 4, no. 5 (2001), < http://www.media-culture.org.au/0111/Wasser.xml > ([your date of access]). APA Style Wasser, Frederick. (2001) Media Is Driving Work. M/C: A Journal of Media and Culture 4(5). < http://www.media-culture.org.au/0111/Wasser.xml > ([your date of access]).

A central concern of media studies is to understand the transactions of meaning that are established between the encoders and decoders of media messages: senders and receivers, authors and audiences, producers and consumers. More precisely, this discipline has aimed to describe the semantic disconnects that occur when organisations, governments, businesses, and people communicate and interact across media, and, further, to understand the causes of these miscommunications and to theorise their social and cultural implications. As the media environment becomes complicated by increasingly multimodal messages broadcast to diverse languages and cultures, it is no surprise that misunderstanding seems to occur more (and not less) frequently, forcing difficult questions of society’s ability to refine mass communication into a more streamlined, more effective, and less error-prone system. The communication of meaning to mass audiences has long been theorised (e.g.: Shannon and Weaver; Schramm; Berlo) using the metaphor of a “transmitted message.” While these early researchers varied in their approaches to the study of mass communication, common to their theoretical models is to characterise miscommunication as a dysfunction of the pure transmission process: interference that prevents the otherwise successful relay of meaning from a “sender” to a “receiver.” For example, Schramm’s communication model is based upon two individuals sharing “fields of experience”; error and misunderstanding occur to the extent that these fields do not overlap. For Shannon and Weaver, these disconnects were described explicitly as semantic noise: distortions of meaning that resulted in the message received being different from what was being transmitted. While much of this early research in mass communication continues to be relevant to students of communication and media studies, the transmission metaphor has been called into question for the way it frames miscommunication as a distortion of otherwise clear and stable “meaning,” and not as an inevitable result of the gray area that lies between every sender’s intention and a receiver’s interpretation. It is precisely this problem with the transmission metaphor that Derrida calls into question. For Derrida (as well as for many post-structuralists, linguists, and cultural theorists) what we communicate cannot necessarily be intended or interpreted in any stable fashion. Rather, Derrida describes communication as inherently “iterable … able to break with every given context, and engender infinitely new contexts in an absolutely unsaturable fashion” (“Signature” 320). Derrida is concerned that the transmission metaphor doesn’t account for the fact that all signs (words, images, and so on) can signify a multitude of things to different individuals in different contexts, at different points in time. Further, he reminds us that any perceived signification (and thus, meaning) is produced finally, not by the sender, but by the receiver. Within Derrida’s conception of communication as a perpetually open-ended system, the concept of noise takes on a new shape. Perhaps ambiguous meaning is not the “noise” of an otherwise pure system, but rather, perhaps it is only noise that constitutes all acts of communication. Indeed, while Derrida agrees that the consistency and repetition of language help to limit the effects of iterability, he believes that all meaning is ambiguous and never final. Therefore, to communicate is to perpetually negotiate this semantic ambiguity, not to overcome it, constrain it, or push it aside. With these thoughts in mind, when I return to a focus on mass media and media communication, it becomes readily apparent that there do exist sites of cultural production where noise is not only prolific, but where it is also functional—and indeed crucial to a communicator’s goals. Such sites are what Mark Nunes describes as “cultures of noise”: a term I specify in this paper to describe those organised media practices that seem to negotiate, function, and thrive by communicating ambiguously, or at the very least, by resisting the urge to signify explicitly. Cultures of noise are important to the study of media precisely for the ways they call into question our existing paradigms of what it means to communicate. By suggesting that aberrant interpretations of meaning are not dysfunctions of what would be an otherwise efficient system, cultures of noise reveal how certain “asignifying poetics” might be productive and generative for our communication goals. The purpose of this paper is to understand how cultures of noise function by exploring one such case study: the pervasive use of commercial stock images throughout mass media. I will describe how the semantic ambiguity embedded into the construction and sale of stock images is productive both to the stock photography industry and to certain practices of advertising, marketing, and communicating corporate identity. I will begin by discussing the stock image’s dependence upon semantic ambiguity and the productive function this ambiguity serves in supporting the success of the stock photography industry. I will then describe how this ambiguity comes to be employed by corporations and advertisers as “filler content,” enabling these producers to elide the accountability and risk that is involved with more explicit communication. Ambiguous Raw Material: The Stock Industry as a Culture of Noise The photographic image has been a staple of corporate identity for as long as identity has been a concern of corporations. It is estimated that more than 70% of the photographic images used in today’s corporate marketing and advertising have been acquired from a discrete group of stock image firms and photography stock houses (Frosh 5). In fact, since its inception in the 1970’s, increasing global dependence on stock imagery has grown the practice of commercial stock photography into a billion dollar a year industry. Commercial stock images are somewhat peculiar. Unlike other non-fiction genres of stock photography (e.g., editorial and journalistic) commercial stock images present explicitly fictive, constructed scenes. Indeed, many of the images of business workers, doctors, and soccer moms that one finds through a Google Image search are actually actors hired to stage a scene. In this way, commercial stock images share much more in common with the images produced for advertising campaigns, in that they are designed to support branding and corporate identity messages. However, unlike traditional advertising images, which are designed to deliver a certain message for a quite specific application (think ‘Tide stain test’ or ‘posh woman in the Lexus’), commercial stock images have been purposely constructed with no particular application in mind. On the contrary, stock images must be designed to anticipate the diverse needs of cultural intermediaries—design firms, advertising agencies, and corporate marketing teams—who will ultimately purchase the majority of these images. (Frosh 57) To achieve these goals, every commercial stock image is designed to be somewhat open-ended, in order to offer up a field of potential meanings, and yet these images also seem to anticipate the applications of use that will likely appeal to the discourses of corporate marketing and advertising. In this way, the commercial stock image might best be understood as undefined raw material, as a set of likely potentialities still lacking a final determination—what Derrida describes as “undecided” meaning: “I want to recall that undecidability is always a determinate oscillation between possibilities (for example, of meaning, but also of acts). These possibilities are highly determined in strictly concerned situations … they are pragmatically determined. The analyses that I have devoted to undecidability concern just these determinations and these definitions, not at all some vague “indeterminacy”. I say “undecidability” rather than “indeterminacy” because I am interested more in relations of force, in everything that allows, precisely, determinations in given situations to be stabilised through a decision … .” (Limited 148) A stock image’s ambiguity is the result of an intentional design process whereby the stock photography industry presents the maximum range of possible meanings, and yet, falls artfully short of “deciding” any of them. Rather, it is the advertisers, designers, and marketers who ultimately make these decisions by finding utility for the image in a certain context. The more customers that can find a use for a certain image, the more this image will be purchased, and the more valuable that particular stock image becomes. It is precisely in this way that the stock photography industry functions as a culture of noise and raises questions of the traditional sender-to-receiver model of communication. Cultures of noise not only embrace semantic ambiguity; they rely upon this ambiguity for their success. Indeed, the success of the stock photography industry quite literally depends upon the aberrant and unpredictable interpretations of buyers. It is now quite explicitly the “receiver,” and not the “sender,” who controls meaning by imbuing the image with meaning for a specific context and specific need. Once purchased, the “potentialities” of meaning within a stock image become somewhat determined by its placement within a certain context of circulation, such as its use for a banking advertisement or healthcare brochure. In many cases, the meaning of a given stock image is also specified by the text with which it is paired. (Fig. 1) Using text to control the meaning of an image is what Roland Barthes describes as anchorage, “the creator’s (and hence society’s) right of inspection over the image; anchorage is a control, bearing a responsibility in the face of the projective power of pictures-for the use of the message” (156). By using text to constrain how an image should be interpreted, the subjects, forms, and composition of a stock image work to complement the textual message in a clear and defined way. Fig. 1: Courtesy of Washington Mutual. Used by permission. Barthes’ textual anchorage: In advertising and marketing, the subject, form and composition of a stock image are made specific by the text with which the image is paired. Filler Content: Advertising and Marketing as a Culture of Noise In other marketing and advertising messages, I observe that stock images are used in quite a different way, as filler content: open-ended material that takes the place of more explicit, message-oriented elements. As a culture of noise, filler content opposes the goal of generating a clear and specific message. Rather, the goal of filler content is to present an ambiguous message to consumers. When stock images are used as filler content, they are placed into advertising and marketing messages with virtually the same degree of ambiguity as when the image was originally constructed. Such images receive only vague specificity from textual anchorage, and little effort is made by the message producer to explicitly “decide” a message’s meaning. Consider the image (Fig. 2) used in a certain marketing design. Compared with Figure 1, this design makes little attempt to specify the meaning of the image through text. On the contrary, the image is purposely left open to our individual interpretations. Without textual anchorage, the image is markedly “undecided.” As such, it stages the same ambiguous potential for final consumers as it did for the advertiser who originally purchased the image from the stock image house. Fig. 2: Courtesy of VISA.com. Used by permission. Filler content: What meaning(s) does the image have for you? Love? Happiness? Leisure? Freedom? The Outdoors? Perhaps you rode your bike today? While filler content relies upon audiences to fill in the blanks, it also inserts meaning by leveraging the cultural reinforcement of other, similar images. Consider the way that the image of “a woman with a headset” has come to signify customer service (Fig. 3). The image doesn’t represent this meaning on its own, but it works as part of a larger discourse, what Paul Frosh describes as an “image repertoire” (91). By bombarding us incessantly with a repetition of similar images, the media continues to bolster the iconic value that certain stock images possess. The woman with the headset has become an icon of a “Customer Service Representative” because we are exposed to a repetition of images that repeatedly stage the same or similar scene of this idea. As Frosh suggests, “this is the essence of the concept-based stock image: it constitutes a pre-formed, generically familiar visual symbol that calls forth relevant connotations from the social experience of viewers…” (79). Fig. 3: The image repertoire: All filler content depends upon the iconic status of certain stock photography clichés, categories and familiar scenes. Perhaps you have seen these images before? As a culture of noise, stock images in advertising and marketing function as filler content in two ways: 1) meaning is left undecided by the advertiser who intends for customers to create their own interpretations of an advertisement; 2) meaning is generated by the ideological constructs of an “image repertoire” that is itself promulgated by the stock photography industry. As such, filler content signals a shift in the goals of modern advertising and marketing, where corporate messages are designed to be increasingly ambiguous, and meaning seems to be decided more than ever by the final audience. As marketing psychologists Kim and Kahle suggest: Advertising strategy … may need to be changed. Instead of providing the “correct” consumption episodes, marketers could give … an open-ended status, thereby allowing consumers to create the image on their own and to decide the appropriateness of the product for a given need or situation. (63) The potentiality of meanings that was initially embedded into stock images in order to make them more attractive to cultural intermediaries, is also being “passed on” to the final audiences by these same advertisers and marketers. The same noisy signification that supported the sale of stock photos from the stock industry to advertisers now also seems to support the “sale” of messages that advertisers pass on to their audiences. In the same way as the stock photography industry, practices of filler content in advertising also create a culture of noise, by relying upon ambiguous messages that end customers are now forced to both produce and consume. Safe and Vague: The Corporate Imperative Ambiguous communication is not, by itself, egregious. On the contrary, many designers believe that creating a space for thoughtful, open-ended discovery is one of the best ways to provide a meaningful experience to end users. Interaction designer and professor Philip Van Allen describes one such approach to ambiguous design as “productive interaction”: “an open mode of communication where people can form their own outcomes and meanings … sharing insights, dilemmas and questions, and creating new opportunities for synthesis” (56). The critical difference between productive interaction and filler content is one of objective. While media designers embrace open-ended design as a way to create deeper, more meaningful connections with users, modern advertising employs ambiguous design elements, such as stock images, to elide a responsibility to message. Indeed, many marketing and organisational communication researchers (e.g.: Chreim; Elsbach and Kramer; Cheney) suggest that as corporations manage their identities to increasingly disparate and diverse media audiences, misunderstandings are more likely to bring about identity dissonance: that is, “disconnections” between the identity projected by the organisation and the identity attributed to an organisation by its customer-public. To grapple with identity dissonance, Samia Chreim suggests that top managers may choose to engage in the practice of dissonance avoidance: the use of ambiguous messages to provide flexibility in the interpretations of how customers can define a brand or organisation: Dissonance avoidance can be achieved through the use of ambiguous terms … organisations use ambiguity to unite stakeholders under one corporate banner and to stretch the interpretation of how the organisation, or a product or a message can be defined. (76) Corporations forgo the myriad disconnects and pitfalls of mass communication by choosing never to craft an explicit message, hold a position, or express a belief that customers could demur or discount. In such instances, it appears that cultures of noise, such as filler content, may service a shrewd corporate strategy that works to mitigate their responsibility to message. A Responsibility to Message This discussion of “cultures of noise” contributes to media studies by situating semantic noise as productive, and indeed, sometimes vital, to practices of media communication. Understanding the role of semantic noise in communication is an important corner for media scholars to turn, especially as today’s message producers rely and thrive upon certain productive aspects of ambiguous communication. However, this discussion also suggests that all media messages must be critically evaluated in quite a different way. While past analyses of media messages have sought to root out the subversive and manipulative factors that resided deep down in our culture, cultures of noise suggest that it is now also important for media studies to consider the deleterious effects of media’s noisy, diluted, and facile surface. Jean Baudrillard was deeply concerned that the images used in media are too often “used for delusion, for the elusion of communication … for absolving face-to-face relations and social responsibilities. They don’t really lead to action, they substitute for it most of the time” (203). Indeed, while the stock image as filler content may solve the problems faced by corporate message producers in a highly ramified media environment, there is an increasing need to question the depth of meaning in our visual culture. What is the purpose of a given image? What is the producer trying to say? Is it relying on end users to find meaning? Are the images relying an iconic repertoire? Is the producer actually making a statement? And if not, why not? As advertising and marketing continues to shape the visual ground of our culture, Chreim also warns us of our responsibility to message: What is gained in avoiding [identity dissonance] can be lost in the ability to create meaning for stakeholders. Over-reliance on abstract terms may well leave the organisation with a hollow core, one that cannot be appropriated by [customers] in their quest for meaning and identification with the organisation. (88) While cultures of noise may be productive in mitigating the problems of dissonance and miscommunication, and while they may signal new opportunity spaces for design, media, and mass communication, we must also remember that a reliance on ambiguity can sometimes cripple our ability to say anything meaningful at all. References Barthes, Roland. “The Rhetoric of the Image”. The Rhetoric of the Image. Trans. Richard Howard. Berkeley: U of California P, 1977. Baudrillard, Jean. “Aesthetic Illusion and Virtual Reality.” Reading Images. Ed. Julia Thomas. Houndmills: Macmillan, 2000. Berlo, David K. The Process of Communication. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1960. Chreim, Samia. “Reducing Dissonance: Closing the Gap between Projected and Attributed Identity”. Corporate and Organizational Identities: Integrating Strategy, Marketing, Communication and Organizational Perspectives. Eds. B. Moingeon and G. Soenen. Chicago: Routledge, 2002. Derrida, Jacques. “Signature, Event. Context.” Derrida, Jacques: Margins of Philosophy. Trans. Alan Bass. Chicago: 1982. Derrida, Jacques. Limited Inc. Evanston, Ill.: Northwestern UP, 1988. Frosh, Paul. The Image Factory. New York: Berg, 2003. Gettyimages.com. Getty Images. 20 Oct. 2007 http://gettyimages.mediaroom.com>. Kahle, Lynn R., and Kim Chung-Hyun, eds. Creating Images and the Psychology of Marketing Communication. New Jersey: Lawrence Elbaum Associates, 2006 Shannon, Claude F., and Warren Weaver. The Mathematical Theory of Communication. Urbana, Ill.: The University of Illinois Press, 1964. Schramm, Wilbur. “How Communication Works”. The Process and Effects of Mass Communication, ed. Wilbur Schramm. Urbana, Ill.: U of Illinois P, 1961. Van Allen, Philip. “Models”. The New Ecology of Things. Pasadena: Media Design Program, Art Center College of Design, 2007. Citation reference for this article MLA Style Ward, Christopher Grant. "Stock Images, Filler Content and the Ambiguous Corporate Message." M/C Journal 10.5 (2007). echo date('d M. Y'); ?> <http://journal.media-culture.org.au/0711/04-ward.php>. APA Style Ward, C. (Oct. 2007) "Stock Images, Filler Content and the Ambiguous Corporate Message," M/C Journal, 10(5). Retrieved echo date('d M. Y'); ?> from <http://journal.media-culture.org.au/0711/04-ward.php>.